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Chapter 14

Designing Qualitative Research

Variety of methodologies

Researcher is primary data collection instrument

Participation and observation are integrated

Focuses on specific interactants in specific communication contexts and events

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Researcher’s Role in Qualitative Methodologies

Role of researcher is integrated within the context of individuals being observed

In the research context for extended periods of time

Observes the communication firsthand

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Forms of Participant Observation

Complete participant

Participant-as-observer

Observer-as-participant

Complete observer

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Intimate Role of the Researcher

Observation is theory-laden

Researcher may develop social and emotional relationships

Researcher may find it difficult to distance him/herself to draw conclusions

Researcher may be overinfluenced by first impressions

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Developing Trust

Trust must be addressed due to researcher’s intimate role with participants Must be addressed in first contact Trust is person-specific Trust is established over time Trust can be destroyed with one event

Trust between researchers and participants is paramount

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Identifying the Research Focus

Is the research question personally interesting or compelling?

Should be contextually bound

Each project will result in a unique design solution

Develop a purpose statement as a road map

Consider researcher’s flexibility to fit in

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Consulting the Literature

Become familiar with content literature Terminology or practices in this setting Theories that can be supported or refuted

Become familiar with research which used the method you’re planning to use Become familiar with research techniques

before gaining access

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Research Questions or Hypotheses?

Qualitative tends to emphasize description and explanation

Hypotheses are rare

More common Research question or series of questions Research purpose or objective

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Gaining Access

Consider What would you tell the people you approach

that you wanted to study? What if they asked why you want to study

them?

Always consider alternative ways of gaining accessResearcher can still invade personal space or private conversations in public settings

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Gaining Access

If you take on a covert role, your acceptance by others depends on your ability to play the part

Consider a gatekeeper or sponsor

Will your observations provide the data you need? Is the setting suitable? Can you observe what you want to observe? Will your observations be feasible? Can you observe in such a way that you are not suspect

to others?

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Becoming Familiar with People and Places

Draw a map of the interaction setting

Take a tour

Ask for relevant background

Develop rapport Ask simple questions Learn people’s names and titles

Identify a key informant

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Sampling Qualitative Data

Impossible to observe every interaction of all interactants

Determine the sample by identifying settings, persons, activities, events, and time

Distinguish between routine, special, and untoward events

Randomly selecting days and times increases the representativeness of your observations

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Successful Observation

Observing is purposeful not accidental Be aware of the interdependence among people

observed, their social situation, and the context Observe for prolonged periods of time

Observation strategies Seamless container Ask questions Write descriptive then analytical notes

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Field Notes

Field notes – created on the spot; a sequential record of what was observedRead through and reflect immediately after leaving the scene Jot down additional detail or questions Number and date each page

Take lots of notes – more than you believe are necessary

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Taking Notes with Audio or Videotaping

Depends on the situation and researcher roleSome people are uncomfortable with recording devicesEven the best recordings cannot capture the full spectrum of nonverbal behaviorRecording devices can failEthically maintain the recordings – they cannot be played for others or circulated

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If You Can’t Take Notes

Retreat to a setting away from the interaction scene

Take frequent breaks so you don’t overload your memory

After leaving the interaction setting, review the notes you made – add detail and ask questions

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What Constitutes Data in Qualitative Research?

The concept of data is broadly cast in qualitative research – ranges from public to private

More continuous than discrete

Field notes

Recordings

Written or electronic documents

Photographs or maps

Artifacts

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Analyzing Qualitative Data

Process of identifying themesBegins just after the first data collection sessionReflexive process – move back and forth between data collection and data analysis to develop and test tentative conclusionsInductive – working from specific to general

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Analyzing Qualitative Data

Read, listen to, or view every piece of data several times – immerse yourself Get sense of overall data Start broad list of themes

Review the literature that guided your study Review data for these themes

Spend as much time analyzing data as collecting it

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Analyzing Qualitative Data

Begin at points of conflict, tension, or contradiction

Develop written summaries of themes or events

Develop tables or graphs

Do not discard any data

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Triangulation

Triangulation – use several kinds of methods or data to validate research outcomes Data triangulation Investigator triangulation Observe at different times and intervals Observe multiple parties over a period of time Respondent validation

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Threats to Reliability and Validity

Observations made over long periods of time Individuals observed change or mature Participant attrition

Unfamiliar with communication culture being observed

Presence of a political agenda

Participants develop reactive effects to observer or to being observed

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Your Impact as a Researcher

Your sex, age, and ethnicity affect what you observe and how you observe it

Report similarities and differences that you believe affected data collection or interpretation

Use research teams with Males and females Different age groups represented Several ethnic, racial, or cultural groups represented

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Credibility as the Criterion

Credibility may replace reliability and validity Plan for and carry out the research so that

findings are believable to others Use respondent validation

Participants can correct errors Participants can challenge interpretations Participants can provide their perspective