Emotional Integrity

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Emotional Integrity: A Strategy for Employee and Volunteer Engagement in Progressive Social

Change Organizations

BUSA780: Capacity Building for Nonprofit Organizations

Dr. Jama Rand

Eastern University

Jessica R. Dreistadt

March 2, 2013

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Table of Contents

Introduction and Overview..………………………………………………………………………3

Literature Review of the Topic…………………….……………………………………………...3

Emotions in the Context of Social Change Organizations…….…………………………………..4

The Emotions of Social Change Work …………….……………………………………………...6

“Negative” Emotions…………………….………………………………………………………..7

“Positive” Emotions…………………….………………………………………………………....9

Emotion Work in Social Change Organizations….……………………………………………...11

Emotional Integration and Transformation………….……………………………….………..…14

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….……………17

References……………………………………………………………………………………..…18

Appendix A: Diagram of the Emotional Integrity Model……………………………………..…24

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Emotional Integrity: A Strategy for Employee and Volunteer Engagement in Progressive Social

Change Organizations

Introduction and Overview

The purpose of this paper is to explore the emotions of social change leadership and to

develop the framework of an emotion-based talent management strategy. It will examine the

following research questions:

How do emotions influence social change leadership?

How can social change organizations cultivate leaders and other workers using an

emotional integration strategy?

Social change organizations are engaged in advocacy and activism to change social,

political, and institutional structures. The talent that they attract, and their particular motivational

needs and goals, are unique and paradoxical. Social change organizations may prioritize the

emotional needs of people impacted by injustice over those of staff and volunteers (Rodgers,

2010). While workers are emotionally invested in the organization’s mission, their emotional

needs may not be intentionally or systematically considered.

This literature review will begin with an overview of emotions in the specific context of

social change organizations. It will then examine the specific emotions of social change work,

which are typically classified as either negative or positive. After that, the concept of emotion

work and managing emotions will be introduced. To conclude, a model of emotional integration

and transformation will be shared as a suggested talent management framework for social change

organizations.

Literature Review of the Topic

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Emotions provoke social and political participation (Juris, 2008). Nonprofit employees

are motivated by a desire to help others and their belief in the organization’s mission (Briggs,

Peterson, & Gregory, 2010; Kim & Lee, 2007). Those desires and beliefs are rooted in emotion.

Emotions can lead people to become involved in social change organizations; feelings can also

be reinforced or changed through involvement (Jasper, 1998; Reger, 2004). Many people are also

motivated to stay involved in the work of social change organizations because of their emotions

(Rodgers, 2010). Thus, emotions are a critical component of staff and volunteer recruitment,

engagement, and retention.

Emotions in the Context of Social Change Organizations

Emotions are based on social context, relationships, and cognition (Jasper, 1998). The

emotions that are felt by social change workers are influenced by moral conscience as well as

economic, social, and political conditions (Guenther, 2009; Silber, 2011). The relationship

between emotion and leadership effectiveness is context sensitive (Lincoln, 2009; Weinberger,

2009) and is particularly salient in social change organizations. Emotions such as anger and

compassion are socially constructed; therefore, they are often transformed through involvement

with social change organizations (Blackstone, 2009; Holmes, 2004a; Jasper, 1998).

Social change organizations often bring people together across diverse backgrounds to

achieve common goals. The way people understand emotions are rooted in class, race, and

gender (Blackstone, 2009). In a male-dominated Western context, soft emotions may be

stigmatized and seen as weak or irrational (Fambrough & Hart, 2008). Marginalized groups, such

as women, are often discouraged from expressing anger (Hercus, 1999; Holmes 2004a, 2004b).

Because social change organizations are designed to transform systems and shift power, people

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who are oppressed by those systems either directly or indirectly need a means of authentically

expressing their feelings.

Emotions are sometimes problematized by activism targets when, in fact, emotions are a

normal and integral component of social and political change work (Ost, 2004). Social justice

work requires both intellectual and emotional resources; however, the use of emotions is often

intentionally diminished in favor of using intellectual reasoning to negotiate systemic change

(Kovan & Dirkx, 2003). The use of emotions by social change organizations can be seen as a

manipulative attempt to influence organizational and social outcomes (Merry, 2010).

Strategically using emotions in organizational communications can promote involvement;

however, it can also be perceived as threatening, offending and alienating to potential supporters

(Guenther, 2009). The claims of activists who react to divergent views with anger may not be

seen as legitimate by outsiders, reducing public support for the cause (Jacobsson & Lindblom,

2013). Internally, activists may differently value emotions such as anger, frustration, hope, and

compassion leading to internal communication challenges and divergent ideas about how

organizations should function (Herzog & Golden, 2009).

Yet, social change work is a highly emotional process. Work in social change

organizations can be full of painful emotional struggles that are grounded in the very real

challenges of difficult and often ambiguous work (Kovan & Dirkx, 2003). Routinization of

social change efforts may minimize emotional response, leading to reduced motivation (Juris,

2008). Protestors are emotional, but not irrational (Jasper, 1998). Emotions interact with

cognition and may positively contribute to the process of rational decision making (Merry, 2010).

Emotions and cognition are intertwined (Lyman, 2004).

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The Emotions of Social Change Work

Feelings related to social change work are rooted in beliefs about morality (Skitka &

Wisneski, 2011). Effective leaders demonstrate both an ethic of care related to compassion and

an ethic of justice related to equity; both are important components of morality (Simola, Barling,

& Turner, 2010). Positive and negative emotions often coexist in social change work (Becker,

Tausch, & Wagner, 2011). Generally speaking, social change groups strategically lean on

positive emotions to generate enthusiasm for the cause and encourage participation while more

negative emotions are used to get attention and provoke learning among people who are already

engaged (Merry, 2010). Positive emotions such as hope and compassion may not be sufficient to

inspire action; negative emotions such as anger may be more powerful for this purpose (Herzog

& Golden, 2009; Jasper, 1998). Activists tend to feel more positive emotions toward others in

their group and more negative emotions toward activism targets (Becker, Tausch, & Wagner,

2011). Those negative emotions, directed toward outgroups, more strongly influence the

motivation of social change workers than positive emotions directed toward the ingroup (Becker,

Tausch, & Wagner, 2011).

Ironically, division and othering are factors that contribute to social injustice in the first

place (Hatfield & Rapson, 2005). Anger both creates social injustice and provokes a response to

injustice (Holmes, 2004b). Organizations can unintentionally reproduce the social conditions

they are attempting to change within the organization due to heightened awareness of the issue

and a deep sense of morality; this can lead to conflict and negative emotions such as anger and

frustration (Allyn, 2011). Power structures within organizations may contribute to the way

emotions are expressed, acknowledged, and interpreted, leading to conflict (Srivastava, 2006).

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Emotions provoke involvement, emerge and evolve through the work, and can be

intentionally used to influence outcomes. Social change organizations are rife with complex,

interrelated emotions that may be seen as either conflicting or complementary. These emotions

have significant consequences for organizations, staff, volunteers, and communities. Typically,

the emotions of social change work are characterized as either negative or positive and include

anxiety, anger, compassion, resilience, and empathy.

“Negative” emotions. The emotions of anger and depression have been identified as

germane to the nonprofit sector (Eschenfelder, 2011). Because negative feelings may escalate if

they are ignored (Taylor, 2006), it is important to understand their origins, meaning, and

transformative value.

Emotions such as anxiety, shame, sadness, and guilt are prevalent in the social change

literature. Anxiety may be heightened in organizations that involve people from different social

classes or backgrounds which is quite common in social change organizations and the nonprofit

sector as a while (Valocchi, 2012). In addition, the way activists perceive their work, and its

integration with their identity, may reflect anxieties related to social class (Valocchi, 2012).

People in positions with relatively less power may also have less access to replenishing

emotional energy (Summers-Effler, 2002). Activists can be motivated by guilt; they may also feel

shame because of their nontraditional and unaccepted perspectives (Jacobsson & Lindblom,

2013). The work of social change leaders may conflict with prevailing social norms; this may

lead to a sense of shame, alienation, and anger that precipitates the need for intentional emotion

work to cope with stress and maintain commitment (Jacobsson & Lindblom, 2013). In some

organizations, expressions of sadness or distress are viewed as selfish; workers are expected to

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make emotional sacrifices for the greater good (Rodgers, 2010).

Anger is perhaps the emotion that receives the most attention from social movement

scholars. Anger motivates political action and ongoing participation (Holmes, 2004b). Activism

is often motivated by anger, frustration, and alienation (Jasper, 1998). Anger can be strategically

used to attract and mobilize supporters (Ost, 2004). It can lead to mobilization of social justice

efforts among both those who are oppressed and those who witness such oppression (Silber,

2011). Unlike fear which can divide people, anger can unite people in collective action (Holmes,

2004b).

Anger toward unjust social conditions is typically rational and can be felt and expressed

in a variety of ways (Silber, 2011). Anger is more likely to result in negative outcomes when it is

ego-centric and suppressed or expressed in inappropriate or socially deviant ways; when anger is

expressed in constructive and authentic ways that focus on communal needs, positive outcomes

may occur (Geddes & Callister, 2007). Anger can be directed toward things such as ideas and

systems, or it can be directed toward people or groups (Holmes, 2004a; Thomas, McGarty, &

Mavor, 2009). Blame-based anger directed toward people may be interpreted as an aggressive

attack rather than as an opportunity to constructively and respectfully navigate conflict with care

(Holmes, 2004a). Anger can lead to both productivity and to distress (Rodgers, 2010).

Workers who feel cynical towards the organization are more likely to suppress their anger

(Geddes & Callister, 2007). Organizations that encourage the expression of feelings and value

differences of opinion more positively respond to expressions of anger (Geddes & Callister,

2007). Expressions of anger call into question both the hegemony and the rationalism that are

prevalent in our political and social institutions (Lyman, 2004).

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Social change leaders may sometimes feel alone, overwhelmed, and depleted (Kovan &

Dirkx, 2003). Burnout can relate to a work-life imbalance, suppression of emotions, loss of

psychic energy, or identity ambiguity (Hsieh & Guy, 2009; Valocchi, 2012). It may occur among

volunteers and employees who fail to continually connect with their conscience and those who

feel that they are unsupported in their work (Gustafsson, Eriksson, Strandberg, & Norberg, 2010).

Feelings of connectedness and belonging through involvement with the organization contribute

to workers’ performance and commitment, preventing cynicism and burnout (Huynh, Winefield,

Xanthopoulou, & Metzer, 2012). Burnout can also be prevented by creating opportunities for

authentic expression of feelings (Hsieh, Jin, & Guy, 2011).

“Positive” emotions. Involvement in the work of social justice organizations leads to

increased passion about the cause and positive feelings about oneself (Peachey, Cohen, Borland,

& Lyras, 2011). Volunteering can enhance self-esteem and happiness (Thouts & Hewitt, 2011).

Participation in nonprofit organizations can evoke positive emotions such as satisfaction,

enthusiasm, and joy, leading to increased commitment to the organization (Rowold & Rohmann,

2009).

Psychological capital, which includes resilience, hope, optimism, and self-efficacy, may

lead to increased job satisfaction and commitment to the organization (Larson & Luthans, 2006).

Psychological capital contributes to worker performance, job satisfaction, and commitment;

resilience, hope, and optimism have unique as well as combinative and cumulative effects on

these outcomes (Youssef & Luthans, 2007). Workers with increased psychological capital may

have increased positive emotions, leading to proactive attitudes and behaviors that offset

cynicism and deviance and contribute to a higher degree of organizational commitment (Avey,

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Luthans, & Youssef, 2010; Avey, Wernsing, & Luthans, 2008. A deep sense of purpose in work,

reflection and self-awareness, creation and achievement of goals, and expansion or clarification

of identity all contribute to psychological wellness (Hall & Chandler, 2005). Mindfulness

contributes to the development of psychological capital and positive emotions (Avey, Wernsing,

& Luthans, 2008)

Social change work builds community resilience to heal the personal and communal

distress caused by social, political, and economic injustice (Goodkind, Hess, Gorman, & Parker,

2012). Resilience can be developed through the processes of discovering the deeper meaning and

purpose of negative events (Luthans, Vogelgesang, & Lester, 2006). Workers who are resilient

are better able to respond to the demands of their jobs. (Luthans, Vogelgesang, & Lester, 2006).

Positive emotions, expanded cognitive capacity, and an enhanced ability to cope have a

reciprocal and mutually generative relationship that leads to emotional resilience and well-being

(Frederickson & Joiner, 2002). Leaders can create emotionally resilient organizations by

modeling the expression of positive and negative emotions while also validating and responding

to others’ feelings (Stephens, Heaphy, Carmeli, Spreitzer, & Dutton, 2013). The impact of efforts

to develop resilience is dependent on both the environmental context and the characteristics of

individual workers (Ollier-Malaterre, 2010).

Hope can both motivate and sustain commitment to social change organizations (Courville

& Piper, 2004). It has more of an impact on workers’ performance, satisfaction, and commitment

than resilience and optimism (Youssef & Luthans, 2007).Social change organizations can bridge

the hopes of groups that do not intuitively interconnect, leading to a new collective vision

(Courville & Piper, 2004).

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Compassion consists of both awareness and action. Empathy is the process of

understanding the suffering of others while compassion is the process of sharing and responding

to feelings. Organizational compassion contributes to the effectiveness of mission-centered

organizations. Organizations can create a compassionate culture when processes are in place to

systematize and legitimize the observation of and response to others’ pain. Compassion

contributes to a feeling of connectedness (Kanov, Mairlis, Worline, Dutton, Frost, & Lilius,

2004).

Emotion Work in Social Change Organizations

Emotional intelligence, which consists of awareness of emotions and the ability to control

them, contributes to mental well-being and workers’ ability to thrive in difficult circumstances

(Sharma, 2011). The emotional intelligence of leaders influences the emotional climate of the

workplace, contributing to worker and organizational performance (Nafukho, 2009). Leaders can

use their emotional intelligence to manage stressful situations for themselves and others in the

organization (Lincoln, 2009). Emotional intelligence in sensitive to the organizational context

and its expectations for workers’ emotional performance; thus, workers need both an

understanding of those environmental expectations and the intrinsic emotional intelligence

needed to interpret and live into those expectations in order to successfully perform emotion

work in their jobs (Fambrough & Hart, 2008; Opengart, 2005).

Emotional awareness and empathy are critical for leadership success (Alon & Higgins,

2005). Emotion work is necessary for social change organizations to achieve their goals

(Jacobsson & Lindblom, 2013). Tending to workers’ emotions is an important means of assuring

organizational sustainability (Rodgers, 2010). Creating a healthy, resilient organizational

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environment may promote employee retention (Slaanova, Llorens, Cifre, & Martinez, 2012).

Participation in social change organization promotes the expression and exploration of

negative emotions as well as emotional support (Hercus, 1999). People can safely share and

explore their emotions related to social injustice through social change organizations (Reger,

2004). Social change workers can explore and process the emotions of personal or social trauma

along with others as part of a community (Hutchison & Bleiker, 2008). Social change

organizations can create opportunities for hope and positive emotional energy to grow in a

mutually reinforcing way through group dialogue and action (Summers-Effler, 2002). Activists

create shared means of processing emotions (Jacobsson & Lindblom, 2013).

Shared emotion work leads to the creation of social bonds and networks (Bosco, 2006).

Emotional bonds can unite dispersed networks, even without formal organization (Bosco, 2006;

Juris, 2008). Constructive expression of positive and negative emotions creates closeness and

trust and leads to individual and group learning and resilience (Stephens, Heaphy, Carmeli,

Spreitzer, & Dutton, 2013). Sharing emotions and intentionally responding to others contributes

to the development of supportive relationships, group cohesion, and a sense of solidarity

(Guenther, 2009; Jacobsson & Lindblom, 2013). Solidarity can transform anger and despair into

hope (Summers-Effler, 2002). Group exploration of feelings related to experiences of injustice

can result in reconciliation (Hutchison & Bleiker, 2008). Sharing feelings leads to a sense of

empowerment, solidarity, and activism (Bosco, 2006). Emotional closeness is also related to job

satisfaction (Haley-Lock, 2007). Effective leaders promote optimism, trust, flexibility, and

meaning by being aware of and understanding how others feel (George, 2000).

Other activists can be seen as emotional allies with a shared sense of righteous indignation

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(Summers-Effler, 2002). Relationships among activists can also be tenuous, leading to conflict,

stress, and anxiety (Harre, Tepavac, & Bullen, 2009). Emotional bonds grow stronger when

activism targets are stigmatized (Ost, 2004).

Sharing stories and emotions in social change organizations is a means of raising critical

consciousness and provoking collective action; emotional production and performance is a

political act (Srivastava, 2006). Consciousness raising can include increasing awareness of social

injustices or reinterpreting and creating new understanding of injustice (Valocchi, 2012). Social

justice organizations can minimize the emotional threat of belonging to an outgroup, leading to

the constructive expression of deviant feelings and the development of a critical consciousness

and solidarity (Summers-Effler, 2002). Consciousness raising transforms feelings such as anger,

frustration, and hopelessness, leading to shared understanding, solidarity, and social or political

action (Reger, 2004).

Because relationship building is central to the work of nonprofit organizations, and

because those relationships are developed in an often ambiguous and unfolding context,

emotional awareness and regulation is critical to the success of workers and organizations

(Eschenfelder, 2012). Social change workers can be emotionally invested in their work; therefore,

monitoring, understanding, and controlling those emotions can improve feelings of competence

and meaning in work (Hayward & Tuckey, 2011). Workers may need to regulate their emotions

to manage the disparity between internal states and external expectations; emotional awareness

and control can also impact the emotions of others such as targets of activism or followers (Hsieh,

Jin, & Guy, 2011). Emotional regulation can be used proactively to help workers cope with

challenging circumstances and develop emotional resilience (Hayward & Tuckey, 2011).

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Effective leaders manage the emotions of frustration and optimism in their organization;

they can influence performance by expressing empathy and managing emotions (Humphrey,

2002). Emotional expectations can be communicated through policies and organizational culture

(Rodgers, 2010). Because those with power determine which emotions are legitimate in a

particular context and how they can be appropriately expressed, expectations for emotion work --

or lack thereof -- may reveal inequity (Shields, 2005).

Increased understanding of emotions and authentic, but controlled and strategic,

expression of emotions can help leaders achieve organizational goals (Fambrough & Hart, 2008).

Employees who are able to control their emotions may have higher degrees of self-efficacy and

job satisfaction; however, job satisfaction may decrease when employees need to act in a ‘fake’

way (Hsieh, Jin, & Guy, 2011). Without authenticity and ethical grounding, emotional control

might actually be manipulation (Fambrough & Hart, 2008). In addition, expecting workers to

control their emotions can be dehumanizing (Fambrough & Hart, 2008).

Emotional Integration and Transformation

Emotions can be intentionally cultivated to achieve organizational goals (Fambrough &

Hart, 2008). Hsieh and Guy (2009) suggest that emotion work should be included in the talent

management systems of nonprofit organizations. Emotion work in social change organizations is

often pragmatic and directly related to effectively engaging in conflict and provoking social

change (Jacobsson & Lindblom, 2013). Navigating and attempting to transform power structures

from an unprivileged position can be emotionally draining. Emotional energy can be gained by

reifying hegemonic structures and lost through feelings that conflict with prevailing values

(Summers-Effler, 2002); thus, emotional energy reserves must be continually replenished in

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ways that authentically support the continued work of social change leaders.

Social change leaders continually balance feelings of hope, anger, compassion, and

despair (Kovan & Dirkx, 2003; Rodgers, 2010). Bicknell & Liefooghe (2010) believe that stress

and enjoyment are unnecessarily dichotomized and that stress is a complex phenomenon that

may simultaneously lead to both positive and negative emotional states. Perhaps the anger

experienced by social change workers leads to eustress (Selye, 1976), or positive perceptions of

stress that lead to enhanced performance and well-being. While it would not be ethical for social

change organizations to intentionally provoke anger and stress among workers to improve

organizational goal achievement, the literature indicates that there is ample stress and anger

inherent in social change work. By acknowledging and creating space to intentionally process

negative emotions, social change organizations can improve the motivation, engagement, and

performance of workers.

Much human resource practice focuses on limiting negative emotions (Fambrough & Hart,

2008). Given the unique context of social change organizations, such a strategy could potentially

alienate workers and undermine the cause. The cultivation of anger may seem like a

counterintuitive talent management strategy to leadership scholars who are not engaged in the

work of social change organizations (Rodgers, 2010). Yet, anger is so central to the work of

social change organizations that ignoring or suppressing it could be damaging.

Thomas, McGarty, & Mavor (2009) contend that empathy promotes cooperation among

diverse groups and social cohesion, but outrage is needed to provoke systemic social change.

Negative emotions, such as anger and fear, when coupled with positive emotions, such as

compassion, trust, and empathy, contribute to sustainable transformation (Hutchison & Bleiker,

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2008). To be effective, anger must be combined with, and interpreted through the lenses of,

empathy and care (Holmes, 2004a; Lyman, 2004). Anger laced with cynicism leads to apathy, but

anger that is infused with hope leads to action (Summers-Effler, 2002).

Continued engagement with, and commitment to, social change organizations is promoted

through increased self-awareness, openness to continual learning and personal transformation,

opportunities to authentically express a deep sense of purpose and vocation, and feelings of

interconnectedness (Kovan & Dirkx, 2003). The expression of emotions contributes to raising

consciousness and awakening; this galvanizes workers, motivating continued commitment,

active engagement, and the development of group identity (Guenther, 2009).

Conflict is inevitable in mission-driven organizations; yet, it is often avoided and feared

rather than appreciated and utilized as a transformational process (Allyn, 2011). Resistance and

change are influenced by both intra- and interpersonal dynamics (Summers-Effler, 2002).

Workers are better able to respond to change and conflict when they feel supported, are

appreciated, and have opportunities to constructively express their emotions (Smollan & Parry,

2011). Political and social action can lead to deep feelings and the emergence of identity (Juris,

2008). Personal identity is fluid and continually evolves through social experience (Harman,

2011) and reflection. Organizations can support and nurture workers as their individual and

collective identity develops.

Social change organizations promote transformation through individual, communal,

cultural, and systemic means that integrate both critique and hope (Cho, 2010). Thriving, which

includes both learning and positive energy, is cultivated by both individual and contextual factors

and can lead to momentum (Spreitzer, Sutcliffe, Dutton, Sonsenshein, & Grant, 2005). Workers

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in social justice organizations interpret struggle as an opportunity for reflective learning and

growth; this transformational process integrates the self with the world and deepens and sustains

commitment to the organization and the cause (Kovan & Dirkx, 2003). Social change leaders

continually learn about themselves, their ideological beliefs, their self-image, and their abilities;

by developing this core, they are better able to resist the external demands and expectations that

their organizations are designed to transform (English & Peters, 2012).

Conclusion

Emotions are a natural part of everyday life. Emotions are aroused, both directly and

indirectly, through experiences of social injustice and involvement with social change

organizations. These emotions include anger and joy, despair and hope, alienation and

compassion.

While many scholars view such emotions in a dichotomous way, their co-existence in this

field suggests that a model of emotional wholeness that balances intentionality and authenticity

is needed for these organizations. A sketch of such a model, which integrates the aforementioned

literature, is provided in Appendix A.

While there is much research about the emotions of social change work and activism, few

studies consider emotions in a holistic way. The polarity and fragmentation suggested by the

literature may lead to unhealthy organizations, unfulfilled people, and limited ability to achieve

social change goals. Additional research is needed to more fully understand how the full

spectrum of emotions emerges, are processed, are shared, and are transformed within and among

social change workers and leaders. This will both build upon the existing literature and yield

insights that are helpful for practitioners.

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APPENDIX A

Emotional Integration and Transformation in Social Change Organizations