Ethics Why ethics?. Ethics In all decisions we need to compare different alternatives. In all decisions we need to compare different alternatives. We

EthicsEthics

Why ethics?Why ethics?

EthicsEthics

Why ethics?Why ethics? In all decisions we need to compare In all decisions we need to compare

different alternatives.different alternatives. We want to choose the best one.We want to choose the best one. But best for whom? According to But best for whom? According to

whose criteria? What is good and whose criteria? What is good and bad?bad?

– These are ethical problems…These are ethical problems…

EthicsEthics

Terminology, ethics and moralityTerminology, ethics and morality

““Ethos”, Greek for personal Ethos”, Greek for personal charactercharacter

– ““ta ethika”, inquiry into the nature of ta ethika”, inquiry into the nature of good and evil.good and evil.

““Mores”, Latin for social customs Mores”, Latin for social customs and habitsand habits

EthicsEthics

Ethics and morality are often used as Ethics and morality are often used as synonyms, but here we will use:synonyms, but here we will use:

Morality for the set of beliefs about good Morality for the set of beliefs about good or bad, right or wrong, justice and or bad, right or wrong, justice and injustice.injustice.

Ethics for the critical analysis of Ethics for the critical analysis of morality, its foundations and morality, its foundations and implications.implications.

EthicsEthics

ExamplesExamples Stealing is wrongStealing is wrong

– A moral statementA moral statement

Why is stealing wrong?Why is stealing wrong?– An ethical questionAn ethical question

EthicsEthics

Ethics (and morals) focus onEthics (and morals) focus on ActionsActions

– Right or wrongRight or wrong ConsequencesConsequences

– Good or BadGood or Bad CharacterCharacter

– Virtue, Vice.Virtue, Vice. MotiveMotive

– Ill or Good intentIll or Good intent

EthicsEthics

We will consider mostly:We will consider mostly: ActionsActions

– Right or wrongRight or wrong ConsequencesConsequences

– Good or BadGood or Bad

These are more relevant for decision.These are more relevant for decision.

EthicsEthics

Actions:Actions: Wrong: not permissibleWrong: not permissible Right (permissible)Right (permissible)

– Obligatory, Optional (Neutral or Obligatory, Optional (Neutral or Supererogatory)Supererogatory)

EthicsEthics

Morality assumes a shared Morality assumes a shared understanding of good and bad.understanding of good and bad.

Do not steal becauseDo not steal because– God will punish you.God will punish you.– you will be arrested.you will be arrested.– it is wrong.it is wrong.

EthicsEthics

Morality assumes a shared Morality assumes a shared understanding of good and bad.understanding of good and bad.

Do not steal becauseDo not steal because– God will punish you.God will punish you.– you will be arrested.you will be arrested.– it is wrong.it is wrong.

Only the last one is a moral Only the last one is a moral statement. The others. The others statement. The others. The others merely propose consequences.merely propose consequences.

EthicsEthics

Morality demands impersonal and Morality demands impersonal and universal statements.universal statements.

Statements about right and wrong Statements about right and wrong must apply to all individuals in similar must apply to all individuals in similar circumstances, and at all times.circumstances, and at all times.

E.g. “It is wrong to own slaves” E.g. “It is wrong to own slaves” includes now, in the past, in the future, includes now, in the past, in the future, and is equally true for all races and and is equally true for all races and individuals.individuals.

EthicsEthics

Relativistic fallacyRelativistic fallacy Right and wrong are cultural Right and wrong are cultural

products. Morality is a function of products. Morality is a function of culture.culture.

EthicsEthics

Relativistic fallacyRelativistic fallacy Right and wrong are cultural products. Right and wrong are cultural products.

Morality is a function of culture.Morality is a function of culture. Though it is true that morality comes Though it is true that morality comes

from culture, it is not generally from culture, it is not generally accepted that the foundations of accepted that the foundations of morality could be different from one morality could be different from one culture to another.culture to another.

E.g. killing another human being.E.g. killing another human being.

EthicsEthics

Naturalistic fallacyNaturalistic fallacy The fallacy of drawing an The fallacy of drawing an

imperative (ought) from a imperative (ought) from a description of facts (is).description of facts (is).

EthicsEthics

Naturalistic fallacyNaturalistic fallacy The fallacy of drawing an The fallacy of drawing an

imperative (ought) from a imperative (ought) from a description of facts (is).description of facts (is).

E.g.: Medically assisted E.g.: Medically assisted reproduction is wrong because it is reproduction is wrong because it is against nature.against nature.

– (Toothpaste is also against nature…)(Toothpaste is also against nature…)

EthicsEthics

Naturalistic fallacyNaturalistic fallacy Prescriptive and normative Prescriptive and normative

statements, such as moral and statements, such as moral and ethical statements, cannot be ethical statements, cannot be derived from descriptive derived from descriptive statements. That some thing is X statements. That some thing is X does not imply that it ought to be X does not imply that it ought to be X or that it is better that it is X.or that it is better that it is X.

Ethical principlesEthical principles

The foundations of morality.The foundations of morality.


UtilitarianismUtilitarianism– The greatest good of the greatest The greatest good of the greatest

numbers.numbers.– The morally best thing to do is that The morally best thing to do is that

which best achieves everyone’s goals, which best achieves everyone’s goals, that which is in everyone’s best interest.that which is in everyone’s best interest.

How?...How?...


Act UtilitarianismAct Utilitarianism– Act always in such way that furthers Act always in such way that furthers

everyone’s best interests.everyone’s best interests.– How do we know?How do we know?


Motive UtilitarianismMotive Utilitarianism– Humans deal better with positive goals Humans deal better with positive goals

than prohibitions. The moral task is thus than prohibitions. The moral task is thus to inculcate the proper motives so that to inculcate the proper motives so that each individual is motivated to further each individual is motivated to further everyone’s interests.everyone’s interests.

– Big brother?...Big brother?...


Two-level UtilitarianismTwo-level Utilitarianism– Rule utilitarianism, but with act Rule utilitarianism, but with act

utilitarianism whenever necessary.utilitarianism whenever necessary.– Doesn’t solve every problemDoesn’t solve every problem


UtilitarianismUtilitarianism– Requires comparing utilities between Requires comparing utilities between

two people. Does Julia suffer more by two people. Does Julia suffer more by not listening to loud music or Hannah if not listening to loud music or Hannah if Julia does?Julia does?


UtilitarianismUtilitarianism– Requires comparing utilities between Requires comparing utilities between

two people. Does Julia suffer more by two people. Does Julia suffer more by not listening to loud music or Hannah if not listening to loud music or Hannah if Julia does?Julia does?

– One possibility is to use tradeoffs. One possibility is to use tradeoffs.


UtilitarianismUtilitarianism– Tradeoffs may be clear in some cases. E.g. Tradeoffs may be clear in some cases. E.g.

bottle of wine versus cure for leprosy.bottle of wine versus cure for leprosy.

– But in other cases may be different. E.g. An But in other cases may be different. E.g. An Indian Brahmin opposes the sanctions Indian Brahmin opposes the sanctions against the caste system because he against the caste system because he claims to be “ten times as capable of claims to be “ten times as capable of happiness as that untouchable over there”. happiness as that untouchable over there”.


UtilitarianismUtilitarianism– Generally relevant to decisions, but Generally relevant to decisions, but

there is the problem of how will utility there is the problem of how will utility be maximized. Average? Total? be maximized. Average? Total?


UtilitarianismUtilitarianism– Average: Parfitt’s paradox:Average: Parfitt’s paradox:


UtilitarianismUtilitarianism– Average: Nozick’s Utility MonsterAverage: Nozick’s Utility Monster– For every resource the monster enjoys For every resource the monster enjoys

100 times the pleasure of everyone else100 times the pleasure of everyone else


Rights and justiceRights and justice– John Rawls. From the veil of ignorance John Rawls. From the veil of ignorance

derives the fundamental right to equal derives the fundamental right to equal liberty.liberty.

– Basic liberties; social and economic Basic liberties; social and economic inequalities must have positions open to all inequalities must have positions open to all and Economic inequalities are only and Economic inequalities are only permitted insofar as they are to the greatest permitted insofar as they are to the greatest benefit of the least well off members of benefit of the least well off members of society. society.

– Assumes people are averse to risk in the Assumes people are averse to risk in the original position…original position…


Deontological ethicsDeontological ethics– Kant. The act is right or wrong in itself. Kant. The act is right or wrong in itself.

The consequences are good, by The consequences are good, by definition, if they stem from the right definition, if they stem from the right actionaction

Virtue EthicsVirtue Ethics– Plato, Aristotle. Be good, excelent, Plato, Aristotle. Be good, excelent,

virtuous (instead of acting for the best).virtuous (instead of acting for the best).

Bias in moral decisionsBias in moral decisions

Acts and omissions.Acts and omissions.– Killing a child versus letting one starve Killing a child versus letting one starve

in Africa.in Africa.– Vaccination if the risk of the vaccine is Vaccination if the risk of the vaccine is

lower than that of the disease.lower than that of the disease.– Tennis players example:Tennis players example:

Ivan is alergic to the salad dressing. John Ivan is alergic to the salad dressing. John either tells nothing or suggests the dressing. either tells nothing or suggests the dressing. Most people find John acted worse when Most people find John acted worse when suggesting.suggesting.


Double effect.Double effect.– Thomas Aquinas:Thomas Aquinas:

“ “Nothing hinders one act from having two Nothing hinders one act from having two effects, only one of which is intended, while effects, only one of which is intended, while the other is beside the intention. … the other is beside the intention. … Accordingly, the act of self-defense may Accordingly, the act of self-defense may have two effects: one, the saving of one's have two effects: one, the saving of one's life; the other, the slaying of the aggressor.”life; the other, the slaying of the aggressor.”

– The effect which is secondary is less The effect which is secondary is less morally relevantmorally relevant





Scope and implicationsScope and implications

Ethics (and morality) can apply to Ethics (and morality) can apply to different scopes:different scopes:– PersonalPersonal– ProfessionalProfessional– SocialSocial


Ethics (and morality) can apply to Ethics (and morality) can apply to different scopes:different scopes:– PersonalPersonal

The way each individual acts. His or her The way each individual acts. His or her principles.principles.

Rules that individuals may choose differentlyRules that individuals may choose differently

– ProfessionalProfessional– SocialSocial


Ethics (and morality) can apply to Ethics (and morality) can apply to different scopes:different scopes:– PersonalPersonal– ProfessionalProfessional

Codes of conduct for professionals. Codes of conduct for professionals. Somewhat between personal and social Somewhat between personal and social norms.norms.

– SocialSocial


Ethics (and morality) can apply to Ethics (and morality) can apply to different scopes:different scopes:– PersonalPersonal– ProfessionalProfessional– SocialSocial

Social rules that apply to all individuals. Social rules that apply to all individuals. Often, but not necessarily, coincident with Often, but not necessarily, coincident with laws.laws.


Legal issues generally depend on Legal issues generally depend on ethical and moral considerations, but ethical and moral considerations, but may not always coincide.may not always coincide.– Parking more than the time one paid for Parking more than the time one paid for

is illegal but not immoral.is illegal but not immoral.– Lying is immoral but not illegal.Lying is immoral but not illegal.

Ethics in DecisionEthics in Decision

BeforeBefore– Character, virtues, intent.Character, virtues, intent.

MeansMeans– Duties, rights.Duties, rights.

EndsEnds– ConsequencesConsequences

SummarySummary

Be aware of the different issues Be aware of the different issues regarding ethics and the foundation of regarding ethics and the foundation of morality.morality.

Aim for impersonal principles.Aim for impersonal principles. Be wary of contradictions or conflicts Be wary of contradictions or conflicts

between diferent intuitions, approaches between diferent intuitions, approaches or scopes.or scopes.– E.g. Babies and fetuses, people and E.g. Babies and fetuses, people and

animals, personal, professional and social…animals, personal, professional and social…

ExameExame

Principalmente prático, com 2/3 Principalmente prático, com 2/3 perguntas de desenvolvimento.perguntas de desenvolvimento.

MatériaMatéria– ArgumentaçãoArgumentação– Análise de relatos, modelos e Análise de relatos, modelos e

explicaçõesexplicações– CausalidadeCausalidade– Decisão (pode incluir tudo acima mais Decisão (pode incluir tudo acima mais

ética)ética)

ExameExame

1/3 de perguntas mais teóricas.1/3 de perguntas mais teóricas.– Identificar elementos ou estrutura de Identificar elementos ou estrutura de

um argumentoum argumento– Identificar tipos de experiênciaIdentificar tipos de experiência– Valores e factos; questões descriptivas Valores e factos; questões descriptivas

ou normativas.ou normativas.– Erros, comissão e omissãoErros, comissão e omissão– ……..

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Ethics Why ethics?. Ethics In all decisions we need to compare different alternatives. In all decisions we need to compare different alternatives. We