国际治理SPS协定：强调每个国家在保护其动植物和人类卫生方面

的权利，并提出规定和规则来指导贸易活动中采纳、实施并执行该协定。成员国有义务遵循根据协定原则制定的法律法规。各国都有责任为WTO和三姐妹组织提供治理和科技支持。 “三姐妹”组织：各种食品和成分都以不同方式来自不同国家。为进一步加强协调性， SPS协定认可食品法典委员会 (Codex Alimentarius)，国际植物保护公约(IPPC) 和世界动物卫生组织（OIE）。以期达到采用共同制订的措施准则的理想目标。然而，整个过程从提案到科学评估和最终通过可能需要几年时间。

国家基础设施建设从国际到国家层面的法律法规：各国可以在不需进一步

科学验证的情况下采用“三姐妹”组织的国际标准、指导方针和建议。 各国亦可采用更严格的非歧视性要求， 若对进口食品和国内食品采取双重标准则属歧视性要求。

食品安全基础设施建设：各国在食品安全法律、法规及实验室能力、检验人员能力和领导力的水平上普遍存在差异。而忽视食品安全可导致问题的大面积暴发。不可靠的食品安全系统甚可增加进口国对产品的检测、检验和验证，并限制出口国的发展机会。

国际标准化组织（ISO） ISO系一包括163个国家的国家标准机构。 ISO 正式会

员参与制定对经济起到重要作用的自愿措施 。每个ISO成员有一票表决权。ISO自愿措施可作为市场要求或

作为法规和立法的参考。ISO与WTO保持战略合作伙伴关系。

企业倡议认识行为守则，认证，发证机构和认可机

构：总体来说，行为守则系非营利组织为特定关注范围所制定并所有，例如：可食动物的助长品。

它以“三姐妹”组织的科学标准、指南和及, 或ISO自愿措施为基础。再经第三方独立认证机构对公司进行全面审核

和审计的认证。认证机构必须由行为守则所有方审核后才可以对申请认证的企业进行审计。此外，认证机构必须被权威认可机构承认或认可，证明其有颁发证书必要的技能和能力。

全球食品安全倡议(GFSI)：系一独立非营利基金会，其主要活动是评估行为守则或进行行业对标，决定某条守则是否符合公共标准（例如：食品法典委员会食品卫生原则）。GFSI把行为守则作为条例的共同基础，从而保证结果的一致性。但并不意味着所有承认的行为守则都是等同的。

1. 共享术语带来的困扰：类似“标准”这样的术语可根据语境（公共或私人部门）的不同，目的（规定或要求）的不同及应用（自愿和强制性）的区别而不同。

2. 私营部门建立的“非官方标准”。由私营部门决定

的产品特性，比如黄曲霉毒素残留物水平较比官方设立的全国标准或国际标准更加严格。3. 国际标准制定组织来解决市场敏感问题的困难：如出现新型毒素或掺杂物，却没有适用的国际措施。

4. 行为守则有时将食品安全和非食品安全义务混搅在一起：如关于劳动力和环境的标准非属官方食品安全措施的要求，却是获得证书时必须达标的内容。

5. 企业行为守则和重复审计的泛滥：由于相类似的行为守则都需要分开审计，导致效率降低，无益于食品安

全。6. 政府的官方检测、检验和核查的能力： 由于官方总体食品安全基础设施存在差距和差异，损害消费者信心，使问题爆发时更加严重。

食 链

法律法规从国家到地方立法及法规以国际科学标准，指导方针和建议为基础。某些法规也参考了国际标准化组织 (ISO) 的自愿措施。

行为守则相关行业采行详细具体的流程和程

序， 来表明食品的适用性。行为守

则是以也被认为是 “认证方案”。

企业倡议具有远见的企业并不认为实施不同水平的

食品安全是一种竞争优势。反观食品安全

为集体挑战，是为“竞争前的空间”。采

纳行为守则及全球食品安全倡议 (GFSI)

进行认证，可以增加透明度，减小食品链

上的风险。 www.www.FoodAndYou.org

国际治理 1

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食品安全的四大领域

分歧焦点

科学标准科学产物的特点，诸如：残留最高限量，食物添加剂、污染物和毒素的允许水平等等。

指导方针和建议基于科学的食品安全原则及实践则包括了食品卫生，危害分析和关键控制点 （HACCP)，及进出口指南等。

国际标准化组织 (ISO) 为满足社会和企业对食品安全的要求， ISO 以科学标准、指导方针和建议为基础建立自愿措施。 ISO 为一非政府组织，不进行监管、立法、认证或认可等活动。

自愿措施用以帮助说明所产食品的适用性。范例包括

有实现标准化实施和食品链的一致性的必要

前提项目：如早期确定并控制食品安全危害

物，确定是否符合适用的规范要求，以及实

行 ISO22000 一类的“管理系统”。

2国家基础 设施建设食品安全直接影响到国家增长潜力。食品安全基础设施建设强的国家则持有较优的立场来保护公共卫生，提高生产效益，抓住新的出口机遇，并限制不合格食品的进口。

世界贸易组织 (WTO) 为实现通力合作，各国政府共同建立了世界贸易组织(WTO)，在食品安全方面建立了卫生与植物卫生措施协定(SPS)。

当谈到食品问题上，各国越来越无法自给自足，且较以往更加依赖彼此。世界贸易组织 (WTO) 卫生与植物卫生措施协定 (SPS) 以及“三姐妹”组织的科学标准、指导方针及建议提供了食品消费的基础。

版权所有2010 密歇根州立大学董事会

三姐妹组织此三组织是SPS协定认可来制定关于食品安全、植物卫生和动物卫生国际标准、指导方针和建议的相关组织。

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从新鲜的本地西红柿到来自遥远热带岛屿的异国配料，当今的食品供应方式前所未有。尽管食品的可获得性、多样性以及价格承受程度都是重要议题，然

食品安全在保护公共健康和避免食源性疾病中扮演着至关重要的角色。

为求减少食品链各环节上发生化学、生物或物理危害，就需要各层面的不懈努力：如各国政府通过国际机构组织合作建立科学的标准、科学的指导方针以及以科学原则和证据为基础的建议；各国根据适用的法律和法规进行检测、检验并核查遵守情况；国际标准化组织(ISO)在食品链各环节制定了自愿措施以解

决“食品系统管理”相关问题；以及各企业采用“行为守则”认证， 来增强透明度、减少风险。

实施食品安全不是一件容易的工作。 可能导致角色和责任方面的分歧焦点。然而，食品安全仍需要大家共同负起

责任，包括消费者和终端食品加工商，都要积极参与。

全球至本地 的食品安全

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检验及合格通过全国、省级和地方检验员及实验室

的网络，全面开展检测、验证并确保食品和相关设施达标。

管理和认证食品系统管理包括认证，比如：由独立

认证机构来确认是否成功采用并遵守了

特定的行为守则 。认证通常需要定期

审计以确保有效。

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INTERNATIONAL GOVERNANCE The SPS agreement: Affirms the right of every country to protect its animal, plant and human health and lays out rules and disci-

plines to guide its adoption, implementation and enforcement relating to trade. Member countries are obligated to align their laws and regula-tions with disciplines outlined in the agreement. Providing governance, scientific and technical expertise for the WTO and the Three Sisters is a shared responsibility across countries.

‘Three Sisters’: Food and ingredients can come from many different countries in many different ways. To advance greater harmonization, the SPS agreement recognizes the Codex Alimentarius (Latin for food code), the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) and the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). Adoption by consensus of prescribed measures is the desired goal. However, the entire process from initial proposal to scientific evaluation and final approval may take several years.

COUNTRY INFRASTRUCTUREInternational to country level laws and regulations: Countries can adopt international standards, guidelines and recommendations

of the Three Sisters without further scientific justification. Countries may also adopt more exacting measures so long as it is nondiscriminatory; for example, applying more stringent scientific requirements for imported food but not domestically.

Food safety infrastructure: Wide variability exists within and across countries in the level of food safety laws, regulations and competencies of laboratories, inspectors and leadership. Low food safety priority can contribute to wide spread outbreaks. Suspect food safety infrastructure can lead to increased testing, inspection and verification on the part of the importing country and limit opportunities for the exporting country.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION (ISO)ISO comprises national standards institutes of some 163 coun-tries. Full members of ISO can take part in the development

of any voluntary measure which it deems important to its economy. Each ISO member has one vote. ISO voluntary

measures may become market requirements or referred to in regulations or legislation. ISO maintains a strategic partnership with the WTO.

BUSINESS INITIATIVESUnderstanding codes of practice, certification, certification bodies and accreditation: In gen-

eral, codes of practice are designed and owned by not-for-profit organizations for a particular sector of concern,

e.g. food animal inputs. They derive from science based standards, guidelines and recommendations of the Three

Sisters and/or ISO voluntary measures. Certification of a code of practice is granted only after extensive review and audit of the business

by an independent 3rd party certification body. Certification bodies must be licensed by a code of practice owner to audit businesses seeking certification. Also, certification bodies must be recognized or ‘accred-ited’ by well established accreditation authorities as having the skills and competencies necessary for granting certification.

Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI): An independent not-for-profit foun-dation whose primary activity is to assess or ‘benchmark’ codes of prac-tice – determine if a requested code of practice is aligned with common criteria (e.g. Codex general principles on food hygiene). GFSI recog-nized codes of practice means there is a common foundation of criteria that should provide consistent results. It does not mean that all recognized codes of practice can be considered as equal.

1. Confusion from shared terminology: Terms such as ‘standard’ can vary depending on context (public vs. private), intent (norm vs. requirement) and application (voluntary vs. mandatory).

2. Private sector establishing ‘unofficial standards’: Product

characteristics determined by the private sector such as stricter resi-

due levels for aflatoxin than those officially established nationally or internationally.3. Inability of international standard setting organizations to address market sensitive issues: The emer-gence of a new toxin or adulterant where an applicable international measure is lacking.

4. Codes of practice that couple food safety with nonfood safety ob-ligations: The inclusion of labor or environmental criteria that fall out-side official food safety measures but oblige compliance in order to receive certification. 5. Proliferation of business codes of practice and audit redundancies: The growth in similar codes of prac-tice each requiring separate audits that collectively increase inefficien-cies while not contributing to overall food safety. 6. Competence of official govern-ment testing, inspection and verifi-cation: Gaps and variation in overall official food safety infrastructure that erodes consumer confidence and exacerbates outbreaks.

FOOD CHAIN

Laws and regulationsNational to local legislation and regulations derive from international science based standards, guidelines and recommendations. Some regulations may also refer to ISO voluntary measures.

Codes of practice Detailed and specific processes and procedures for individual sectors of concern to show that food is suitable for consumption. Codes of practice are also known as ‘certification schemes’.

Business InitiativesProgressive businesses do not regard dif-ferent levels of food safety as a competitive advantage. Food safety becomes a collec-tive challenge, part of ‘pre-competitive space’. Adoption and certification of ‘codes of practice’ and the GFSI initiative increase transparency and mitigate risk along the food chain.

www.FoodAndYou.org

International Governance

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Four components of Food Safety

Science based standardsScience derived product char-acteristics such as maximum residue limits, permissible levels of food additives, contaminants, toxins etc.

Guidelines and recommendationsScience based food safety principles and practices including food hygiene, hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP), import and export guidelines etc.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) To meet both societal needs and business requirements for food safety, ISO voluntary measures build from science based standards, guidelines and recommendations. ISO is a non-governmental organization. It does not regulate, legislate, certify or accredit.

Voluntary measures Help demonstrate that food produced is suitable for consumption. Examples include prerequisite programs such as early identification and control of food safety hazards, compliance with applicable regulatory requirements, and ‘management systems’ such as ISO 22000 that address standardized implementation and consistency along the food chain.

2Country InfrastructureFood safety directly affects potential growth. Coun-tries with strong food safety infrastructures are better positioned to protect public health, increase productivity, capture new export opportunities and limit exposure to substandard food imports.

World Trade Organization (WTO) To work together, governments collectively established the WTO and in the case of food safety, the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS).

When it comes to food, countries are less self-sufficient and more dependent on each other than ever before. The WTO/SPS agreement and science based standards, guidelines and recommendations of the ‘Three Sisters’ provide the foundation for food suitable for consumption.

Copyright 2010 Michigan State University Board of Trustees

‘Three Sisters’ Recognized by the SPS agreement as the relevant bodies for setting international standards, guidelines and recommendations for food safety, plant health and animal health.

Tension points

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From fresh local tomatoes to exotic ingredients from faraway tropical islands, our food comes to us in ways never before imaginable. Availability,

affordability and variety are important and food safety is paramount for protecting public health and preventing food borne illness.

Minimizing chemical, biological or physical hazards that may occur anywhere along the food chain requires ongoing effort at different levels: Governments collaborate through international bodies to establish science based standards,

guidelines and recommendations based on scientific principles and evidence; Countries test, inspect and verify compliance to applicable laws and regulations; The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

develops voluntary measures to address ‘food systems management’ across the food supply chain, and; Businesses seek certification to

‘codes of practice’ that increase transparency and mitigate risk.

It is not always easy. Implementing food safety can lead to ‘tension points’ surrounding roles and responsibilities. Nonetheless, food safety remains a shared respon-

sibility requiring all, including consumers and final preparers of food, to be actively

engaged.

Global-to-Local Food Safety

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Inspection andcompliance

Carried out through a network of national, provincial and local inspectors and labora-tories to detect problems, verify and ensure

compliance in food and related facilities.

Management and certification

Food systems management including certifica-tion i.e. recognition by an independent certifica-

tion body of successful adoption and compliance to a specific code of practice. Periodic audits are

normally required to maintain certification.

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