BIOLOGYThe Essentials of Biology IX Semester 1

Class IX A

Femi Tania

Acknowledgement

Assalamualaikum wr. wb.

Puji syukur kita panjatkan ke hadirat Allah Yang Maha Esa karena atas rahmat-Nya saya dapat menyelesaikan makalah ini tentang The Essentials of Biology IX Semester 1. Saya juga mengucapkan terima kasih kepada Ibu karena telah memberi saya kesempatan untuk mempebaiki nilai saya dengan memberikan tugas ini.

Saya menyadari pada makalah ini terdapat kekurangan, akan tetapi saya akan terus memperbaiki kekurangan itu. Oleh karena itu, saya harap dimaklumi dan saya senantiasa mengharapkan masukan demi penyempurnaan makalah ini. Semoga makalah ini bermanfaat.

Wassalamualaikum wr. wb.

Femi Tania (IX A)

Chapter 1

EXCRETORY SYSTEM IN HUMANThe disposal process in human is differentiated into three kinds, those are

defecation, secretion, and exretion. Defecation is a disposal process of residue from the useless food digestion in the form of feces through the rectum. Secretion is a process of disposing useful glands for body such as enzyme and homone. Excretion is a process of disposing residues from metabolism which are not used anymore by the body, sometimes disposed along with urine, sweat, or breath.

A. Excretory Organs in Human

1. Kidney

a. Structure of Kidney

In a human body, there is a pair of kidney. The shape of kidney is like a pea. If the kidney cutted in half horizontally will show the parts of cortex, medula (kidney marrow), and pelvis (kidney cavity).

In the cortex there are millions of filters called nephron. Each nephron consist of Malphigian body and convolunted tubule. Malphigian body consist of Bowman’s capsule

and glomerulus. Glomerulus is a capillary vessel plait. Bowman’s capsule is like a bowl that surrounds glomerulus.

Convoluted tubule consist of proximal tubule, distal tubule and collecting duct. Between proximal tubule and distal tubule, there is loop of Henle pars ascends and pars descends.

b. Kidney functions

The function of kidney such as :

- To filter blood in order to create urine, - To excrete dangerous substances for body like foreign proteins whom enter the

body, urea, uric acid, and many kinds of salt, to excrete excessive substances, for example blood sugar which is higher than normal,

- To preserve extra cellular liquid osmosis pressure,- To preserve the balance between acid and base.

c. Urine formation process

Begins with entering of blood from the body through the kidney artery to the glomerulus. Afterwards, blood enters the Bowman’s capsule which filters blood in glomerulus, blood in glomerulus contains amino acid, salt, sugar, and urea. The blood in the glomerulus will be filtered again to form glomerulus filtrate called primary urine. Then glomerulus filtrate will be flown through tubulus in the medula. In proximal tubule, the usefull substances in primary urine will be reabsorbed. This process will occur until pars descends of loop of Henle. From this process, we get tubulus filtrate or secondary urine. There is an augmentation process in the distal tubule and result in the real urine. Augmentation is process of disposing useless substances that cannot be kept by the body.

After that, the urine is flown too collecting duct and forwarded to renal pelvis, uretter, urinary blader, and urethra.

In normal condition, urine contains water, urea, and ammonium which are the residues of protein transformation, mineral salt, especially kitchen salt, bilirubin which gives yellow coluor to urine, exressive substance in blood, like vitamin, medicines, and hormones. Factors that influence the amount of urine disposed include the amount of water intake, renal nerves stimulus, anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), and the amount of salt disposed.

2. Liver

Liver is an excretory gland because it results in bile which contains residues from erythrocyte rebuilding in spleen. The functions of liver include:

- Keeping the sugar in the form of glycogen,- Arranging the blood sugar level,- As the location to form urea from ammonium,- Neutralizing tixic,- Forming vitamin A from provitamin A,- The location to make fibrinogen and prothrombin.

Liver is layered by a thin membrane called as liver membrane (hepatic capsule). The cells in the liver functions to renovate the old erythrocytes are called histosyte. Hemoglobin (Hb) of eriythrocite will be decomposed into haem, Fe, and globin. Haem will be transformed into bile colouring of bilirubin and biliverdin. Bilirubun is oxidated into brownish yellow urobilin and colours the feces as well as urine. Fe is keet in the liver, then returned to marrow bones. Globin will be used again for protein metabolism or to form new hemoglobin.

3. Skin

1) Epididimis

Epididimis layer consist of stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum and stratum germinativum. Stratum corneum is composed from dead cells and always gets peeled off. Stratum lucidum is composed of cells without nucleus and serves to replace stratum corneum. Sratum granulosum is composed of cells with nucleus and contains melanin pigments. Stratum germinativum is composed of cells which always form new cells move toward outside.

2) Dermis

Located under the epididimis, contains hair root, blood vessel, sweat gland, oil gland, muscle and nerve.

3) Hypodermis

Located under the dermis, contains many fats. Fat serves as the food supply, body protector from crash, and to keep the body warm.

b. Skin functions

The function of skin as follows:

- To dispose sweat,- To protect body from friction, bacetria, lightning, heat, and chemical,- To organize body temperature,- Accept out side stimulus,- Reduce the water loss- The place to figuration vitamin D with helping by ultraviolet ray.

4. Lungs

The function of lungs beside result in energy and as the respiratory organ, is to secrete carbon dioxide and water vapour through the nostril.

B. Disorders and Desease in the Excretory System

1. Albuminuria

This desease is caused by too much albumin pass the kidney filter and disposed along with urine, and maybe caused by the lack of protein, kidney poblem, and liver desease.

2. Haematuria

Is a desease in the excretory system with the symptom thet the urine contains blood, caused by the kidney inflammation, kidney stone, and urinary bladder cancer.

3. Nephrotiliasis

Is a desease in the excretory system with the symptom there is a stone in the kidney, kidney channel, or urinary blader. Ussualy kidney stone contains calcium salt (lime substances) such as oxalate calcium, posphate calcium, or the mixture. Formed bacause the concentration of elements in the urine is high, which is accelerated by infection and the blockage in ureter.

4. Nepritis

Is a desease with inflammation at the kidney, espedially on the nephron, the process was originated from glomerulus, then it’s spread into the neighboring tissues.

5. Renal Failure

Is caused by the inability of kidney to run its functions. As a result, substances that should be extracted through the kidney are accumulated in the blood. Example, the occurrence of uremia, that is the increase of urea level in blood. The high level blood of urea may result in intixication and death. One of the causes of renal failure is nephritis.

Chapter 2

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN HUMANA. Reproductive Organs in Human

1. Reproductive Organs on Men

Reproductive organs in men consist of a pair of testis, genital duct, and penis.

a. Testis is located in a sac called scrotum, contains many ducts surrounded by some connective tissues (seminiferous tubules). Serves to produce sperm and testosteron hormone.

b. Genital duct consist of vasa eferentia, vas deferents and uretrha.

1) Vasa eferentia is the end of seminifrous tubulesfunctions to accommodate sperms to be

channeled to epididymis.

2) Epididymis, in this sperm duct, liquid of sperm absorbed until it is a approximately concentrated, serves to preserve sperm temporarily.

3) Vas deferens functions to connect epididymis with urethra to penis. At the end of the duct, there is an ejaculatory duct.

4) Urethra is a duct which function to excrete sperms. Urethra is also functions to excrete urine in the urinary system.

c. Extra glands include seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and Cowper’s gland.

1) Seminal vesicles is a semen sac (sperm) whose walls secrete the slime liquid contains fructose, a little ascorbic acid, and amino acid. Those chemicals function to feed and protect the sperm and fertilize ovum.

2) Prostate gland produces base liquid and the colour is white like milk. This liquid function to neutralize the acid property an the vasa eferentia and the liquid in vagina so that the sperm can move actively.

Sperm

Ovum

3) Cowper’s gland (bulbourethral gland) produce mucous liquid serves as lubricant

d. Penis is a male sex organ functions to put the semen into vagina.

2. Female Reproductive Organs

Female reproductive organs consist of ovarium located in the stomach cavity, oviduct/Fallopian tube, uterus, vagina, and outer sex organ.

a. Ovarium is a woman sex gland serves to produce ovum and secrete oestrogen and progesterone hormones.

b. Fallopian tube serves to channeled ovum to the uterus with peristaltic and are assisted by movement of a cilia reside at the wall.

c. Uterus functions to be the place for embryo to grow.

d. Vagina as a site to place spermatozoid at the time of copulation and as a way for baby in the process of birth giving.

e. Outer sex organ consist of, clitoris, vulva, urinary duct, vagina hole, and fundus.

Male reproductive organs

B. Gametogenesis

1. Spermatogenesis

Sperm are originated from primordial cells thatgo through mitosis division a few times to form spermatogonium. Spermatogonium will grow into primary spermatocyte. Primary spermatocyte will cleave according to meiosis produce two secondary spermatocytes. Finally, secondary spermatocyte will cleavage again produce four spermatids. Each spermatid will undergo maturation into spermatozoon complete with its tail.

Female reproductive organ

Spermatogenesis

2. Oogenesis

In ovarium, there are diploid primordial cells which will turn to be ovum named oogonium. Those cells grow into primary oocyte. Afterwards, primary oocyte cleavage into a big secondary oocyte and a small primary polar body. Polar body degenerates and doesn’t involve in the fertilization process. Meanwhile, secondary oocyte results in two cells, those are ootid (the big one) and a smaller secondary polar body. The polar body also degenerates, while ootid grows and matures into ovum.

C. Fertilization Process

Mature ovum will go out of the ovarium. This process is called ovulation. The mature ovum will go into the Fallopian tube. Millions of sperm must walk from vagina to uterus and get into the Fallopian tube. Among the survive sperm cells, only one can get into the ovum membrane. After fertilization, the ovum membrane will be hardened immediately to prevent other sperms to come.

Result of fertilization is a zygote. Later, the zygote will grow and develop, after nine months and ten days of pregnancy, the baby is ready to be born. And if the mature ovum is not fertilized by sperm, the uterus wall tissues that have become thick and contain many blood vessels will be damaged and ruputured. Along with the ovum that was not fertilized, the tissue will be disposed from the body through vagina (menstruation).

Fertilization

Oogenesis

D. Menstruation

Menstruation is a bleed which happened by ruputured the endometrium which contains many blood vessels. The length of menstruation period on a woman is 28 days on average, devided into 4 phase :

- Menstruation phase, in this phase the uterus wall will drop so that the blood comes out through vagina. Going on + 5 days.

- Pre-ovulatory phase, the process of the formation uterus wall return.

- Ovulatory phase, in the 14th day from the first day of menstruation. Ovulation is a process of ovum released from the ovarium.

- Post-ovulatory phase, corpus luteum produce estrogen and progesterone.

Estrogen and progesterone will stimulate the uterus wall to prepare the pragnancy process. If ovum is not ovulated, corpus luteum will start to degeneate. The production of estrogen and progesterone will be reduced very much, oxygen supply will decrease too, the cells will die, artery drops, bleeding. Therefore, the menstrual cycle recommence.

E. Desease on the Human Reproductive System

1. Gonorrhea

Caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae bacteria and infected by way of sexual intercourse. Causes inflammation on the reproductive organs and may also cause inflammation on urinary bladder, eyes, joint, and meninges.

2. Syphilis

Caused by Trepotonema pillidum bacteria and infected by way of sexual intercouse. Attack reproductive organs and also other organs such as liver, nervous system, and brain with some further stadiums.

3. Genital Herpes

Caused by herpes simplex serotype 2 virus and spread by way of sexual intercourse. Besides attacking reproductive organs of male and female, its also attacks skin.

4. Fluor Albus

This desease is suffered by women. Fluor Albus is caused by many parasites, such as fungus Candida albicans, protozoa from Trichomonas vaginalis type, bacteri, and virus. Candida albicans loves environment contains sugar and warm environment.

5. AIDS

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). So far, the medicine for this deadly disease have been not available. AIDS may infected by way of blood transfusion from an AIDS sufferer, by hypodermic needle once used by a sufferer, and having a sexual intercourse with an AIDS sufferer. The baby in the womb of an AIDS sufferer may also be infected.

Chapter 3

COORDINATION SYSTEM AND SENSE IN HUMAN

A. Nervous System Forming Organs

Nervous systemhas many functions such as, the connector between body and environs through the senses, as the organizer or controller of responses on the stimulator from outside the body, organize and control the work of many body organs so that thay function properly.

1. Nerve Cell

Nervous tissue is a communication tissue consist of nerve cells called neuron. Each neuron consist of three main components, those are cytoplasm, nucleus, and nucleous in it. Dendrite (dendron) is a short cytoplasm jutty/kern, there are more then one with branced end, and serves to forward the impulses from the nerve to the cell body of nerve. Neurite (axon) also called as the nerve fiber is a long cytoplasm kern, only one, and serve to forward impulses from the cell body to other nervous dendrites.

In the neurite there are refined thread called as neurofibril. Neurite is covered by myelin sheath which functions as the protector or isolator. In motor neuron, the myelin sheath is composed of Schwann cells to form tissues that provide nutrients for neurite and support neurite regeneration. The unprotected part of myelin sheath is called as node of Ranvier, to accelerate the stimulus delivery.

Based on its function, neuron is devided into three types, sensory neuron, motor neuron, and connector neuron.

a. Sensory neuron (sense nerve cell) functions to forward the stimulus from the receptor to the central nervous syatem (brain and spinal cord).

b. Motor neuron that serves to bring impulses from the central nervous system to the effector (muscle and gland)

c. Connector neuron (connector nerve cell) functions to forward impulses from the sensory to the motor neurons.

Based on its structure, nerve cell are classified into unipolar nerve cell, bipolar nerve cell, and multipolar nerve cell.

Impulses can be forwarded from neurite of one neuron to dendrite of the next neuron because the neurite and dendrite ends are not covered by protector membrane. The meeting between a neurite of one neuron and dendrite of others is called synapses. In every synapsis there is a gap/fissure called as synaptic gap. At the end of neurite there is a sac called as bulbus axon which consist of chemicals called as neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitter can be in the form of acetylcholine and cholinesterase.

2. Nervous System Classification

Shortly, the nervour system clasification in human can be seen from the following scheme.

Nervous System

Central nerve

Peripheral nerve

Brain

Spinal Cord

Somatic nerve

Autonomic nerve

Cerebrum

Mesencephalon

Forebrain

Cerebellum

Medula oblongata

Sympathetic nerve

12 pair of cranial nerves

31 pair of spinal cord nerves

Parasympathetic nerve

Parasympathetic nerve

Involuntary nervous system

a. Central nerve system

The central nerve system consist of brain and spinal cord are protected by a membrane called meninges. Meninges consist of three layers those are, durameter, arachnoid, piameter.

1) Brain

Brain is the centre of coordination, located on the head cavity and protected by head cap. Brain is devided into two three parts, those are fore brain, middle brain, and hind brain.

a) Fore brain (diencephalon)

Fore brain consist of:

o Thalamus functions to receive all stimulus from receptor except smell, then forward it to the sensory area cerebrum.

o Hypothalamus functions is related with the temperature setting and nutrient, keeping, and growing the aggressive attitude.

o Cerebrum is the main control of conscious activities such as thinking, recalling, speaking, seeing, and moving. Cerebrum consist of two spheres, left is to set and control activities of the right body, and right is to set and control activities of the left body.

Cerebrum consist of two layers, cortex (outer layer) and medulla (inner layer). The outer layer is the center of many activities such as seeing, consciousness, smelling, hearing, and the center of intelligence.

Hind brain (occipitals lobe) plays role in seeing. Side brain (temporal lobe) located above the ears play the tole as centre of hearing. Fore brain (frontal lobe) plays role in muscle control.

Cerebrum devided into three areas, sensory area, motor area, and association area. Sensory area is related to the stimulus reception from the receptor in the sense. Motor area plays the role in responding the stimulus come to the brain by the instruction sends to the effector. Association area which connects the sensory area and motor area.

b. Middle brain (mecencephalon)

Middle brain plays role in eyes reflex, tonus of the muscle, and is related to the body position.

c. Hind brain

Divided into two those are, cerebellum and medulla oblongata. Cerebellum divided into two spheres, right and left sphere, connected with varol bridge. Cerebellum serves to organize the body balance and is a center of coordination for the muscles when they move.

Medulla oblongata functions to set the heartbeat, narrow the blood vessels, swallowing, coughing, sneezing, belching, and vomiting. The part of medulla oblongata which connects the brain and the spinal cord is called pons and serves to set breathing.

2) Spinal cord (medulla oblongata)

Spinal cord is the joint from medulla oblongata to the second lumbar vertebrae. If we cut the spinal cord diagonally, we will see a pattern like letter H. The part which is like H has two roots those ventral root and dorsal root. Ventral root contains the body of motor neuron whose neurite faces to effector, while the dorsal root contains body of sensory neuron. Spinal cord plays role in reflex action.

b. Peripheral nerve system

Peripheral nerve system serves to connect central nerve system with the body organs. Peripheral nerve system is devided into two kinds, those are somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.

1) Somatic nervous system

Somatic nervous system consist of 12 pairs of cranial nervous and 31 pairs of spinal nervous system. Cranial nervous system is classified into three kinds, those are the sensory nerve (nerve I, II, VIII), motor nerve (nerve III, IV, VI, XI and XII), as well as sensory and motor nerves (nerve V, VII, IX, and X). Spinal nervous system is a mixture of many kinds of nerve because nerves come from dorsal root in sensory, then bonded to the nerves from the ventral root which are motor.

2) Autonomic nerve system

Autonomic nerve system is also called as the unconscious nervous system because it works without any influence from the from the consciousness. Autonomic nervous system is divided into two, sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system. Both systems have the same effector but they work antagonistically.

3. Reflex Action

Reflex action can be differenced into some kinds, such as inherent/simple reflex, complex reflex, and learned reflex. Inherent reflex is a reflex action centered on the spinal cord, fast, and unconsciously. In a word, the process of inherent reflex action can be seen in the following scheme:

Stimulus receptor sensory neuron spinal cord association neuron motor neuron effector.

Complex reflex is reflex action whose impulses don’t only go the reflex action center, that is spinal cord, but also to the center of consciuos nerve (cerebtum). Learned reflex is a action/quick reaction which is not done consciously because it has becomes a routine.

B. Sense Organs

1. Eye

The eye is an organ that is sensitive to the light stimulus. Eyeballs wall consist of three layers, those are :

Sclera is the outer part, hard and white, called white part, it’s protuded and transparant called cornea.

Choroid is called as blood membrane because this layer has many blood vessels except the front part, the frontage of this layer is a little open, called as rainbow membrane (pupil). Pupil may experiences size transformation reflexively depens on the light intensity that enters. Choroid coat cells arround the pupil contains pigments that cause eyes to have black, brown, blue, or green colours, it’s called iris. Behind the pupil there is a biconvex lens eye supported by the muscle attached to the choroid wall. The accommodation of eye capacity is organized by musculus ciliaris muscle. Between lens and cornea there is a thin liquid called aqueous humour. Eyeball that contains thick and transparent liquid is called vitreous humour.

And Retina contains receptors which is sensitive to light (photoreceptor), those are rod cell (bacillus) functioned when the light is dim and it cannot differentiate colours. And cone cell (cones) is functioned in the bright light and it can differentiate colours. Part of retina which does not have any rod cell or cone cell is called blind spot. In order that we can see, the light should fall on the part which is sensitive in retina, that is the yellow spot. Shortly, the process of seeing can be shown:

Light cornea aqueous humour pupil lens vitreous humour retina.

2. Ear

An ear consist of three parts, those are outer, middle, and inner ear. The outer layer ear consist of auricle, auditory canal, and tympanic membrane (eardrum). The middle ear consist of hammer (malleus), anvil (incus), and stirrup (stapes). These three bones forms a diagonal sequence and united with tympanic membrane. Middle ear and mouth cavity are connected by Eustachian tube. Inner ear consist of cochlea and three seminicular canals. Cochlea serves to receive the sound, while the three seminicular canals serves as the body eqiulibrium organ.

3. Skin

Skin has five receptors which are the end of touching sense. Those five receptors specifically respond to the stimuli of pressure, toush, pain, warm, and cold. The spread of the end of touching nerve is not even on all over the skin surface. Just some parts of the body have more nerve ends such as the fingertips, palm, and feet.

4. Nose

Nose has chemoreceptor, a receptor that is sensitive to the chemicals stimulus of gas.

5. Tongue

Tongue has chemoreceptor to the chemicals dissolved into the water. Tongue is sensitive to the taste stimulus because it has many taste bud between papilae. The taste bud is very sensitive to the taste stimulus because it consist of a group of receptor. There are four kinds of taste buds in the certain parts of tongue.

C. Disorders and Desease on Sense Organ

1. Astigmatism

Cylindrical eyes is an disorder which causes our sight blurs. It happens because the person cannot see the horizontal and vertical lines together. The eye cannot focus on its sight because is not in a ball shape. This disorder can be solved by wearing cylindrical glasses.

2. Myopia

Short-sightedness is an eye disorder with symptom the eye cannot see the far object, because the object reflection falls infront of the yellow spot. This disorder can be solved by wearing concave lens.

3. Hypermetropia

Long-sightedness ia an eye disorder with symptom the eye cannot see in near distance object. Because the object reflection falls behind the retina. This disorder can be solved by wearing convex lens.

4. Presbyobia

A disorder with symptom the eye cannot see both near and far distance object. Because the accomodative power of the eyes decrease. Happen in old people. Can be solved by wearing double lens.

5. Otoschlerosis

This desease is a conductive deaf for years because the stirrup is stiff and cannot move freely.

Chapter 4

ORGANISM SURVIVALA. Adaptation on Animal and Plant

1. Morphological Adaptation

Is the adjustment of body shape, body structure or body organs of an organism to the environment.

Example for animal adaptation : kinds of bird’s beak

Kinds of bird’s feet

Example for plant adaptation : hygrophytes are plants that adapt to moise environtment such as fern and moss.

2. Physiological Adaptation

Is the adjusment of the function of the organism body organs to the environtment.

Example for animal: Based on the food type animal can be classified into carnivore , herbivore, and omnivore. The adaptation of those animals to the food type is in the form of the size of the intenstines and different digestive enzym.

Example for plant : Plant whose pollination is helped by insects have flowers with unique smell.

3. Behavioral Adaptation

Is the organism adjusment to the environtment in the form of behavior.

Example for animal : Chameleons adapts to the environtment by doing mimicry.

Example for plant : In dry season tropohyte plants such as teak tree and silk cotton trees will fall their leaves.

B. Natural Selection

Natural Selection is the organism that can adapt will be life but, the organism can’t adapt will die.