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LAND USE CHANGES AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON LIVELIHOOD
ACTIVITIES IN MSARANGA PERI-URBAN SETTLEMENT IN MOSHI
MUNICIPALITY, TANZANIA
GAUDENCE ANSELEM KAPINGA
Master of Arts in Co-operative and Community Development
2014
LAND USE CHANGES AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON LIVELIHOOD
ACTIVITIES IN MSARANGA PERI-URBAN SETTLEMENT IN MOSHI
MUNICIPALITY, TANZANIA
By
GAUDENCE ANSELEM KAPINGA
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of
Master of Arts in Co-operative and Community Development of Sokoine University
of Agriculture
Moshi
2014
ii
DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT
I, Gaudence Anselem Kapinga, declare that this dissertation is my own original work and
that it has not been presented and will not be presented to any other Higher Learning
Institutions in a similar or any other academic award.
Signature………………………….. Date………………………….
This Dissertation is a copyright material protected under the Berne Convention, the
Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Act of 1999 and other international and national
enactments, in that behalf, on intellectual property. It may not be reproduced by any
means, in full or in part, except for short extracts in fair dealings, for research or private
study, critical scholarly review or discourse with an acknowledgement, without the written
permission of the Moshi University College of Cooperative and Business Studies
(MUCCoBS), on behalf of both the author and the Sokoine University of Agriculture.
iii
CERTIFICATION
The undersigned certify that he has read the dissertation and hereby recommend for
acceptance by the Moshi University College of Cooperative and Business Studies a
dissertation titled, “Land Use Changes and its Implications on Livelihood Activities in
Msaranga Peri-Urban Settlement in Moshi Municipality, Tanzania” in fulfillment of
the requirements for the award of a degree of Master of Arts in Cooperative and
Community Development of Sokoine University of Agriculture.
……………………………………….
(Supervisor’s Name)
……………………………………….
(Supervisors’ Signature)
Date………………………………
iv
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my lovely parents Mr. and Mrs. Anselem Kapinga who
laid the foundation for my academic career.
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I take this opportunity to thank GOD for His grace throughout my study. My special and sincere
gratitude goes to; my parents Mr. and Mrs. Anselem Kapinga for their great effort to raise me up
and constantly providing support in my academic career.
In a very special way, I wish to acknowledge my gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor Dr.
Wakuru Magigi who sacrifices his time on every step from the early days of proposal preparation
to the Dissertation report writing where several drafts passed throughout. Indeed, you have been a
very good mentor in my academic career and may God give you courage for whatever you aspire.
The completion of this work would have been impossible without your support, inspiration and
kind assistance. I am so grateful and may almighty God bless you and your family.
I convey my sincere appreciation to all those who worked tirelessly to provide all necessary
information and made this work to be successful. Most appreciations go to Msaranga settlement
community leaders, Mr. Swai. M and all research subjects whom I have consulted for the purpose
of getting information towards compiling this work. Thanking you all and may God bless you!
Thanks to my relatives Revina Kapinga, Vincent Anselem, Joshua Kapinga and Elia Anselem who
have been a courage to me and their prayers, support and advice have contributed a lot to the
successful preparation of this research report. I would like to extend my gratitude to my beloved
Julieth Msangazi, my friends; Edmund Zakayo, Given Noah, Malima Richard, Pius Kirenga,
Dorice Malisa and all my classmates in the academic year 2012/13 to 2013/14 whom we have been
together and shared a lot in this academic undertaking. May God bless you.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITTLE PAGE………………………...…………………………..……………………..….i
DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT ................................................................................. ii
CERTIFICATION ................................................................................................................iii
DEDICATION...................................................................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..................................................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS......................................................................................................vi
LIST OF APPENDECES....................................................................................................... x
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................xi
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................xii
LIST OF PLATES ..............................................................................................................xiii
ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................xiv
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................... xv
CHAPTER ONE.................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY................................................................................ 1
1.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem ................................................................................. 2
1.3 Research Objectives......................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Research Questions.......................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Study Significance and Limitations................................................................................. 4
1.6 Contributions of the Study and Report Structure............................................................. 5
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................... 7
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................ 7
vii
2.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Conceptual Framework.................................................................................................... 7
2.3 Theory and Theoretical Framework ................................................................................ 9
2.3.1 Theory and models of urban growth............................................................................. 9
2.3.1.1 Conflict Theory.......................................................................................................... 9
2.3.2 Theoretical framework................................................................................................ 14
2.4 Policy Reviews .............................................................................................................. 15
2.5 Empirical Reviews......................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................. 21
3.0 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................ 21
3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 21
3.2 Research Design and its Rationale................................................................................. 21
3.3 Study Area Description and its Selection ...................................................................... 22
3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques ................................................................................. 24
3.4.1 Sampling frame........................................................................................................... 24
3.4.2 Sampling techniques ................................................................................................... 25
3.4.3 Sample size and characteristics of respondents .......................................................... 25
3.5 Data Triangulation, Validity and Reliability ................................................................. 27
3.6 Data Types, Sources, Collection Methods and Administration..................................... 28
3.6.1 Data types and sources................................................................................................ 28
3.6.2 Techniques and tools for data collection .................................................................... 29
3.6.3 Data administration..................................................................................................... 31
3.7 Unit of Analysis ............................................................................................................. 32
viii
3.8 Data Analysis and Interpretation ................................................................................... 33
3.8.1 Nature of data collected .............................................................................................. 33
3.8.2 Data analysis approach and measurement scales........................................................ 33
3.8.3 Data interpretation and presentation ........................................................................... 34
CHAPTER FOUR................................................................................................................ 35
4.0 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ................................................................................ 35
4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 35
4.2 Historical Development and Socioeconomic Characteristics ........................................ 35
4.2.1 Historical development of the study area ................................................................... 35
4.2.2 Socioeconomic characteristics .................................................................................... 36
4.3 Land Use Patterns and Changes over Time ................................................................... 39
4.3.1 Land use patterns and density..................................................................................... 39
4.3.2 Trend of land use changes .......................................................................................... 41
4.4 Existing Livelihood Activities and Changes over Time ................................................ 46
4.4.1 Types of livelihood activities identified ..................................................................... 46
4.4.2 Changes in livelihood activities over time.................................................................. 48
4.5 Implication of Land Use Changes in Livelihoods Activities......................................... 49
4.5.1 Opportunities and impacts .......................................................................................... 49
4.5.2 Livelihoods coping strategies ..................................................................................... 50
4.5.3 Migration, tenure status, land markets and acquisition .............................................. 54
4.5.4 Service delivery adequacy .......................................................................................... 58
4.5.5 Social networks, benefits and institutions................................................................... 59
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................. 61
ix
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................ 61
5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 61
5.2 Study Reflections and Implications for Theory and Practice ........................................ 61
5.2.1 Contexts ...................................................................................................................... 61
5.2.2 Methodological approach ........................................................................................... 62
5.2.3 Conceptual and theoretical frameworks ..................................................................... 63
5.2.4 Policy development agenda ........................................................................................ 64
5.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 64
5.4 Recommendations.......................................................................................................... 65
5.5 Unresolved Issues for Future Research and Policy Development Agenda ................... 67
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 69
APPENDICES ..................................................................................................................... 74
x
LIST OF APPENDECES
Appendix 1: Definitions of Terms ....................................................................................... 74
Appendix 2: Questionnaire for Data Collection ................................................................. 76
Appendix 3: Data table matrix............................................................................................. 81
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Settlement selection factor ranking score .............................................................. 24
Table 2: Sample size composition ....................................................................................... 26
Table 3: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents................................................ 27
Table 4: Population growth trend and density in Moshi Municipality ................................ 36
Table 5: Livelihood activities of residents in Msaranga settlement .................................... 47
Table 6: Trend of change in livelihood activities overtime ................................................. 49
Table 7: Negative effects of land use changes to livelihood activities ................................ 52
Table 8: Land use changes impacts’ and livelihood coping strategies ................................ 53
Table 9: Trend in average price of land plots in Msaranga settlement................................ 56
Table 10: Service provision adequacy in Msaranga settlement........................................... 58
Table 11: Respondents membership to social institutions................................................... 59
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................... 8
Figure 1: Urban growth models (Concentric, sector and multiple nuclei) .......................... 12
Figure 3: Theoretical framework ........................................................................................ 14
Figure 4: Location of Msaranga settlement in Moshi Municipality .................................... 23
Figure 5: Land use patterns in Msaranga settlement ........................................................... 40
Figure 6 : Alternative livelihood activities of residents in Msaranga.................................. 51
Figure 7: Migration status of residents ................................................................................ 54
Figure 8 : Land tenure status................................................................................................ 55
xiii
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 1: Spatial development of Moshi Municipality by 1992 ............................................ 43
Plate 2: Moshi Municipal land use density by 2003 ............................................................ 44
Plate 3: Moshi Municipality changing land use density by 2010 ........................................ 45
Plate 4: Current status of land use density in Msaranga ...................................................... 46
Plate 5: Construction activities that provide livelihood activities for youth........................ 52
xiv
ABBREVIATIONS
CBD : Central Business District
DAS : District Administrative Secretary
DFID : Department for International Development
GOT : Government of Tanzania
LUNA : Livelihoods, Urbanisation and Natural Resources in
Africa
MUWSA : Moshi Urban Water Supply Authority
RAS : Regional Administrative Secretary
SPSS : Statistical Package for Social Sciences
TZS : Tanzania Shillings
UNCHS : United Nations Centre for Human Settlements
URT : United Republic of Tanzania
xv
ABSTRACT
This study examines land use changes and its implications on livelihood activities of peri-
urban settlements in Msaranga, Moshi Municipality. Specifically; it analyses the historical
development of the settlement, her socioeconomic characteristics and land use changes
over time. Likely, it finds out existing livelihood activities and how have been changing
over time in the context of urbanisation and lastly highlights land use change implications
on livelihood activities to residents. Interviews, observations, documentary reviews and
mapping were data collection tools employed.
The study shows that Moshi and Msaranga settlement have developed since colonial era
with different socioeconomic characteristics include increase in population growth over
time and existence of different socioeconomic activities. The study shows that housing,
urban agriculture, roads infrastructure, recreational, open spaces and institutions are some
land use types existing in the settlement. On-farm and off-farm livelihood activities have
been identified in the settlement. These include crop cultivation, livestock keeping, trading
and formal employment and have been changing over time. However, urbanisation
observed to be catalyst of change and affect livelihood activities over time. Resorting to
off-farm livelihoods activities including engaging in retail business and seeking
employment in formal and informal sector are some coping strategies documented.
The study wind up by pointing roles of different actors and issues of particular attention to
different stakeholders towards reducing the impact of land use changes on livelihood
strategies in the settlement. The study concludes that the impact of land use changes on
livelihood activities need collaborative effort of different stakeholders as well as public
private partnership in cities where land use is rapidly changing over time.
1
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
Urbanisation in cities is inevitable in the development and economic growth processes.
The process is accompanied with changes in land use, population increase, and pressure on
services as well as environmental degradation in cities. Land use refers to different
functions designed to meet population demands including housing, agriculture,
institutional, recreational, open space, cemetery and other infrastructure utilities and
facilities (UNCHS, 2001; Magigi, 2013). Land use change takes into consideration the
changing of urban land functions which can be influenced by various factors including
uncontrolled urbanisation particularly in the context of change in urban population, land
markets, economic status of residents and land tenure system (Oduro, 2011; Schlesinger,
2013).
Peri-urban areas are the rural fringe areas surrounding cities having interface of rural and
urban activities and institutions (Mandere et al., 2010). These areas are in transitioning
between the urban and traditional landscapes as determined by daily commuting distance
to the Central Business District of the nearby city and or town (Narain and Nischal, 2007).
In this regard trend of urbanisation involves engulfing the peri-urban land and become part
and parcel of urban influence and jurisdiction. In fact, the peri-urban land is usually land
used for sustaining various community livelihoods, including farming and non-farming
activities. The trend of engulfing lead to loss of livelihood activities that local communities
depend. Paradoxically, other scholars argue that it provides positive benefits in terms of
accommodation and city service improvement (Van Asperen, 2011; Schlesinger, 2013).
2
In the process of urbanisation, city expansion usually engulfs the peri-urban land with little
integration of livelihood activities of residents in the city development conditions for
sustaining their lives (Oduro, 2011). Different policy and government interventions have
been put in place for provision of better infrastructure and livelihood opportunities for
peri-urban settlements in different countries. In the case of Tanzania, these include
formulation of Land Use Policy, Human Settlement Policy and Urban Planning Act. These
institutional interventions determine the choices that are opened to people to pursue their
livelihood strategies.
Thus, it has to be noted that urbanisation process is driven by market forces and
government policies that lead to simultaneous process of change in livelihoods, land use,
health and natural resources management including water, soil and forest. One may
wonder, what is happening to the livelihood activities with changes of land use patterns in
the context of urbanisation? Secondly, how do different planning institutions respond to
the changes and adaptive strategies towards improving livelihoods in peri-urban setting?
These key questions forms the direction of the study investigation with a view of finding
out the linkage between changes in land use in urbanisation processes, its effects on
livelihood activities and coping mechanisms adopted by residents in peri-urban
settlements. This study therefore aimed to document how land use changes overtime in the
city, particularly in peri-urban impacted on livelihood activities of residents and
understanding the coping strategies in place for learning and sharing experience.
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
Urban growth process needs land for expansion to accommodate urban excess population
and other land uses, including but not limited to Agriculture, housing, cemetery and
recreational. The process results in urban areas to engulf peri-urban settlements where her
residents are predominantly occupied in crop cultivation as the base for their livelihood
3
needs. Trends shows that the livelihood activities of these residents become forfeited in the
name of urban expansion in view to provision of better services for urban growth (Muinde,
2013; Daemane, 2012; and Van Asperen, 2011 and Tuladhar, 2009). In this regard the
study sought to understand the land use changes and its implications to livelihood activities
in peri-urban settings. It takes Msaranga settlement in the Moshi Municipality as a case
study towards contributing to policy and practical improvement in cities of Sub-Saharan
Africa.
1.3 Research Objectives
The study centered on understanding the implications of land use change on livelihood
activities in peri-urban settlements in urban growth processes. Specifically it:
i) Analyses socioeconomic characteristics of the settlement and land use changes
over time
ii) Find out the changes in livelihood activities over time in the settlement and
adaptive strategies in urbanisation processes
iii) Identify the implications of land use changes on livelihood coping strategies of
residents in the settlement
1.4 Research Questions
The study centered on addressing the following key questions:
i) What are the socioeconomic characteristics of the settlement and how land use
have been changing over time?
ii) How livelihood activities have been changing over time in the settlement and
what are the adaptive strategies of residents in urbanisation processes?
4
iii) What are the implications of land use changes on livelihood coping strategies
of residents in the settlement?
1.5 Study Significance and Limitations
This study was conducted in the context of urbanisation with the focus of investigating
land use changes and how it affects livelihood activities in peri-urban settlements. The
findings contribute to build the literature base on urbanisation processes in Sub-Saharan
Africa countries which poses different challenges, including those related to land use and
livelihood improvements in peri-urban settlement, Moshi inclusive. Likely, the findings
provide useful information to the policy makers, urban development planners and other
stakeholders interested in urban and economic development in urban development cycles.
Methodologically, this study relies on interviews, with relevant stakeholders, including
households, landholders, Town Planner, Ward and Sub-ward Executive Officer,
Community Development Officer and Elders. The interviews were designed to provide for
basic descriptive statistics about the trend of changes in livelihood activities and coping
strategies due to urbanisation processes in urban settings.
Moreover, mapping was deployed to trace the extent of land utilization in the settlement
and the observation was adapted to evidence the reality in the case study. Likely,
documentary reviews were adopted to analyse historical development of the settlement.
These methods have long played a role in better understanding the social and economic
context in which urbanisation takes place. In fact, for the most part, this study has
generally been at the household level, whereas it examined land use changes and its
implications on livelihood activities.
In undertaking this study, various drawbacks were encountered, including bureaucratic
procedures to obtain a research permit from the Local Government Authority in
5
Kilimanjaro region which required to pass through three steps. First an introductory letter
from the university was addressed to the Regional Administrative Secretary (RAS) who
directed the District Administrative Secretary (DAS) to write to the Moshi Municipal
Executive Director to grant a research permit for conducting a study in Msaranga
settlement. It took a researcher, three weeks to go through the above mentioned procedures
before embarking on data collection. Another limitation encountered include fear to some
of the respondents to show cooperation with the enumerators. Moreover, the language
barrier was experienced where most of the respondents used Kiswahili and questionnaires
were prepared in English.
To address the observed limitations the investigator did the following; following the late
provision of research permit need of data enumerators was necessary to collect data as fast
as possible. Thus three enumerators were recruited who were undertaking their
undergraduate studies at MUCCoBS and having a prior background of the study area. The
enumerators were trained and get acquainted with the terminologies used in data collection
tools. To avoid fear from some of the respondents, the investigator and enumerators made
a thorough introduction and briefing the respondents for the purpose of the study and
contacting the community leaders who introduced the enumerators to the residents during
the data collection process. To avoid the language barrier, the questionnaire was put in
simple and understandable language and clear interpretation of the terminologies was
made to enumerators.
1.6 Contributions of the Study and Report Structure
The contribution of the study spins on the theoretical, practical, and policy aspects of land
use changes and livelihood activities of residents in peri-urban settlements. It centered on a
better understanding of the trend of land use changes and how it affects livelihood
activities in peri-urban settlements. The study findings inform the policy makers, land use
6
planners and other stakeholders to understand how the livelihood activities of peri-urban
settlements are affected by trend of land use changes brought about by urbanisation and
coping strategies adopted by the residents. Moreover, the study contributes to form a basis
for literature on livelihood strategies adaptability in cities and provide areas for further
research agenda. The methodology deployed provides insights for further learning when
one wants to investigate the issues regarding land use changes processes and associated
implications on the livelihoods of peri-urban settlements.
This report is organized into five chapters. The first chapter provides the background of the
study phenomenon. It comprises an introduction, statement of the research problem,
research objectives and questions, significance of the study, report organization and the
contribution of the study. Chapter two centered on discussing the literature review. It
focuses on documenting concepts, theories, policy reviews and finally empirical reviews.
Chapter three dwells on describing the research methodology. It explains the study area
description and its selection, research design, sampling and sampling methods, data
collection methods and tools and lastly it presents data analysis techniques, interpretation
and analysis. Chapter four presents the research findings and discussions in relation to
research objectives. Chapter five highlights study reflection, implications to policy
development agenda, conclusion and recommendations.
7
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The previous chapter discusses the background of the study. This chapter documents the
state of the art of the study phenomenon by reviewing various scholars’ work. The review
of literature helps the author in understanding what has already been covered by other
researchers and identify gaps for further investigation. The chapter covers conceptual and
theoretical frameworks, policy reviews; and empirical case study reviews as described
below.
2.2 Conceptual Framework
A concept is a general idea derived or inferred from specific instances or occurrences
(Berg, 2009). In any scientific work defining key concepts is imperative to inform the
reader and avoid confusion with other fields in which a given concept might have been
used (Magigi, 2013). In this study three concepts, namely; land use changes, urbanisation,
livelihood activities, and peri-urban settlements found important to be defined. These
concepts clearly defined (Refer Appendix 1). The key variables of the study include land
use changes and urbanisation (independent) and livelihood activities (dependent). The first
comprises need to understand population increase, city expansion, and service
infrastructure provision as well as land markets. Likely, the socioeconomic characteristics
of the settlement was important to be explained. In regard to livelihood activities it
comprises analysis of on-farm and off-farm activities. The on-farm activities include crop
cultivation and off-farm activities comprise of trading, formal and informal employment in
different sectors (Figure 1).
8
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework
The interaction of the key variables; land use changes, urbanisation and livelihood
activities as illustrated in Figure 1 result in increased pressure on land to accommodate
land use demands for the increased population, social infrastructure provisions and city
expansion. The increased pressure on land result in land use changes in peri-urban areas
which include change in land scape and decline in agricultural land. This trend result in a
number of effects, including increased pressure on livelihood coping strategies, increased
decline in crop cultivation practices, increase in trading activities and residents to resort in
informal sector jobs. The ultimate result in interaction of dependent and dependent
variables in this context is sustained livelihood activities in the urban areas.
Sustained livelihood activities in urban areas
Livelihood Activities-Changes in On-farm andOff-farm activities Decline of crop
cultivation practices Increased trading
activities Formal & informal
sector employment-Coping strategies
Urbanisation Population increase
City expansion
Service Infrastructureprovision
Increased pressure onland markets
The key question is what happens to livelihood activities due to changes of land usepatterns and how do different planning institutions respond to the changes and adaptive
strategies towards improving livelihoods in peri-urban setting?
Land use changes inperi-urban area
-Changing land scape
-Decline ofagricultural land
9
2.3 Theory and Theoretical Framework
A theory can be defined as a general and more or less comprehensive set of statements or
propositions that describe different aspects of any phenomenon (Berg, 2009). Likely, can
be seen as an interrelated ideas about various patterns, concepts, processes, relationships,
or events. Theoretical framework refers to the structure of concepts which exists in the
literature, a ready-made map for the study (Ibid). The use of theory attempts to develop
explanations about reality or ways to classify and organize events, describe events, or even
predict future events (Berg, 2009). Towards understanding land use changes and how it
affects the livelihood activities of peri-urban settlements, a Conflict Theory was adopted as
described below.
2.3.1 Theory and models of urban growth
2.3.1.1 Conflict Theory
Conflict theory as developed by Karl Marx (1848), accentuates that social structures are
capable of producing within themselves the elements of their suppression and change.
Marx’s focus on the process of social change which holds in the process of transforming
nature and struggle to gain their livelihood needs, residents devise more powerful ways to
exploit their environment. Thus, livelihood activities in the context of urbanisation serve as
social processes that undergo transformation due to changes in land uses to sustain the
lives of peri-urban settlements. According to this theory, social change is not always an
adjusting process; rather a change that can be revolutionary, sudden and profound.
The theory asserts that changes result from internal conflicts and contradictions, which
include population pressure and invention of ideas. In this case the trend of land use
changes due to urbanisation processes result in changes in livelihood activities in the study
area (Msaranga) that can be investigated deploying the conflict theory in view of its
10
propositions that changes in structures and setting results into transformation in other
related phenomenon. In this regard, land use changes serves as a social transformation
phenomenon and livelihood activities of residents serves as the related phenomenon which
have been explored and reflected in this study (Refer chapter one and five).
Applying this theory in the context of urbanisation, it can be asserted that, the interplay of
land use changes as a result of population increases, demands for investment activities,
residential housing needs and service provision facilities create in peri-urban setting the
changes in livelihood activities are important (Campbell and Fainstein, 2011). It has to be
noted that advances in the infrastructure of transportation and information technology
make it possible for people to live at some distance from their downtown workplaces and
thus, establish a settlement in peri-urban areas. Moreover, differences of economic, social
and cultural characteristics between native communities and migrants ultimately influence
differences in livelihood activities and land ownership status.
Again, it can be deduced that, peri-urban population is the manifestation of urban-rural
interaction in terms of changes in economic activities and livelihoods activities. Adding to
the same theory, Agergaard et al. (2009) asserted other arguments for social change theory
that peri-urban settlements become a dynamic space in which on-farm and off-farm
livelihood activities co-exist. In this regard livelihood activities play pivotal roles in
providing livelihood needs of the residents undergoing various transformations studied.
2.3.1.2 Urban growth models
Land use changes in urbanisation context can be described using models of urban growth,
which describe the land use changes based on urban transformation processes. There are a
number of models used to explain city growth processes reflecting land use patterns and
livelihood activities. Among the models which have been widely used to explain urban
11
growth and change of land use are Concentric Zone Model developed by Burgess in the
1920s, Sector Model developed by Hoyt in 1939 and the Multiple Nuclei Model developed
by Harris and Ullman in 1945. Key assumptions and practical implications of the
mentioned models are discussed herein. These models have been adopted in this study to
provide a link on how land use changes can be predicted using the models and ultimately
determining the livelihood activities of the residents in different spheres of urban setting.
i) Concentric zone model
This was among the early descriptions of urban form based on American cities. Its
assumptions were based on early developments observed in American cities and its
application in cities of other nations was questionable. According to Burgess (1920) the
concentric zone model depicts the use of urban land as a set of concentric rings with each
ring devoted to a different land use (Figure 1). According to him, major routes of
transportation emanated from the city’s core, making the Central Business District (CBD)
the most accessible location in the city. In this regard Burgess identified five rings of land
use that would form around the CBD. These rings were originally defined as the (1) central
business district, (2) zone of transition, (3) zone of independent workers’ homes, (4) zone
of better residences and (5) zone of commuters (Figure 2).
Moreover, the assumptions of the model asserted that as the city grew and developed over
time, the CBD would exert pressure on the zone immediately surrounding it (the zone of
transition). Thus, outward expansion of the CBD would invade nearby residential
neighbourhoods causing them to expand outward. The process was thought to continue
with each successive neighbourhood moving further from the CBD. He suggested that
inner-city housing was largely occupied by immigrants and households with low
socioeconomic status. As the city grew and the CBD expanded outward, lower status
12
residents moved to adjacent neighbourhoods, and more prosperous residents moved further
from the CBD.
ii) Sector model
This was the modification of concentric zone model made by Hoyt (1939) based on his
observations that lower income households were found to live in proximity to railroad
lines and commercial establishments were found to be along then roads. Thus, in 1939,
Hoyt modified the concentric zone model to account for major transportation routes. In
this regard it was presumed that cities would tend to grow in wedge-shaped patterns, or
sectors, emanating from the CBD and centered on major transportation routes. Moreover,
it was affirmed that many commercial functions would remain in the CBD, but
manufacturing activity would develop in a wedge surrounding transport route.
Source: Adopted from Park et al. (1925); Hoyt (1939); and Harris and Ullman, (1945).
Figure 2: Urban growth models (Concentric, sector and multiple nuclei)
13
Land use patterns in these models have been asserted, that would grow in wedge-shaped
patterns. Sector of lower-income households would border the manufacturing/
warehousing sector (traffic, noise and pollution, making these less desirable locations to
live). Moreover, sectors of middle- and higher-income households located away from
industrial sites.
Based on the assumptions of Hoyt's sector model it can be realized that it is simply a
concentric zone model modified to account for the impact of transportation systems on
accessibility. Example: Cities growing in the era of rapid transportation systems
technology.
iii) Multiple nuclei model
This model was developed by Harris and Ullman in 1945 based on their observations that
many cities did not fit the traditional concentric zone or sector model. This was due to the
fact that cities of greater size developed substantial suburban areas which reached
significant to the extent that they functioned like smaller business districts. Following
these observations, Harris and Ullman suggested that these smaller business districts acted
as satellite nodes, or nuclei, of activity around which land use patterns formed. Moreover,
they suggested that specialized cells of activity would develop according to the specific
requirements of certain activities, different rent paying abilities, and the tendency for some
kinds of economic activity to cluster together. Still at the centre of their model is the CBD
with light manufacturing and wholesaling located along transport routes. They further
presumed that heavy industry was thought to locate near the outer edge of the city, perhaps
surrounded by lower-income households, and suburbs of commuters and smaller service
centres would occupy the urban periphery.
14
The urban growth models discussed, though they were developed during the early years
when cities of developed countries were advancing. The question is whether these models
hold the truth in the current trend of urban development in Sub-Saharan countries.
2.3.2 Theoretical framework
The theoretical framework has been derived by integrating the conflict theory, urban
growth models and conceptual framework with urbanisation playing a central role. In this
regard, the livelihood activities in peri-urban areas faces various opportunities and
challenges. The theory and models raise more questions about the effects of land use
changes and livelihood mitigation strategies of local communities in peri-urban settlement.
The variables from the theoretical understanding form a base for a theoretical framework
as presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Theoretical framework
Livelihood activities-On-farm activities-Off-farm activities-Formal and informalemployment
Structure, System andProcesses-Policy & legislativeprocedures
-Population trend-Land use change-City expansion
Sustainedurban growthand improved
livelihoodactivities
Conflict Theory-Political influence-Effects of land use changes in livelihood activities-Economic and Social processes in the community
Urban Growth Models
Concentric Zone Model Sector Model Multiple Nuclei Model
15
2.4 Policy Reviews
This section reviews various policies and legislations in view to land use changes in
urbanisation context. Various policies, including National Land Policy, Human Settlement
Policy, and Urban Planning Act No. 8 of 2007 have been reviewed to see policy statements
which support proper land use functions and the need to sustain livelihood strategies for
enhanced living standard of residents in peri-urban setting. These are described in this
section;
2.4.1 National land policy, 1995
One of the challenges facing a rapidly urbanizing country like Tanzania is the provision of
planned land for orderly urban development. Recognizing that land is a necessary resource
for sustaining the livelihood needs of most residents, Tanzania National Land Policy
asserts that;
“While urbanization is inevitable and desirable for the development of Tanzania,
the impacts of uncontrolled expansion of towns, particularly the encroachment
upon productive rural agricultural and pasture lands is not desirable” (Section
6.1.1) (URT, 1995).
The policy puts more emphasis protection of agricultural land in peri-urban areas. For
example, in policy statement states;
“Urban land use and development plans will aim at more intensive use of urban
land” (Section 6.1.2) (URT, 1995).
From the policy statement the Government is committed to making sure that land use in
urbanisation processes should consider the livelihood activities of residents in peri-urban
settlements but hardly achieved in practice.
16
2.4.2 Human settlement policy
Settlements in peri-urban areas are characterized by low income earning and access to
costly residential areas is limited by their levels of income. Towards enhancing proper
allocation of residential areas the Human settlement policy statements provide that,
“The government will ensure timely planning, surveying, and servicing of land ripe
for urban development in the peripheries of all towns so as to prevent
haphazard/unplanned development. Hence, increased availability of planned and
serviced plots shall render the formulation and execution of special site and service
projects in selected urban areas” (Section 4.1.4.2 (IV)) (URT, 2002).
Moreover the policy states that,
“The government shall designate special areas for low income groups. These shall
be provided with a minimum level of services which the residents and beneficiaries
can afford” (Section 4.1.4.2 (VI)) (URT, 2002)
The policy provides tangible efforts to ensure planned and serviced settlements in peri-
urban settlements and it recognizes the need of low income earners and necessity of
allocating land for settlement establishment of these residents. Research findings confirm
that the situation in peri-urban areas of Moshi Municipality is contrary to the declaration of
policy statements.
2.4.3 Urban planning Act No. 8 of 2007
This Act provides for the orderly and sustainable development of land in urban areas. In
view of this broad objective, the Act provides that, the objective of urban planning to
which all persons and authorities exercising powers under, applying or interpreting this
Act shall be among others to; facilitate the establishment of a framework for prevention of
17
land use conflicts (URT, 2007). Other objectives include promoting sustainable land use
practices; empower landholders and users, to make better and more productive use of their
land. Likely, ensure public participation in the preparation and implementation of land use
policies and plans (URT, 2007). Among the notable weaknesses in the implementation of
this act is how to involve citizens in the preparation of land use plans, particularly in areas
that require urban boundary extension where the nearby settlements are engulfed into the
urban zone of influence.
2.5 Empirical Reviews
2.5.1 Case study one: Urbanisation and land use dynamics in peri-urban
settlements in Ghana
Tuladhar et al. (2009) documents this case which centered on investigating how land use
dynamics in Ghana meets the dynamic need of the modern life in peri-urban areas. The
case shows that rapid urbanisation has led to immigration and increased private ownership
of land plots that jeopardizes the livelihood needs and activities in the Tamale settlement.
The study deployed in-depth interviews and focus group discussions in exploring the case
where some methodological constraints were encountered.
Among the constraints noted in peri-urban areas of Tamale, Ghana include lack of
incorporation of urban planning authorities who could provide the extent to which private
land owners have acquired land. Farmers in peri-urban areas lose their land to chiefs who
allocate farmlands to settlers without compensation. In order to protect their legitimate
interest, these farmers sell their farmlands to other people, resulting in a struggle and
contestation between these indigenous and their chiefs.
18
2.5.2 Case study two: Effects of urban growth on livelihoods in Ntinda settlement,
Kampala Uganda
Muinde (2013) documents this case and identified key issues pertaining to land allocations
and livelihood base of local communities in peri-urban settlements in Uganda. From the
case study it can be learnt that in the urbanisation processes residents are reluctant to
address their livelihood needs, particularly to government planning officials who allocate
the area to land developers.
The case encountered methodological constraints to gather data from planning authorities
since there were no proper tools deployed to explore data from city planners as to why
people are reluctant to participate in the planning of the area and allocate the land for
urban agriculture. Among the challenges encountered in this study was the difficulties to
get data since most residents live in gated houses. The case reported existence of conflicts
among peri-urban populations and urban planners in the course of planning the area for
better urban infrastructure development.
2.5.3 Case study three: Dynamics of land-use changes in peri-urban settlements of
Brazil
Van Asperen (2011) documents this case with the central objective of evaluating the ways
in which people in peri-urban areas access legal and institutional framework for enhancing
access to legal procedures for formalizing land ownership. The case shows that in peri-
urban areas of Sao Paulo just like other peri-urban areas, accessibility of legal services in
local government authorities is constrained by number of stumbling blocks like persistence
of corrupt leaders.
The case study revealed that low income earning people in peri-urban areas of Sao Paulo
have lower access to formalized and serviced land plots compared to the well-off
19
households. Wealthy people who are better informed have easier access to institutional
procedures for formalizing their land. The challenges observed from this case are the
cumbersome procedures for acquiring official tittle deeds in local authorities due to
increased bureaucracies.
2.5.4 Case study four: Settlement dynamics in peri-urban Maseru, Lesotho
Daemane (2012) documents this case specifically, it centered in exploring how local chiefs
are involved in enhancing productions processes and the provision of land as basic
livelihood. The case revealed that prior to enactment of Land Act of 2009 local chiefs was
responsible for land allocation in collaboration with land use planners in urban areas. It
provides that due to fear of expropriation by the emerging capitalist classes in the face of
rapid urbanisation, ordinary citizens have sold their fields to wealthy people and they are
then congested in peri-urban unplanned settlements. The case deployed field survey using
interview to key informants, but lack of in-depth interview to household, the case did not
explore clearly how the change in land use affects the livelihood strategies of peri-urban
populations. Among the challenges encountered that need more studies to be done was
lack of knowledge and understanding on the side of citizens about the process of statutory
land tenure system and its benefits to livelihood opportunities.
2.5.5 Summary and research gap
From the case studies reviewed it has revealed that livelihood activities in peri-urban
settlements is under intense pressure due to increased need of land for better urban
infrastructure provision and demands for urban expansion. The urbanisation process in
different case studies reviewed revealed presence opportunities and challenges in peri-
urban settlements towards sustaining the livelihood activities of the city residents. From
the empirical reviews the key questions raised include; what is happening to the livelihood
20
activities in view to changes of land use patterns in the context of urbanisation process?
How do different planning institutions respond to the changes and adaptive strategies
towards improving livelihoods in peri-urban setting? These key questions forms the
direction of the study investigation with a view of finding out the linkage between changes
in land use in urbanisation processes, its effects on livelihood activities and coping
mechanisms adopted by residents in peri-urban settlements.
21
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The previous chapter discussed the literature review of this study. This chapter discusses
the methodology deployed towards assessing the evidence of the study phenomenon. It
covers the study area description and criteria for its selection, research design, sampling
and sampling type. Likely, it presents data collection techniques, tools and administration,
data analysis and interpretation techniques deployed.
3.2 Research Design and its Rationale
According to Yin (2003), a research design is the logical sequence that connects the
empirical data of the research questions to its conclusions. He clarified that a research
design is a plan that guides the investigator in the process of collecting, analysing and
interpreting data. He argues on different types of research designs, namely surveys,
experiments, archival, case study, cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. The choice of a
certain research design depends on the type of research questions, investigator’s control
over actual behavioural events and degree of focus on contemporary events (Yin, 2003).
This study deployed a case study design complemented by archival research design for its
investigation. As a research design the distinguishing characteristic of the case study is that
it attempts to examine the contemporary phenomenon in its real life context. Yin (2003)
states that case studies become particularly useful when one seeks to understand some
particular problem or situation in great depth and where one can identify cases rich in
information. It is rich in the sense that, a lot can be learned from few exemplars on the
phenomena in question.
22
More reasons for the choice of case study were its suitability as it sought to understand
issues in their specific settings since the study concerns livelihood activities and
communities at a specific location in the urban area. The study involved a single case
study in peri-urban settings of Moshi Municipality i.e. Msaranga settlement that has its
unique features, which strengthen the validity of the findings of the study (Yin, 2008).
Finally, another reason for the use of case study design is its ability to use multiple data
sources. It increases the confidence of the researcher in the reliability of the data collected
as interviews are supplemented with observations, documentary and other data sources for
triangulation.
Archival research designs include a broad range of activities applied to facilitate the
investigation of documents and textual materials produced by and about organizations. In
its most classic sense, archival methods are those that involve the study of historical
documents; that is, documents created at some point in the relatively distant past. The
reasons for deploying archival design in this study were its ability to provide access to
events happened in the early years of settlement development. Also archival data provide
discreet measures of process for the study of contemporary organizations and important
means of access in historical investigations (for the reason that archival materials are
among the few resources available for learning about past events).
3.3 Study Area Description and its Selection
The study was carried out in Msaranga settlement found in Moshi Municipality,
Kilimanjaro (Figure 4). Msaranga settlement is among the 21 wards within Moshi
Municipality where its residents engage in different economic activities to earn their
living. These activities are; crop cultivation mainly maize, beans, banana and vegetables.
Other activities include domestic livestock keeping, petty trade, formal employment and
23
casual employment. These bundles of activities form the base of livelihood and sources of
income to the residents in Msaranga settlement.
The settlement had a total population of 7,699 residents where male are 3,760 and female
are 3,939 (URT, 2013). The average household size is 4.4 persons which is lower than the
national average of 4.8 persons per household, but greater than the municipality average
household size of 4.0 persons per household. This indicates challenges at household level
in terms of land scarcity and food security in peri-urban settlements. The settlement
population forms 4.2% of the total population of the Moshi municipality of 184,292
residents (URT, 2013).
Msaranga settlement was selected as the case study from various criteria established in
collaboration with Town planners, land surveyors and community development officers in
Moshi municipality. Four settlements were identified and ranked based on criteria and out
of which the settlement scored highest marks was selected (Table 1). The criteria include;
settlement accessibility, existence of newly constructed buildings in areas which were
previously used for agriculture and other land based livelihood supportive activities. The
existence of on-farm and off-farm livelihood activities were another criteria. Settlements
identified in collaboration with community development officers and land use planners in
Moshi Municipality were Longuo, Njoro, Msaranga and Rau (Table 1).
Msaranga settlementSource: Moshi Investment Profile (2008)
Figure 4: Location of Msaranga settlement in Moshi Municipality
24
Table 1: Settlement selection factor ranking score
IdentifiedSettlement Total
Scores
Accessibility Newly constructedbuildings formigrants
Existence of on-farm andoff-farm livelihoodactivities
Msaranga 50 50 30 130Njoro 50 30 20 100Rau 50 30 20 100Longuo 50 20 20 90
NB: 50 Score = Very high, 30 Score =Moderate and 20 Score =LowSource: Author’s construction (2014)
The purpose in this context was not to establish random sites, but to draw a case whose
characteristics or circumstances were relevant to the phenomenon being studied (Mays and
Pope, 1995). This approach allowed the investigation to include issues and informants who
were important sources of knowledge sharing and as such information to make the study
relevant.
3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques
Sampling can defined as the process of selecting a few (a sample) from a bigger group (the
sampling population) to be the basis for estimating or predicting the study phenomenon
(Kumar, 2005). The sampling frame is a list of all the members of a population from which
a sample may be drawn (Mugenda and Mugenda, 1999). Sample frame for this study
comprised of Heads of households; Ward and Sub-ward leaders; Town Planner and
Community Development Officers (Table 2). Likely, elders as key informants were
approached to provide the settlement history, land use development patterns and their
future perceptions on prevailing situation of livelihood activities in Msaranga.
3.4.1 Sampling frame
The study population was composed of community leaders and heads of households.
Elderly individuals above 65 years of age, who were believed to be an important
resource for the historical changes in the community comprised the key informants
25
and provided valuable information on perceived land use changes and livelihood
activities changes over time. In addition, Government Officers (i.e., Town planner, land
use planners, community development workers and ward and Sub-ward (Mtaa) executive
officers) also provided relevant information in their areas of jurisdictions previously
explained.
3.4.2 Sampling techniques
A combination of purposeful and stratified sampling were deployed to explore the case.
Purposeful sampling was adopted to reach the elders in the settlement, town planner, land
surveyors and community development officers as key informants. Stratified sampling was
deployed for the household interviews where heads of households were selected to explore
livelihood activities and coping mechanisms adopted in the changing land use context.
3.4.3 Sample size and characteristics of respondents
In determining the sample size, the basic rule is "the larger the sample, the better" (Leedy,
1984) subject of course to timeframe, cost and human resource constraints. The sample
size of the study population was considered to study a small population to have an in-depth
insight of the study phenomena which depicted the reality to provide lessons of experience
to others for learning. Single settlement was examined with a total of 1750 households
(URT, 2013). Using Slovene’s formula;
(n = N / (1 + Ne2): where n = Number of samples, N = Total population and
e = Error tolerance
Where: N =1750 households, e = 0.05; thus sample size can be calculated as shown here
below:
26
N = 1750 / (1+1750*0.052) =326 households
A total of 346 respondents were approached comprised of 326 heads of households,
community leaders and others as previously stated (Table 2). The sample size considered
residents in the settlement where land use changes are prevalent and understanding the
process and its implication on the livelihoods of peri-urban settlements is imperative.
Table 2: Sample size composition
Target population Category Number of RespondentsMale Female
Landholders andtenants
Heads of households 102 224
Land use planners 1 Town planner 1Land use planners 1 1Community developmentOfficer
1
Ward and sub-wardleaders
1 Sub-ward leader, 1 WEO, 4Hamlet leaders
3 3
Key informants Elders 6 4Total 113 233
The socio-demographic characteristics of respondents are presented in Table 3. Among the
interviewed respondents in the household survey, male were 102 (31.25%) and female
were 224 (68.75%). Land ownership status shows that 57 (17.5%) were tenants and 269
(82.5%) were house owners. With regard to education levels, 147 (45%) had attained
primary education, 98 (30%) had attained secondary education (ordinary level), 45
(13.75%) had attained advanced secondary education level while 36 (11.25%) had been to
college education in different areas of specialization. The migration status indicates that
122 (37.5%) were natives in Msaranga settlement while 204 (62.5%) were migrants from
different locations (Table 3).
Socio-demographic characteristics indicate that most respondents in household survey
were women. This was due to the fact that the interview was conducted in day hours while
27
most men are at work. In most cases the wives were left at home as most of them seem not
to be employed and they depend on casual labour. The increased migration trend into the
settlement has resulted in having a large proportion of migrants rather than natives.
Table 3: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
Character Variable Frequency (n=326) Percentage (%)Sex Male 102 31.25
Female 224 68.75Land ownership status Tenant 57 17.5
House owner 269 82.5Education level Primary 147 45
Secondary 98 30Advancedsecondary 45 13.75College 36 11.25
Migration status Native 122 37.5Migrant 204 62.5
3.5 Data Triangulation, Validity and Reliability
Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) define data triangulation as multiple data collection
techniques designed to measure a single concept or construct. According to Fredricks
(2006) data are triangulated to help answering research questions set, enhancing validity in
case studies and to reach conclusions on the most effective interventions and innovations
that can be implemented. To ensure triangulation, this study deployed a multiple data
collection techniques and tools which confirmed the study. These techniques include
interviews administered through questionnaires, mapping, observation and documentary
reviews as discussed in section 3.6.2 and summarized in the data table matrix (Refer Table
4).
Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results.
Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is supposed to measure. To ensure
reliability, prior to data collection exercise, a field work pre-testing was conducted to test
28
data collection tools. Paradoxically, questionnaires were prepared based on the objectives
of the study using a simple, understandable language and translated into Kiswahili
(National language) to the respondents and subjected to the review by supervisor. The use
of case study and archival designs provided a room for using multiple data collection
methods to ensure validity of the data collected.
Prior to data collection in the case study area, a pilot study was conducted for three days
administered through questionnaires. The aim was to confirm the validity and reliability of
the data collection tools and make necessary adjustments where the tools did not provide
intended output. The field work pre-testing of the data collection tools indicated that some
of the questions were not well understood to respondents, thus a review was made subject
to the approval by the supervisor.
3.6 Data Types, Sources, Collection Methods and Administration
3.6.1 Data types and sources
Data collected were based on the research objectives, questions, and key variables
identified. Three objectives were formulated; the first objective centered on analyzing
socioeconomic characteristics of the settlement and land use changes over time. Data on
the establishment of the settlement, demographic trends and socioeconomic characteristics
of the settlement were documented. Moreover, data on land use patterns and changes
overtime in the case study area were documented as portrayed in the conceptual
framework (Figure 1), theoretical framework (Figure 2) and data table matrix (Appendix
3). The second objective centered on finding out the changes in livelihood activities over
time in the settlement and adaptive strategies in urbanisation processes Data on different
types of livelihood activities (on-farm and off-farm) were collected and the trend of change
over time was considered as depicted in the conceptual framework (Figure 1), theoretical
framework (Figure 2) and data table matrix (Appendix 3).
29
The third objective identified the implications of land use changes on livelihood coping
strategies of residents in the settlement Data on positive and negative effects of
urbanisation in livelihood activities, trend in changes of agricultural land, mitigation
measures for enhancing livelihood strategies and service provision adequacy were
gathered as illustrated in the conceptual framework (Figure 1), theoretical framework
(Figure 2) and data table matrix (Appendix 3).
3.6.2 Techniques and tools for data collection
This entails techniques and ways in which different methods and tools in field inquiry are
organized towards understanding the study phenomena (Nachimias & Nachimias, 1996).
To assess the evidence of the study phenomenon the following tools were deployed for
data collection.
3.6.2.1 Interviews
This is a method of collecting data that involve the presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and
reply in terms of oral-verbal responses (Kothari, 2004). There are three types of interview,
namely, structured, unstructured and semi-structured. Structured involves the use of set of
prepared questions known as an interview checklist to guide the interviewer while semi-
structured, involves the use of checklists and other probing questions according to the
responses of the interviewee. Likely, unstructured encompasses the conversation between
interviewee and interviewer with little or no guiding questions except the theme under
investigation.
Being an explanatory study in nature, semi-structured interviews were deployed for data
collection. Explanatory studies seek to find answers for a causal relationship of study
variables for instance, how variable A affect variable B over a certain period of time. In
this case, therefore the trend to which land use changes affect the livelihood activities of
30
residents in peri-urban settlement forms explanatory nature of the study. The
questionnaires used were developed by the researcher from the review of the literature, and
related to the research problems. The literature review provided the issues the researcher
needed to investigate. In order to avoid bias related to the questionnaire's design, they were
subjected to review by a supervisor and fieldwork pre-testing. The objectives were;
i) To ensure that the questions touched on all the relevant issues of the research and
thus avoid the inclusion of irrelevant questions.
ii) To achieve clarity, language (as there were translations of technical terms), and
agreement on the meaning of terms. For example, it was easier for respondents
provide livelihood activities which were then organized into related categories.
iii) To establish the correct order of questions and layout of the questionnaires in
general.
In fieldwork pre-testing of the tools, twelve questionnaires were randomly tested during
the pilot study in the case study area. The field work pre-testing indicated that due to the
nature of economic activities in the area communities preferred to be interviewed in the
morning than later in the afternoon when they would be tired and less attentive. The pre-
testing also gave the opportunity for standard translated key words to be agreed onto avoid
vague answers. Thus, the pre-testing and reviews of the questionnaires enabled the
necessary adjustments to be made to questionnaires before the fieldwork was undertaken.
3.6.2.2 Observation
The classic form of data collection in naturalistic or field research is observation of
participants in the context of a natural scene. Observational data were used for the purpose
of description of settings, activities, people, and the meanings of what is observed from the
perspective of the participants. Observation leads to a deeper understanding than
31
interviews alone, because it provides knowledge of the context in which events occur. It
enables the researcher to see things that the participants themselves are not aware of, or
that they are unwilling to discuss (Patton, 1990). Thus, it was physically possible to see the
state of livelihood strategies in the communities and clarify issues with residents and state
agencies concerned using a personal observation approach where photos were taken to
evidence the case.
3.6.2.3 Mapping
In this context satellite images were obtained and used as a tool to determine spatial land
use changes in the study settlement. The satellite images helped to trace the land
development pattern and reality to allow more insight on the historical development of the
settlement, space utilization and population density trends and changes as discussed in
chapter four.
3.6.2.4 Documentary review
This was used in secondary data collection that involved intensive literature review.
Documents reviewed were Environmental Profile of Moshi Municipality, urban growth
models, municipal crop production reports and Kilimanjaro Region socioeconomic profile
to complement with primary data. Others include policy and empirical cases as presented
in Chapter Two. The review of these documents provided a picture of livelihood activities
and formed a base for comparing with practical realities in Msaranga settlement.
3.6.3 Data administration
Data administration is the process by which data are collected, monitored, maintained and
managed by an investigator. Data administration allows an investigator to control data sets,
as well as analysis. Data administration in this context ensured the entire research process
continues as per set objective. Prior to field work a permit to collect data in the case study
32
area was provided by the Regional Administrative Secretary (RAS) where a letter from the
MUCCoBS principle addressing the purpose of the study was sent to RAS who then
ordered the District Administrative Secretary (DAS) in Moshi to write a letter to Moshi
Municipality Executive Director to grant a permit to undertake a research in Msaranga
settlement. It took a researcher a period of three weeks to make follow up towards
obtaining a research permit due to increased bureaucracies within local government
authorities. The data collection process was undertaken during March 2014.
The processes of data collection were monitored by the researcher and prior to embarking
on data collection a fieldwork pre-testing was done to test the data collection tools.
Interviews were administered systematically and data were organized and managed
properly using relevant tools for storing data including recorders, notebook and
photographs.
3.7 Unit of Analysis
Unit of analysis refers to those elements that an investigator initially describe for the
purpose of aggregating their characteristics in order to describe some larger group or
abstract phenomenon (Mugenda and Mugenda, 1999). Equally important, Higson et al.
(1995) defines widely a unit of analysis. They show that it is the person or unit from which
the social researcher collects data. They added that, data from such a unit can only describe
that unit, but when combined with similar data collected from a group of similar units,
provide an accurate picture of the group to which the unit belongs. In the context of this
study, therefore; land holders, heads of households, elders, and ward and community
leaders in Msaranga, Town Planner served as a unit of analysis from which data were
gathered and therein followed by analysis. Landholders were considered important since
they are directly involved in land markets in the urbanisation processes and they are
changing livelihood activities.
33
3.8 Data Analysis and Interpretation
The purpose of the data analysis and interpretation phase is to transform the data collected
into credible evidence about the study phenomenon and provide a room for further
discussion (ICAP, 2011). Data analysis is a process in which raw data is ordered and
organized so that useful information can be extracted from it. The process of organizing
and thinking about data was key to understanding what the data contained and did not
contain.
3.8.1 Nature of data collected
The study collected data in two forms; quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data
were obtained in closed ended survey questions which were then transcribed into
numerical quantities. Qualitative data were in the form of narratives obtained from key
informants and direct quotes were used to present the results.
3.8.2 Data analysis approach and measurement scales
Data were analysed using qualitative and quantitative approaches. Quantitative approach
was applied to analyse data collected and stored in numerical values. The analysis of
quantitative data was through the use of SPSS computer software version 20. Several steps
were adopted during the SPSS process;
i) First data were organized into related themes,
ii) Secondly ordinal and nominal scale was assigned to the entries. Nominal data were
assigned a scale with no unit of measurement like number of respondents answered
a certain question, ordinal scale was assigned to data having unit of measurement
including size of land in hectares and price of land in Tanzanian Shillings (TZs).
iii) Then, nominal and ordinal data were coded into a software program in accordance
with the study variables.
34
iv) The entries were matched with a number of observations and entered into coded
variables.
v) Finally the analysis of coded data was done.
Qualitative approach was applied to analyse non-numerical data which were analysed by
compiling and categorizing the responses into related themes as illustrated in the data table
matrix (Table 4). The key themes include perceived implications of land use changes and
livelihood adaptive strategies. The categories were formulated on the basis of the different
themes of the study. Finally, data were analysed using narratives obtained from key
informants.
3.8.3 Data interpretation and presentation
Data interpretation is the synthesis of scientific measurements and observations to develop
evidence for answering research questions or testing hypothesis (Kumar, 2005). Data
interpretation is necessary as it transforms analysed data into credible evidence. In this
context, therefore data interpretation was an ongoing process to draw inferences from the
data collected. The interpretation was based on themes to draw conclusions, policy and
practical implications for policy makers and interested stakeholders in urban development
and community economic planning. The results of the analysis were presented using
frequency tables, figures, percentages for quantitative data and narratives and quotes for
qualitative data.
35
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Introduction
The previous chapter has discussed how the study was carried out. This chapter presents
the findings and discussions of the study. It presents; historical development of the
settlement and socioeconomic characteristics, land use patterns and changes over time in
the settlement. It discusses existing livelihood activities and how have been changing over
time in the context of urbanisation and lastly, it highlights land use changes implications’
to livelihood activities and adaptive strategies in the settlement.
4.2 Historical Development and Socioeconomic Characteristics
4.2.1 Historical development of the study area
Moshi was originally established as a military camp at Kolila in the present-day Old Moshi
Division of Moshi District Council in 1892 (Moshi Environmental Profile, 2008). It was
moved to the present location in the year 1911 following extension of the railway line from
Tanga to Arusha City in Tanzania. The town grew during British rule and was designated
the administrative headquarters of the Moshi District of the Northern Province and a
Township Authority in 1926.
In 1956, it attained the status of a Town Council with an area of approximately 23 sq.km.
This status remained in force until 1972 when the local government system was abolished
to foster rural development and move decision-making powers from the National Capital,
Dar es Salaam to regions and districts. The drastic change led to the enactment of “The
Decentralization of Government Administration (Interim Provisions) Act, 1972. The
Local government system was later resuscitated through enactment of “The Urban
Councils (Interim Provision) Act 1978” and the Local Government (District Authorities)
36
Act 1982”. The boundaries of the town were extended in 1979 to reach roughly 58 square
kilometres and the town was designated a Municipal Council in 1988.
Msaranga settlement is a peri-urban settlement located 6 kilometres from the Moshi urban
centre. Before 2009, the settlement was one ward together with the current Ng’ambo ward,
but in 2009, the wards were separated for the purpose of enhancing social service
provision and therein, Msaranga came into existence.
4.2.2 Socioeconomic characteristics
Population data gathered from National population census reports show that Moshi
Municipality population has increased from 26,864 persons in 1967; 52,042 persons in
1978; 98,838 persons in 1988; 144,336 in 2002 and 184,292 in 2012. With a land area of
58 sq. km. the population density has increased from 926 persons per sq.km. in 1967; 1795
persons per sq.km in 1978; 3339 persons per sq.km in 1988; 4977 persons per sq.km in
2002; and 6355 persons per sq. km. in 2012. In the case study area (Msaranga settlement)
the population data available are those from 2002 to 2012 which show that population size
has increased from 4863 in 2002 persons to 7699 persons in 2012 (URT, 2013). With a
land area of 17 square kilometres, population density in Msaranga settlement has increased
from 286 persons per sq. km. in 2002 to 452 persons per square kilometre (Table 4).
The population growth rate in Moshi municipality is growing at 1.8 percent per annum and
the urbanisation rate is growing at 4.1 percent per annum compared to the national growth
rate of 2.7 percent per annum and urbanisation rate of 5 percent per annum (URT, 2013).
This population increase imposes different challenges in terms of land accessibility, land
transactions and livelihood activities of residents in the settlement.
Table 4: Population growth trend and density in Moshi Municipality
37
Year Moshi Municipal Msaranga settlementPopulation Size P.D Population Size P.D
1967 26,864 926 - -1978 52,046 1,795 - -1988 96,838 3,339 - -2002 144,336 4,977 4,863 2862012 184,292 6,355 7,699 452
Source: URT (1967, 1978, 1988, 2002, 2012); Msaranga Ward Report (2013) NB: P.D =Population Density
Msaranga settlement has a total of 7,699 residents, among them male are 3,760 and female
are 3,939 (URT, 2013). The settlement has a total of 1750 households and the average
household size is 4.4 persons per household. The settlement exhibits a wide range of
socioeconomic activities such as petty trading, formal and informal employment, casual
labour and agricultural activities. The settlement has two public primary schools which
provide primary education to children within the settlement. Moreover, there are two
public secondary schools that provide secondary education to pupils who pass at primary
level, but it also provide secondary education to students outside the settlement.
Health services are provided by one health centre located in the settlement. The health
centre has two nurses and one assistant medical officer who are not enough to serve the
whole population in the settlement comprising of 7,699 residents. Moreover, the
dispensary has no facilities for patient resting which requires the patients to go to other
hospitals, particularly Mawenzi hospital and other private health care providers located in
the city centre where again the number of patients is high.
Water supply in the settlement is the task of Moshi Urban Water and Sewerage Authority.
The main sources of water to residents in Msaranga include piped water into residence,
public water taps, wells, water from a stream and rain water. At least 60% of the settlement
is covered by piped water lines, but the challenge remains at the individual level where
38
some residents complained that they do not have the capacity to pay for water connections
at home.
Access to commodity market, particularly for domestic needs is crucial in any settlement.
The situation in Msaranga is contrary, where there is no centralized market instead people
have established retail shops in their residential areas for selling necessity goods like food
products and other basic requirements. Because the settlement is located not far away from
the city centre, most residents commute to buy their needs at the market centre in town.
There are community organizations ranging from informal groups to formal or registered
institutions like Village Community Banks (VICOBA) that provide a room for residents to
have access to financial services. Moreover, there are self-help groups initiated by
residents that help them to get immediate support in times of crises like water fire break
outs and other emergencies. Existence of migrants has led to establishment of tribal
associations which fall under the category of self-help groups in the community. Currently
data from the Ward Executive Officer revealed that there are approximately 20 self-help
groups in the settlement. Apart from the associations established by the community
themselves, there are NGOs working in the settlement running different projects. Among
the project include TUSONGE Community Economic Development (TUSONGE-CED)
that provides training on entrepreneurship to women, a project initiated in 2012.
Transport infrastructure facilities revealed that, the settlement is linked to the main road
with a rough road which extends to the residential areas in the community. The road
network is not easily passable during the rainy season as it is the rough road which lacks
periodic maintenance. As a result of this situation, most residents depend on motorcycle
for transport to the main road which is the source of income for most of the youth in the
settlement.
39
In the settlement energy is used for domestic, commercial, institutional and industrial
purposes. The types of energy commonly used for domestic are charcoal, firewood and
electricity. Few use gas, biogas and solar. Many households (52%) use electricity for
lighting. More than 70% of the households use Charcoal and firewood for cooking (Moshi
Environmental Profile, 2008). Forests are sources of firewood and charcoal that are used
for domestic and small scale enterprise activities.
In Msaranga settlement, agriculture is practiced mostly by residents in sparsely dominated
areas as an alternative source of income. The residents are engaged in horticulture and zero
grazing of cattle, goats, pigs and poultry. Livestock keeping is practiced on a small scale in
open areas and on undeveloped plots. The size of land used for urban agriculture keeps on
decreasing as more land is converted into residential uses. It has been revealed that
uncontrolled farming practices and grazing of livestock affects the ecosystem and can
cause soil erosion (Moshi Environmental Profile, 2008).
4.3 Land Use Patterns and Changes over Time
4.3.1 Land use patterns and density
The land distribution in Moshi municipality is 52.6% for housing, 2.9% for commerce and
finance, 9.7% for industries, 2.1% for urban agriculture, 4.4% for transportation, 7.0% is
hazardous land, 0.2% for cemeteries, 14.4% for institutions and 6.7% for recreation and
forestry (Moshi Environmental Profile, 2008). In Msaranga settlement land use patterns
comprises; residential land 70%, agricultural land 12%, transport facilities 8% and public
institutions10% of the total land in the settlement i.e. 17 square kilometres (Figure 5).
Population increase is one of the imperative forces catalysing changes of land uses in the
settlement. Analysing the trend of land use changes, the study revealed that the region has
6,433 square kilometres of arable land equivalent to 643,300 hectares (Kilimanjaro
40
Regional Social Economic Profile, 1998). In the year 2002, the arable land density was
0.46 hectares per person. In the year 2012 the arable land density was 0.39 hectares per
person. Compared to the arable land density in Tanzania of 0.25 hectares per person in
2011 and that of Africa 0.27 hectares per person in 2012, the arable land density of
Kilimanjaro region is higher than the national and Africa’s arable density.
Figure 5: Land use patterns in Msaranga settlement
This decrease of arable land per person in Kilimanjaro imposes different challenges and
pressure in terms of food security and ecosystem conservation in the region, the
phenomena which also argued by different scholars in other African cities’ growth
development trends (Kalipeni, 1992; Plane and Rogerson, 1994).
The population increase on arable land has also affected land use patterns in the settlement
as manifested by increased land subdivisions for housing, agriculture, recreation and other
livelihood activities such as gardening. The increased population is coupled with high
dependence on agriculture for economic activities, which leads to land fragmentation
(Soni, 2005) and increased water demand. Other problems emanating from increased
population density is the concentration of economic activities and failure to practice
41
sustainable land use measures that have affected the ecological stability of the region. For
example, continued cutting of tree for maize farming is an observable fact in the
settlement.
It has to be noted that agriculture is one of the important sectors that provide a range of
livelihood activities to peri-urban residents and availability of arable land is necessary. In
this regard Moshi municipality has a total arable land of 748 hectares (Moshi
Environmental Profile, 2008) and the arable density is 0.0041 hectares per person. The
amount of arable density depicts the decline in the amount of land available for agriculture
in urban settings compared to the Kilimanjaro Region arable density of 0.39 hectares per
person.
Decrease in the size of land for crop cultivation activities in the settlement suggest a
decline in crop production and an increase in off-farm activities as coping mechanisms.
Since urbanisation is at a rapid pace, then land use follows the same trend, as more land is
converted to urban use purposes such as settlement establishment, social service provision
and industries.
4.3.2 Trend of land use changes
Land use changes is a complex and dynamic process that involves both natural and human
systems. The changes in land use patterns in Msaranga settlement are fuelled by the
increased interest of urban developers, as land prices tend to be lower than within the city
centre. Furthermore, the area is well linked to the city centre and other parts of the inner
city by an accessible road network. These circumstances make the area more attractive for
commuters who take advantage of both the easy accessibility and the low land prices in the
settlement. Increased population pressure as discussed previously in the socioeconomic
42
characteristics section reveals increased demand over land compared to supply, thus
increased price of land plots as discussed in the land market implications section.
The spatial and temporal changes of building densities in the settlement and other aspects
of urban development come along with respective changes in agricultural production
patterns. The more land is occupied by urban land uses, such as housing and transportation
infrastructure, the less land is available for agriculture, thus it affects the on-farm
livelihood activities. This has been manifested by a continued Land sub-division in the
settlement. This demonstrates the increased demand over land for residential purposes
rather than agriculture in the settlement.
The trend on continued land sub-division and population increase in the city have affected
land use patterns in the municipality and thus increased pressure on land, livelihood
activities and water resource use and competition. The increased population is also coupled
by the high dependence on agriculture as an economic activity. Likely, another problem
emanating from increased population density is the concentration of economic activities
and failure of the municipality to plan adequately the growth of the city. These changes
have also resulted in an increased informal settlement which sometimes are hard to be
controlled.
As pressure on land increases, it affects the livelihood activities of people who are
dependent on agriculture since the land is converted into residential uses. Agricultural land
(cultivation land) is measured in terms of arable density, which is the amount of fertile
land per person expressed as hectares per person, in this case due to urbanisation process
the amount of arable land in Msaranga settlement has decreased from 0.41 hectares per
person in 2002 to 0.32 hectares per person in 2012.
43
The observed urban growth trend and increased pressure on land has resulted in informal
settlement growth that characterizes most of the emerging cities in Sub-Saharan Africa,
Tanzania inclusive. Satellite images taken in 1992 presented in Plate 1 illustrating the
pattern of land use in Moshi municipality.
The observed urban growth trend and increased pressure over land in the settlement, the
situation which shows the reality of African cities which mostly the growth is
uncoordinated, fragmented and are growing at a rapid pace. This shows that the
urbanisation creates enormous impacts in peri-urban settlements which needs rethinking in
urban planning, integrating livelihood activities into its agenda for sustained urban growth
in development lyrics.
Plate 1: Spatial development of Moshi Municipality by 1992
Source: GeoEye, LUNA Project, (2010)
Plate 2 illustrates the extent of Moshi urban growth ten years after 1992 (plate 1) which
depicts more concentration of houses. Key questions can be raised from the rapid increase
of population pressure; first does the population increase goes parallel with improvement
of service delivery like water supply, reliable electricity, sewerage system, road networks
44
and health provision facilities?. With the focus in Msaranga settlement, it has been found
that the population increase poses challenges in terms of social service provision,
particularly in sewerage system where there is no facilities for sewerage collection and
storage. Also water supply of services is unsatisfactory to the extent that, water flows for
about 3 to 6 hours per day in Msaranga.
Plate 2: Moshi Municipal land use density by 2003
Source: GeoEye, LUNA (2010)
Taking a closer look in the satellite images taken in 2010 it can be revealed that the
housing concentration is denser in the settlement. Plate 4 indicates the current status in
Msaranga settlement where housing establishment is increasing at a rapid pace to the
extent that, residents who depend on agriculture as their livelihood activities are forced to
resort into alternative strategies like concentrating in informal sector jobs.
45
Plate 3: Moshi Municipality changing land use density by 2010
Source: LUNA Project Geo eye image (2010)
The interview with Msufini Street Chairperson testified that; “Among the informal sector
jobs which these people engage include backhouse poultry keeping, retail trading and
daily labour in house construction activities”. (Msufini Street Chairperson, 26 March
2014). He further added that this activities help to sustain their livelihood in the pace of
rapid urbanisation process. The interview with Land use planner affirmed that, “People
are attracted to settle in peri-urban settlements due to relatively low housing rental fee,
minimal price of land plots and minimal cost of constructing a house. In this regard
pressure over land is intense and there is a need to rethink on the fate of livelihood
activities of residents who formally relied on agriculture as their source of livelihood”.
(Moshi Municipal Land use planner, 28 March 2014)
46
Plate 4: Current status of land use density in Msaranga
Source: Moshi Municipal Land Use Department (Geo eye image) (2010)
Land use changes have substantial effects on livelihood activities of Msaranga peri-urban
settlement. It has been revealed that residents in Msaranga settlement were employed in
the agricultural workforce with some of them having their own field and others employed
in the sector. Thus, previously during 1980s land was generally for cultivation of
subsistence food crops like maize, beans, rice, bananas, cassava and groundnuts. With
time, the cultivation area is changing to residential areas due to increase in migration.
4.4 Existing Livelihood Activities and Changes over Time
4.4.1 Types of livelihood activities identified
The study identified different livelihood activities that residents undertake to earn their
daily needs in Msaranga settlement. These activities are categorized into on-farm and off-
farm. The on-farm activities include crop cultivation and gardening, particularly maize,
beans, banana, animal keeping and horticulture. The off-farm activities include formal
employment in public and private sectors, informal economic activities such as trading,
construction, carpentry among others. The distribution of respondents according to their
livelihood activities in the settlement are presented (Refer Table 5).
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Table 5: Livelihood activities of residents in Msaranga settlement
Livelihoodactivities
Types Households(n=326)
Percent (%)
On-farm Crop farming (Maize, beans,paddy, banana)
119 36.8
Livestock keeping 47 14.5
Off-farm activities Daily labour 32 10Civil servants 19 6.25Private sector employees 16 5Assistance fromneighbours/relatives and civilsocieties
12 3.75
Food vending81 25
Petty trade
Interview with heads of households revealed that, the engagement in multiple livelihood
activities serves as a means to absorb the shocks and build a sustainable livelihood
activities for survival of the households. Among the livelihood activities, the widely
pursued was crop farming (36.8%) particularly maize, beans and paddy. Respondents
affirmed that this food crops provide sources of food for the households and extra harvests
are sold to earn cash which is used to meet other needs. Other respondents depend on
livestock keeping (14.5%), though it is not a sole livelihood activity, but it meets most of
the needs in the household as lamented by the interviewed respondents. Likely, casual
labour serves as the main livelihood activity to 10% of respondents who provide their
labour to different firms and get paid on a daily basis particularly in house construction
activities.
The study found that there are respondents who engage in petty trade and food vending
business (25%). Some respondents work as civil servants and depend on formal
employment as their livelihood activities (6.25%) and others are employed in private
sectors which comprise about 5%. Again, there are respondents who don’t have any
activity to do particularly older people who comprise about 3.25% of interviewed
48
respondents and they earn their living through assistance from their relatives and
neighbours.
The study shows that residents living in the settlement perform multiple activities towards
sustaining their life. For example, one landholder argued that he is engaged in crop
cultivation during the rainy season and shift to petty trade during the dry season to earn a
living. Others take two or more activities in parallel as only one activity do not suffice the
needs of the family. This is a common feature of livelihood activities implemented in the
settlement.
The trend of urbanisation processes in Msaranga settlement provides positive and negative
repercussions. As the process accompanied with sprawl, the situation lead to some of the
residents lose their livelihood base, particularly those who depend on agriculture (on-farm
activities) as the agricultural land is being converted into built land for residential purposes
and other urban land uses. In fact, it was revealed that, the range of livelihood activities
that the households engage in indicates the existence of diverse opportunities provided by
urbanisation processes. These opportunities include an increase in population size, which
provides a chance for residents to establish a retail business in the settlement, job
opportunities in housing construction activities, improvement in social service provision
like water supply and electricity power.
4.4.2 Changes in livelihood activities over time
The trend to which the livelihood activities have been changing in Msaranga settlement
was analysed looking the extent to which individuals have switched their occupational
activities from one category to another (Refer Table 6). It can be affirmed that due to the
conversion of agricultural land to residential and other urban purposes, residents have
resorted into other livelihood activities. The trend shows that residents engaged in
49
agriculture have decreased from 47.5% in 1980s to 20% in 2010s among the interviewed
respondents.
The study has revealed an increased number of residents to engage in casual labour as their
main livelihood activity (Table 5) (i.e. 5% in 1980s to 37.5% in 2010s). This is associated
with the change of land use patterns from agricultural activities no residential purposes.
One landholder remarks;
Table 6: Trend of change in livelihood activities overtime
Livelihood activitiesTrend of change of residents engaged
livelihood activities (n=326)1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s
Engaged in agricultural activities (on-farm) 47.5% 40% 25% 20%Working in casual labour 15% 21.25% 27.5% 37.5%Employed in the formal sector 5% 10% 17.5% 18.75%Self-employed in retail business 7.5% 11.25% 16.25% 20%Animal keeping 9% 10% 7.5% 3.75%Not applicable 16.25% 8% 6.25% 0%
“I sold my land to migrants who wanted to build houses and used the money to build a
better house and start a retail business in town, but there is increased competition in the
business sector and more efforts are needed to survive and make life better through
business undertaking” (Mr. Swai, 25 March 2014).
This implies that, as the pressure on land increases residents switch their livelihood
activities to the available opportunities.
4.5 Implication of Land Use Changes in Livelihoods Activities
4.5.1 Opportunities and impacts
4.5.1.1 Opportunities
Urbanisation process in the settlement creates opportunities where residents have a diverse
range of livelihood activities rather than depending on agriculture which is predominantly
50
played including gardening. Availability of off-farm activities due to pressure on land and
changing land use patterns from agricultural to residential purposes. Other opportunities
include potential for establishment of local institutions like self-help groups where
residents can assist each other, prevalent of informal sector where a good number of youth
are employed as labourers particularly in the housing construction industry.
To land owners they have an advantage of selling part of their land at high prices and
invest in other income generating activities. To retail business operators, increase in the
number of migrants in the settlement creates a local market for street vendors and hawkers
which in turn, constitutes job opportunities for retail traders like food vendors and job
opportunities in housing construction activities.
4.5.1.2 Impacts
Urbanisation has resulted in an increase in migration that creates different challenges to
indigenous people, including a decline in agricultural production, particularly food crops
such as maize, banana and beans. Moreover, climate change due to increased unsustainable
land use practices, including tree cutting for housing development. This in turn affects
more intensely the ecological integrity of the settlement and thus causing adverse effects to
the environment and thus environmental degradation. Other impacts noted include
inadequacy provision of social services as discussed in section 4.5.4.
4.5.2 Livelihoods coping strategies
Study findings revealed a number of coping strategies to absorb shocks resulting from
urbanisation processes. These coping mechanisms differ from one household to another,
depending on the asset base of the household and available options as revealed by
Daemane (2012). Among the households interviewed the provided number of strategies
undertaken to cope with seasonality and absorb shocks and sometimes a means to survive.
51
These include engaging in casual labour in informal sectors as indicated by 27.8% of
respondents, providing labour in agricultural activities such as rice farms (22.2%), poultry
keeping although in other households it is a primary livelihood activity (Refer Figure 6).
Other mitigation measures include seeking assistance from relatives in terms of remittance,
cut down household expenditure like having two meals per day, engaging in retail business
and banana selling. It has been found that these strategies are undertaken in a predictable
and logical sequence, starting with easily reversible strategies which do not erode the asset
base of the household to less easily reversible and more erosive strategies e.g. sale of land,
cattle and migration.
Figure 6 : Alternative livelihood activities of residents in Msaranga
Along with this mitigation measures, there are different employment opportunities both in
formal and informal sectors; in this regard, most youth have been employed in house
building activities (Plate 5) particularly in brick making, Bodaboda (Motor cycle)
business, petty trade commonly known as Machinga (street vendors).
52
Plate 5: Construction activities that provide livelihood activities for youth
The range of activities for which Msaranga households cope with seasonal food shortages
resembled to those which have been documented by Muinde (2013) who provided six
strategies. These include; piece work (part time), petty business, changes in diet, fewer
meals, loans from traders, and selling cattle. This suggests that the coping mechanism
options for Msaranga settlement are different from households in other locations.
Likely, the findings concur with the study done by Tuladhar et al. (2009) in his
investigation of urbanisation of Tamale city and how it affected the livelihood strategies of
peri-urban settlements in Ghana. Among the main effects were diversification of
livelihood strategies from agricultural dependent on seasonal employment which has been
again observed in Msaranga settlement as coping mechanisms.
Table 7: Negative effects of land use changes to livelihood activities
Factors Frequency (n=326) Percentage (%)
Seasonality of casual labour 33 10Uncertain market of farm produces 68 21.25Fluctuations in producer prices 37 11.25High input prices in crop production 33 10Increased migration trends 61 18.75Tenure insecurity 57 17.5Poor input supply in agriculture 37 11.25
53
Along with the positive effects of urbanisation discussed above that enhances households
to engage in alternative livelihood activities as indicated in figure 5, there are negative
effects associated with urbanisation and land use changes. These effects include
seasonality of alternative activities which then influences people’s choices. Others include
the uncertain market environment of farm produces namely; fluctuations in producer
prices, high input prices, and poor input supply and increased migration trends as indicated
in Table 7.
Tenure insecurity was mentioned as among the negative effects indicated by 17.5% of
respondents. Moreover, discussion with a Moshi Municipality, Town Planner revealed
that, since the area has been declared as belonging to municipal authority, then it is likely
the customary tenure has ceased to exist when the authority formally decides to allocate
the area to land developers for commercial purposes, unless the residents have the capacity
to develop the area for commercial use.
Table 8: Land use changes impacts’ and livelihood coping strategies
Livelihoodactivities
Impacts Coping strategiesPositive Negative
Crop farming Decrease in arable land Shift to off-farmactivities
Livestockkeeping
Increased milkcustomers
Decrease in pasture Reducing the number oflivestock
Daily labour Increase in theinformal sector
Rising unemployment Commute to work inother areas
Civil servants Increased competitionPrivate sectoremployees
Increased sub-sectors
Competition inemployment opportunities
Acquiring technicalcompetence
Petty trading Increase ofcustomers
From this finding, it can be deduced that, residents still subscribe to customary tenure
practices in acquiring land, particularly those who have been living in the settlement for a
54
long time. Table 8 shows the impacts of land use changes in urbanisation processes and
adaptive coping strategies in the settlement.
4.5.3 Migration, tenure status, land markets and acquisition
4.5.3.1 Migration status
The study shows that urbanisation processes has resulted in increased pressure over land
primarily due to migration from city centre to seek for settlement establishment areas.
Results revealed that among the interviewed persons 62.5% were migrants and only 37.5%
were original residents of the settlement (Figure 7). This indicates that the settlement is
mostly occupied by migrants who have acquired land which were primarily owned by
original residents and used it for various purposes including agriculture and forest reserves.
Figure 7: Migration status of residents
4.5.3.2 Tenure status
With regard to tenure status the study has revealed that customary land tenure practices
commonly known as Kihamba practiced among the Chagga people is to large extent
applicable only among the Chagga who have designated in the area for a long time. Land
inheritance customs among the Chagga share one basic principle. They place great
importance on the concept of “keeping the name on the land,” meaning that
55
established holdings are passed down along the male bloodline. This custom divides
the land into smaller and smaller parcels while promoting ownership attachment to
plots of land. The prevailing tenure status in the case study area to a large extent is neither
customary nor granted right of occupancy as presented in Figure 8.
Figure 8 : Land tenure status
4.5.3.3 Land markets
Evidence gathered from the migrants who bought land from the original residents at the
Msaranga settlement show that, there is an increase in trend of the price of land as shown
in Table 9. The trend has been gathered from those who bought land in 1980s, 1990s,
2000s and 2010s which provides the evidence that the market value of land keep on
increasing as its demand goes on sharply particularly in 2000s years to 2010 years.
The reasons given to account for this continuous increase in prices of land plots is the
demand for settlement establishment and minimal cost of house construction in
settlements. It was argued that the price of materials such as sand, rocks and bricks is
somehow low compared to the cost in the city centre. The change in land use has reduced
the area under food crops and increased demand, which has resulted in an escalation of
land values. In this regard, price of plots of land has increased tremendously as indicated in
Table 9.
56
Table 9: Trend in average price of land plots in Msaranga settlement
Plot size Average price (Tanzanian Shillings)
1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s
0.25 acre 150 000 250 000-300 000 7 500 0000 10 000 0000.5 acre 300 000 450 000-500 000 17 000 000 25 000 0000.75 acre 500 000 750 000-800 000 28 000 000 35 000 0001 acre 700 000 900 000-1 500 000 34 000 000 45 000 000
It has to be noted that land markets in Msaranga settlement have emerged where
customary tenure is still functional and it is now confronted by outside land seekers who
ignore customary authorities in mediating land relations. In this regard one key informant
asserted that,
“People not recognized as land owners in the customary system may sell land to which
others lay customary claim. Moreover, community members with customary rights may
also be eager to capture the rising value of land by selling their parcels in contravention
of customary procedures that try to protect customary tenure practices” (Mrs. Luka, 21
March 2014).
The prevailing situation can be termed as informal tenure status according to Van Asperen
(2011) who asserted that most peri-urban settlements have multiple land tenure systems
ranging from customary, granted right of occupancy to informal. The term informal is
derived from the process involved in land acquisition procedures where a person who need
land makes arrangement to the one who have extra piece of land without following official
procedures for land selling under urban planning standards. There are witnesses who are
involved in the process, including the neighbours and local government officials like
Hamlet (Mtaa) Chairman and sometimes Ward Executive Officer but the government
planning officials are not consulted. This prevailing situation suggests that there is a
57
possibility of some of the plots not having characteristics deemed necessary to fit into
planning standards when the need for upgrading the area into planned settlement arises.
4.5.3.4 Land acquisition in the settlement
In Msaranga settlement most of the inhabitants are Chagga tribe where traditional land
allocation follows customary tenure practices, although the area has been declared to be
under urban jurisdiction. In this regard land is subdivided into two categories (clan land
and land owned by individuals). The control and protection of clan land responsibility are
vested in one person who is given roles by clan members to take care of the clan land. In
case someone is in need of clan land to use for the acceptable purpose, then, he or she
notifies the Head of the clan who calls for a meeting to discuss the application and if
consensus is reached then, a demanded plot is provided to that person who is not supposed
to sell it again for any reason. This customary procedure interrupts the formal land
allocation processes administered by urban authorities. For the area which has been
declared ripe for urban development automatically the land is more formalized and the
customary land ownership is less recognized in the planning cycles. Since the settlement is
under urban jurisdiction, then the customary land tenure practices ceases to exist.
Selling land to non-clan member is common practice where the interview with the Sub-
ward chairman revealed that negotiations for selling land are done between the landholder
and the buyer. After negotiation, community leaders and other two residents are consulted
for witness. Demarcations are provided and a piece of land is then handled by the new
owner who may use for the purposes he or she wishes. The difference from the procedures
of acquiring land under clan and that under individual ownership is that; clan land is not
for selling, but it is designated to fulfil the use of the clan. Individually owned land is used
as per the needs and purposes of the owner such as residential house construction,
agriculture that involves both crop cultivation and livestock keeping.
58
4.5.4 Service delivery adequacy
The study shows that among the noted positive impacts, urbanisation has produced in
Msaranga settlement include development of social services such as infrastructure
provision. These include water supply, primary and secondary schools, health centres and
paved hamlet roads.
Results from respondents revealed that piped sewerage systems do not exist in the case
study area, sewage is composted in dry latrine pits and allowed to infiltrate the ground.
This system of dumping wastes needs to be worked upon since it might have impacts in
the water table for those who depend on boreholes for domestic water supplies. With
regard to transport infrastructure, although the roads connecting the hamlets with the main
road are paved, but respondents affirmed that the situation is unsatisfactory (Table 10).
Table 10: Service provision adequacy in Msaranga settlement
Service type Categories Services Adequacy (n=326)Adequate Inadequate
Health facilities Dispensaries Pharmacy27.5% 72.5%
2 1Education facilities Primary schools Secondary schools
38.8% 61.2%2 2
Water supply Householdsconnected toMUWSA
Households with boreholes
17.5% 82.5%
228 33Market facilities Market centre Indoor retail shops
8.8% 91.2%Non 14
Waste disposalfacilities
Collection points Garbage dumping13.8% 86.2%Non Back house
Road infrastructure 47.5% 52.5%
Again education facilities for primary and secondary schools were reported to be
unsatisfactory by 61.2% of interviewed respondents. Likely, although health facilities
exist, its satisfactory was inadequate by 72.5% of respondents. Moreover, water supply
situation was reported to be unsatisfactory by 82.5%, although some households have been
59
connected to Municipal water supply system. The situation on social service infrastructure
seems to affect the livelihood of the people since they spend a good number of hours to
search for necessary needs which could have been available if required facilities could
have been installed and working properly.
4.5.5 Social networks, benefits and institutions
Urbanisation processes have influenced the increase in migration of residents from centre
to peri-urban areas in favour of minimal rental cost, availability of transport, and minimal
cost for housing construction. People working in various sectors have bought plots in peri-
urban areas and established residential houses. Other residents are migrating from peri-
urban areas in other cities leaving their family behind. This trend creates social network,
which facilitates transfer of remittance from relatives working in other cities to sustain the
life of their relatives. In some cases this has been perceived as a mitigation measure
against negative effects of urbanisation processes and land use changes.
Different social institutions have been established where number of respondents are
members which act as socialisation and change agents. Among the institutions include
Village Community Banks (VICOBA), Community Based Organisations (CBOs), Self-
help groups and Faith Based Organisations (FBOs) which are religious based (Table 11).
Table 11: Respondents membership to social institutions
Institutions Members (n=226) Percent
VICOBA 74 32.8%CBOs 72 31.8%Self-help groups 65 28.8%FBOs 15 6.6%
These institutions are crucial since the choice of alternative livelihood activities are
determined by assets available to those households and then shaped by these institutions,
60
and processes operating at all levels, which are deemed to mediate the transformation
within and between livelihood assets, strategies and outcomes at household level. Among
the interviewed respondents, 226 were revealed to have membership in various social
institutions organized by residents in the study area as shown in Table 11.
61
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
The previous chapter has discussed the findings of the study. This chapter dwells on
providing study reflections and implications to theory and practices, conclusion and
recommendations.
5.2 Study Reflections and Implications for Theory and Practice
5.2.1 Contexts
Due to urbanisation which has influenced land use changes in the settlement, changing
population trends due to migration and increased birth rate in the settlement had added
pressure on land. As such increased land sub-division due to urbanisation has limited some
livelihood activities including farming and land use changes. The various livelihood
activities identified had been changing over time due to changes in Land Use patterns. This
has implication in view to urban food systems, land use planning, and policy enforcement,
control of population growth, the tenure system, land markets and urban service
provisions. Likely, existence of leadership is one of the opportunities existing in the
settlement.
Land accessibility in the settlement is constrained by increased land sub-division which do
not adhere to urban planning practices and thus creation of suburbs. The situation has led
to increased cost of acquiring land which normal residents cannot afford. Thus, migrants
who are financially well-off buy the land from native people and build houses which then
result into classes in terms of housing situation where most migrants have built gated
houses which are well supplied with water, electricity and even security guarding system.
62
Increased pressure over land has necessitated the residents in the settlement to devise
coping strategies to take advantage of urbanisation and absorb the shocks and negative
impacts of urbanisation trends. The coping strategies which include changes in occupation,
particularly from farming to retail trading has provided new hope and survival means of
households in terms of food security, meeting the cost of social services and other
household needs. Different institutions and networks have been established by residents,
including CBOs, FBOs and VICOBA as channels to share their common aspirations and
help each other in terms of financial needs.
5.2.2 Methodological approach
Methodologically, this study relies on interviews, with relevant stakeholders, including
households, landholders, Town planner, Ward and Sub-ward Executive officer,
Community Development Officer and Elders. The interviews were designed to provide for
basic descriptive statistics about the trend of changes in livelihood activities and coping
strategies due to urbanisation processes in urban settings. In addition, the interviews
inquire about the implications of land use changes in urbanisation context to land tenure
status, acquisition and market in the settlement. It further traced on the status of service
provisions and the role of different planning institutions in shaping the urbanisation
process towards the sustenance of the livelihood strategies of peri-urban settlements.
Moreover, mapping was deployed to trace the extent of land utilization in the settlement
and the observation was adapted to evidence the reality in the case study. Likely,
documentary reviews were adopted to analyse historical development of the settlement.
These methods have long played a role in better understanding the social and economic
context in which urbanisation takes place. In fact, for the most part, this study has
generally been at the household level, whereas it examined land use changes and its
implications on livelihood activities.
63
5.2.3 Conceptual and theoretical frameworks
The study uses various concepts as reflected in Chapter two. Various definitions, including
Land Use, Urbanisation and Livelihood Activities were discussed and included as
appendix 1. Both operational and conceptual definitions were considered which were
defined some during text writing. These concepts were important to provide clear insights
of the study phenomenon and associated studies as presented in the text.
In theoretical underpinnings, the study adopted the conflict theory of change developed by
Karl Marx (1818) and urban growth models. The key issues pinpointed in the theoretical
framework was the interaction of various land users with diverse interests and stake in land
use dynamics and land use sustenance in the urbanisation process. The findings revealed
that the applicability of urban growth models (Concentric zone model, sector model and
multiple nuclei model) is hardly practiced in the case study area due various reasons.
These include;
i) Already the settlement is saturated in terms of housing construction, thus using the
model was not clear.
ii) The models require abundant land which found not available in the settlement.
iii) The demand of the area for residential use not for other functions including
commercial use.
The applicability of these models, requires the existence of virgin land in the peri-urban
areas of the cities, which is hard to be found in Moshi Municipality. In this regard other
models and theories need to be adopted to predict and learn the trend of land use changes
in peri-urban areas of Moshi Municipality.
64
In regard to conflict theory as applied in this study, it is demonstrated that the difference
in the interest of various land uses portrays the conflicting situation which affect the
livelihood activities of local residents. Failure to adhere to policy and legislative
procedures guiding land use leads to unstable situation where the gap between those who
can acquire land due to being financially well-off increases. In this regard the mitigation
measures adopted by the local residents are not sustainable to cope with effects of land use
changes.
The findings call upon the integration of different actors in peri-urban settlements,
particularly the land use planners, civil society, community leaders and residents to have a
clear understanding of what matters most to the local people with regard to land use
changes. The goal is to have sustained livelihood activities that fulfil the needs of each
resident in peri-urban settlement.
5.2.4 Policy development agenda
The study reviewed different policies and legislations guiding land use processes in urban
setting, including Land use policy (1995), human settlement policy (2000) and Urban
Planning Act No. 8 of 2007. The policy statement in this context provides that land that
meets the demand of livelihood activities of residents in peri-urban settlements should be
protected by limiting the urban development to urban land and provide residential areas
from low to higher income earners in the city fringes. In practice, these commitments of
the government through policy statement are hardly practiced and enforced.
5.3 Conclusion
Increasing urbanization and economic development within Moshi Municipal impose
considerable pressures on land use changes in Msaranga settlement. The study findings
have revealed the importance of the informal sector in the peri-urban areas in providing
65
alternative livelihood activities as a means to cope with changing land use patterns which
was formerly used for agriculture. This is reflected in the proliferation of petty commodity
production, multiple job-holding, and casual employment. The livelihoods of residents
who derive their livelihoods from agriculture and causal (seasonal employment) are more
affected than those with formal employment in formal sectors.
Urbanisation processes have resulted in the decrease in agricultural land in peri-urban
settlements which has adequately affected the livelihood activities of the residents. The
key changes in livelihood activities include shifting from crop cultivation to casual labour
due to loss of agricultural land and poultry keeping.
Land use changes are at a rapid pace because of pressure from migrants. This trend is due
to the fact that the settlement is located in close proximity to the city centre with a high
percentage of recently migrated households. The increased housing construction activities
taking place in the settlement lead to a rapid conversion from agricultural to built-up land.
The land use changes in urbanisation context provide a range of implications for the
livelihoods activities in Msaranga settlement. These include raising prices of land,
inadequate social service and changes in land tenure status. This process leads to scattered
development and heterogeneous land use, which calls upon the interaction of different
actors such as urban and rural development planners, Non-Government Organisations,
Donor communities to work in corroboration towards addressing challenges rendered by
land use dynamics for enhancing livelihood sustainability in the settlements.
5.4 Recommendations
In view to study findings and reflections, the following are recommended towards
improving the urban life in peri-urban settings.
66
i) The need for local government authorities to incorporate Peri-Urban Livelihood
Issues into Urban Planning cycles is rational. The findings have shown that
urbanization creates livelihood opportunities for some people as well as livelihood
constraints for others. In particular, the loss of farmlands and decline in agricultural
production is major constraints experienced by peri-urban farmers, some of whom
do not have the means to devise alternative livelihood strategies. Unfortunately for
such farmers, peri-urban livelihood issues are hardly addressed in urban planning,
which usually focus on physical issues such as land use, housing and
transportation. Therefore, to ensure sustainable and equitable urban development,
the Government through the Municipal council need to incorporate peri-urban
livelihoods into urban planning processes.
ii) Since population growth, urban expansion and reduction in the size of arable land
are inevitable, there is also the need for the Government to adopt strategies aimed
at supporting peri-urban residents to be less dependent on land. One such strategy
may be to help crop farmers to improve upon the already existing Chagga gardens
for agricultural intensification.
iii) Local Government Authority, Civil society organizations, and interested
development partners need to devise special programmes to empower the youth in
peri-urban communities to find alternative sources of livelihood, in view of the fact
that the agricultural sector cannot absorb the entire peri-urban labour force. This
should include the formulation of local economic development strategies that aim
at supporting the youth to acquire vocational skills that will enable them to find
employment in non-agricultural activities, as well as attracting businesses to such
communities.
iv) To effectively ensure sustained urban growth and enhance sustainable land use for
the livelihood benefits of all people in the peri-urban settlements, Government need
67
to put more emphasis on the role of urban planners to avoid informal settlement
growth which does not adhere to urban growth standards. Adequate resources in
terms of personnel, finance and time should be allocated to plan adequately
development patterns in the settlements.
v) The Local Government Authority needs to mobilize and educate different
stakeholders involved in peri-urban development processes, particularly local
leaders, politicians (councilors) on how to direct the development processes in
rapidly urbanizing areas. A bottom up approach for planning city growth and
involvement of local people is encouraged which can lead to taking into
consideration the priorities of local people in the land use planning processes and
the incorporation of their livelihood activities.
vi) The findings point out a number of critical issues that need the urgent attention of
policy makers and planners in order to ensure sustained urban growth. One of them
is the need for local governments to manage physical growth in a manner that
incorporate peri-urban livelihood issues in urban planning so as to minimize the
negative effects of urban growth on a section of the population, especially
subsistence farmers. Measures should include the protection of fertile farmlands
and empowering the youth to find alternative sources of livelihood.
5.5 Unresolved Issues for Future Research and Policy Development Agenda
This study showed the extent to which livelihood activities of peri-urban settlements are
changing in response to land use dynamics brought about by urbanisation processes. The
shift from on-farm to off-farm activities as a livelihood mitigation strategies are common in peri-
urban settings. The interest of urban planners and policy makers, however, tend to remain thinking
in the categories of urban and rural as determined by administrative boundaries. Yet, these
boundaries are artificial and to a certain degree static. Thus, land use processes in peri-urban areas
68
possess different characteristics from central urban areas to rural areas but these distinctions are
hardly observed. In this regard therefore the extent to which urban and rural development planners
interact towards enhancing well planned and serviced peri-urban areas need to be given attention
in research undertakings. Future researches are therefore recommended on the dynamic
nature of peri-urban settlements due to its tendency to accommodate both rural and urban
characteristics.
69
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Definitions of Terms
i) Urbanisation
Magigi and Drescher (2010) define urbanization as a process of concentration and
intensification of human life and activity. They further explain that urbanisation is an
uneven process that takes place in a physical environment as an outcome of the three
fundamental population processes: fertility, mortality and migration. Closely linked to this,
Nsiah (2000) defines urbanisation as the shift from a rural population to an urban
population and include an increase in the number of people in the urban areas. One thing
that is clear from all these definitions is the concentration of people at a particular urban
area. Thus, operationally for the purposes of this research, urbanization may be defined as
the concentration of population at a particular place at a point in time that affects all
sectors of the economy including land right and life style of the residents. It involves
changes in production systems, increased population, social structures and urban
infrastructure service improvements.
ii) Livelihood Activities
Livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources)
and activities required for a means of living (Ellis, 2000). Livelihood activities are the on-
farm and off-farm activities engaged by the residents to earn their living and sustain their
life (DFID, 2002).
iii) Peri-urban Settlements
DFID (1998:35) defines the peri-urban settlement as areas characterized by strong
urban influences, easy access to markets, services and other inputs, ready supplies of
75
labour, but relative shortages of land and risks from pollution and urban growth. It is found
in the fringe zone in an urban area and may have a different tenure status.
iv) Land Use Change
Saleska (2010) defines land use change as a process by which human activities transform
the landscape. Likely, Briassoulis defines land use change as the outcome when land users
decide to employ land resources towards different purposes which then produce desirable
and undesirable impacts.
76
Appendix 2: Questionnaire for Data Collection
The purpose of this questionnaire is to collect data on Msaranga Settlement that will be
used for academic purpose. This data will not be shared for any other purpose and will be
confidential. May you please provide your time and cooperation to give valuable
information.
GENERAL INFORMATION OF RESPONDENT
A) Name of the respondent (Option)…..……………………………………..…B) Sex of respondent i) Male ii) FemaleC) Status of respondent i) Tenant ii) LandholderD) Street……………………………… Plot No. ……………………………………E) Tribe …………………………Occupation …………………………………F) Education level
i) Primaryii) Secondary (Form IV)iii) Advanced Secondary (Form VI)iv) College (Certificate and Diploma)v) University (Bachelor and Higher degree)vi) other
MIGRATION, HOUSEHOLD INCOME AND EXPENDITURE PATTERN1. Are you an original resident this settlement? (i) Yes (ii) No2. a) If no, year of migration: ……………….
b) From where did you migrate? ……………………………….c) Reasons for migration………………………………………………………………………..
3. What livelihood activities do you engage in/perform to sustain your living?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. How these livelihoods activities have been changing over time?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Could you please indicate your sources of income and amount you earn per monthbased on activities performed?Sources (Activities) Income earned
77
Total income
6. Does the income sustain your household monthly expenses? i) Yes ii) No7. If no what do you do to sustain household living expenses?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………THEME 1: TREND OF SETTLEMENT GROWTH AND LANDACCESSIBILITY
8. Are you aware whether this settlement is planned? i) Yes ii) No9. If it is planned, how were you involved in the planning process?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. Do you understand different laws and policies guiding city growth?i) Yes ii) No
11. a) If yes, mention the policies and laws guiding city growth?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
THEME 2: LAND OWNERSHIP STATUS
12. What is the dominant form of land ownership in this settlement?i) Customary tenure ii) Granted right of occupancy
13. What are the conditions for someone to own land under customary tenure?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
THEME 3: MODE OF LAND ACQUISTION14. If someone wants to acquire land in this settlement what are the procedures?
i) Inheritance ii) Buying15. If someone wants to buy land, what procedures are followed?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
16. Who are the actors involved in land buying/selling process and what are the rolesof each actor?
Actor Roles
78
17. Is there any limitation or constraint in acquiring land in this settlement? i) Yes ii)NoIf any mention them…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………THEME 4: LAND AND HOUSING MARKETS
18. What has been the trend in average price of land plots in the settlement in differentperiods?
Year 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s¼ Acre½ Acre1 Acre
19. What are the reasons for the trend of land markets?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
20. How is the condition of water supply, sewage disposal and public sanitationfacilities in the settlement?i) Satisfactory ii) Unsatisfactory and needs renovation iii) Not availableTHEME 2: LAND USE PLAN AND TENURE STATUS
21. Total land size in the settlement …………………sq. km22. Does the settlement have a detailed planning scheme? i) Yes ii) No23. Who are the actors involved in land use planning in the settlement?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
24. What are their roles in planning and implementation of land use plans?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
25. Is the current housing parcelling adhering to the detailed planning scheme of thesettlement? a) Yes b) No
26. How effective is the detailed planning scheme implemented?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
27. Indicate number of plots which were either under customary tenure system orgranted right of occupancy overtime?
Year 1967 1978 1988 2002 2012Customary tenure
79
Granted right ofoccupancy
THEME 3: LIVELIHOODS ACTIVITIES28. What are the household’s on-farm livelihood activities?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
29. What kind of crops do you farm?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
30. How crop productions have been changing overtime?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
31. How is the trend of crop production in the settlement?i) Decreasing ii) Remained the same iii) Increasing
32. Give reasons for your answer for the previous question above?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
33. Is the income gained from on-farm livelihood activities enough to sustainhousehold living expenses? i) Yes ii) No
34. What are the household’s Off-farm livelihood activities?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
THEME 4: INFRASTRUCTURE FACILITIES
35. Mode of transport (i) Private (ii) Public (iii) Work place36. If using public transport facilities, is it… (i) Adequate (ii) Inadequate37. Education facilities available in the settlement:
(a) Government schools; Primary ……………. Secondary …………………(b) Private schools; Primary ………………. Secondary …………………….(c) Colleges ………………………..(d) Any other ……………………
38. Are the education facilities: (i) Adequate (ii) Inadequate39. Medical facilities available in the settlement:
80
(a) Hospital ………….Private …………..Government …………..(b) Dispensary ………Private …………..Government …………..(c) Pharmacy ……….Private …………..Government ……………
40. Are you satisfied with the medical facilities? (i) Satisfied (ii) Dissatisfied41. Condition of water supply facilities:
(a) Kind of water supply for domestic use (i) Water tape supplied by waterauthority (in your plot) (ii) Water tape to your neighbours (iii) Tunneled well(iv) No facilities available
(b) How much do you spend per month for fetching water for domestic use?…………………
(c) How many hours per day does water flow out in public water tapes……………………
(d) How do you perceive the condition of water supply? (i) Adequate (ii)Inadequate
(e) What are your suggestions for improving water supply in the settlement?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
THEME 5: MARKET FACILITIES
42. Availability of marketing facilities:
(a) Is there any organised market centre in the settlement? (i) Yes (ii) No(b) If no, are the shops located in the residential locality? (i) Yes (ii) No(c) How do you compare the price of commodities in the shops in Msaranga and
those in the inner city (town)? (i) More expensive (ii) Affordable (iii) Almostthe same (iii) Less compared to Moshi town shops
(d) Where do you prefer to buy your daily needs (i) Shops/market centre located inthe settlement (ii) Shops/market centre in Moshi town
(e) Give reason for your choice in question (d) above
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
81
Appendix 3: Data table matrix
Specific objectives Research Questions Data required Sources of data Data collectionmethods
Data Analysis
i) Analysessocioeconomiccharacteristics of thesettlement and landuse changes over time
i) What are thesocioeconomiccharacteristics of thesettlement and how landuse have been changingover time?
Settlementestablishment,demographic trends andsocioeconomiccharacteristics of thesettlement, land usepatterns and changesover time
Heads of households,elders, ward developmentreports, ward andcommunity leaders, Moshienvironmental profile(2008), Municipalinvestment profile (2013),Kilimanjaro regionsocioeconomic profile(1998) and National censusreports (1967, 1978, 1988,2002 and 2012),
Interviews, anddocumentaryreview
Qualitativeanalysis usingnarratives, quotesand contentanalysis
ii) Find out thechanges in livelihoodactivities over time inthe settlement andadaptive strategies inurbanisation processes
ii) How livelihoodactivities have beenchanging over time in thesettlement and what arethe adaptive strategies ofresidents in urbanisationprocesses?
Types of livelihoodactivities (on-farm andoff-farm), Trend ofchange over time
Moshi environmentalprofile (2008), Msarangaward development reports,household survey, keyinformant interviews
Householdinterviews,Observations,Documentaryreview
Qualitative usingnarratives, contentanalysis andquotes andquantitativeanalysis
iii) Identify theimplications of landuse changes onlivelihood copingstrategies of residentsin the settlement
iii) What are theimplications of land usechanges on livelihoodcoping strategies ofresidents in thesettlement?
Effects of urbanisation,changes of agriculturalland, livelihood copingstrategies and serviceprovision
Ward and communityleaders, Heads ofhouseholds, elders, Townplanners, Communitydevelopment officer
Household andkey informantinterviews
Qualitativethrough contentanalysis andQuantitative usingSPSS and excel
