½ãîʾããâ‡ãŠ¶ã - ‚㣾ã¾ã¶ã ëãðâŒãÊãã, ‚ã㶣ãÆ ¹ãƪñÍã : Ôãâ. 16,Evaluation/Commodity Study Series, Andhra Pradesh: No.16, 2007

‚ã㶣ãÆ ¹ãƪñÍã ½ãò ‚ãã½ã - †‡ãŠ ¹ã¥¾ã ãäÌããäÍãÓ› ‚㣾ã¾ã¶ã

MANGO IN ANDHRA PRADESHMANGO IN ANDHRA PRADESH- A Commodity Specific Study - A Commodity Specific Study

KC Badatya

ÀãÓ›Èãè¾ã ‡ãðŠãäÓã ‚ããõÀ ØãÆã½ããè¥ã ãäÌã‡ãŠãÔã ºãö‡ãŠ‚ã㶣ãÆ ¹ãƪñÍã àãñ¨ããè¾ã ‡ãŠã¾ããÃÊã¾ã, ÖõªÀãºããª

National Bank for Agriculture and Rural DevelopmentAndhra Pradesh Regional Office, Hyderabad

20072007

MANGO IN ANDHRA PRADESHMANGO IN ANDHRA PRADESH- A Commodity Specific Study - A Commodity Specific Study

K C Badatya

ÀãÓ›Èãè¾ã ‡ãðŠãäÓã ‚ããõÀ ØãÆã½ããè¥ã ãäÌã‡ãŠãÔã ºãö‡ãŠ‚ã㶣ãÆ ¹ãƪñÍã àãñ¨ããè¾ã ‡ãŠã¾ããÃÊã¾ã, ÖõªÀãºããª

National Bank for Agriculture and Rural DevelopmentAndhra Pradesh Regional Office, Hyderabad

20072007

CONTENTSCONTENTS

Particulars Page No.

ForewordCredit ListAcknowledgementAbbreviationsBasic Data SheetExecutive Summary i-vi

Main Report

Chapter I Introduction 1

Chapter II Micro finance through SHGs in Andhra Pradesh 4

Chapter III Approach to the Study 11

Chapter IV Group Dynamics & Bank Linkage Pattern Among Sample SHGs 15

Chapter V Profile of SHG Members 24

Chapter VI Enterprise Mix & Process of Graduation of SHG Members To Microenterprises 29

Chapter VII Cost of Investments & Economics of Microenterprises 41

Chapter VIII Income & Employment Generation by Microenterprises promoted By SHG Members Suggestions, Recommendations an 47

Chapter IX Role of SHPIs in Promotion of Microenterprises 52

Chapter X Development Linkages & Sustainability Aspects 59

Chapter XI Summary & Conclusions 67

Appendix

Appendix I SHG-Bank Linkage Programme - A Review 76

Appendix II Status of SHGs in Andhra Pradesh-2004-2005 80

Appendix III Status of SBLP in Andhra Pradesh 81

Appendix IV Best practices followed by SHGs in launching Micro-enterprises 82

Appendix V Microenterprises by Village Organisations 83

Appendix VI Persons interviewed during the field study 85

Appendix VII Voices Heard in the Field 86

¹ãÆã‡ã‹‡ãŠ©ã¶ã

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FFOORREEWWOORRDD

The mango is one of the most important tropical and subtropical fruits of the world

and is popular both in fresh and the processed forms. It is called as the king of fruits

on account of its nutritive value, taste and attractive fragrance. India ranks first

among world’s mango producing countries accounting for 52.6 per cent of the total

world’s mango production. It is grown over an area of 1.2 million hectares in the

country producing 11.0 million tonnes. It accounts for 22.1 per cent of total area

under fruit crops (5.6 million ha) and 22.9 per cent of total production of fruits (47.9

million tonnes) in the country. In case of Andhra Pradesh, area under mango

cultivation increased from a mere 0.6 lakh ha. in 1951-52 to 3.9 lakh ha. in 2004-05

growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of ---- per cent. In Andhra

Pradesh, the production of mango increased from 23.8 lakh MT during 1993-94 to

31.4 lakh MT during 2004-05. This and similar observations prompted NABARD to

commission a study in Andhra Pradesh with the objectives of gaining insight into the

dynamics of the supply chain management, assessing the efficiency of the market

intermediation as well as the constraints relating to production, processing,

marketing, etc. so as to arrive at a convergence in regard to an export promotion

strategy.

The study, conducted in Chittoor and Krishna districts of Andhra Pradesh, is based

on primary data collected from about 75 mango-growers, processors,

traders/exporters, etc. One of the important constraints identified by the study is the

inefficiency in the marketing channels due to the long chain of the intermediaries

resulting in a higher price spread, as a consequence of which the producers’ share in

the consumers, rupee was as low as 28.80 per cent.

Some of the other major constraints identified by the study on export front are the

incidences of fruit fly and stone weevil putting hindrance to reach some countries

such as Japan, Australia and USA, lack of knowledge and awareness creation among

consumers of the importing countries on different varieties, except Alphanso, non-

following of thinning of fruit during on-years leading to biennial bearing habit among

Indian Mangoes, inadequate infrastructure facilities such as pack houses, pre-cooling

and cold at production centres leading to delays in putting them in cold chain,

inadequate follow up of pre-harvest protocols by the producers because of

predisposing of the produce to the contractors.

I am sure that the findings of the study will be found useful to the micro finance

practitioners, experts, banks, rural development institutions and academicians,

concerned with the process of the policy planning, strategising and implementation

for the growth of micro-enterprises through group approach.

National Bank for Agriculture S. R. Aluru

and Rural Development Chief General Manager

A.P Regional Office, Hyderabad

28.September 2007

CREDIT LIST

Overall Direction

Department of Economic Analysis & Research, NABARD HO, Mumbai

Shri Ramakrishna Rao, Chief General Manager, AP Regional Office

Guidance

Shri R. Amalorpavanathan, General Manager

Shri. S. K. Bhatnagar, Deputy General Manager (Tech.)

Field Study Shri K.C. Badatya, Assistant General Manager (Eco.)

Shri R.H.V. Ratnababu, Assistant General Manager (Tech.)

Analysis of Data and Report Writing Shri K. C. Badatya, Assistant General Manager (Eco.)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The study team gratefully acknowledge

• the brilliant cooperation and help offered by Department of Horticulture in the

study Districts, Commercial Banks, RRBs, and Krishna DCCB for the smooth

conduct of field-work for collection of primary data and also for the much

needed bank-data provided to us.

• the help and cooperation rendered by Shri A. Jayaram Sharma, AGM (DD),

Chittoor District and Smt. K. M. Lakshmi, AGM (DD), Krishna District

• all the sample mango growers, processors, traders/commission agents, exporters

who cooperated with the study.

Study Team

Abbreviations

AEZs Agri Export Zones

AMC Agriculture Marketing Committee

APEDA Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority

APITCO AP Industrial Technical Consultancy Organisation

APMIP AP Micro Irrigation Programme

APTransco AP Transmission Corporation

ATL Agricultural Term Loan

ATMA Agricultural Technology Management Agency

BCR Benefit Cost Ratio

CA Commission Agent

CAGR Compound Annual Rate of Growth

CFBs Corrugated Fibre Boxes

CFTRI Central Food Technology Research Institute

CMCP Campaign on Mango Crop Protection

CP Consumer Price

DAP Dai Ammonium Phosphate

DCCB District Central Cooperative Bank

DDMs District Development Managers

DoES Directorate od Economics and Statistics

DoH Department of Horticulture

DS Double Strength

ETTS Effective Technology Transfer System

FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation

FDA Food and Drugs Administration

FFAs Federation of Farmers' Associations

FIGs Farmers' Interest Groups

FTP Farm to Plate

FYM Farm Yard Manure

GoAP Government of Andhra Pradesh

GoI Government of India

HACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points

HCPMA Horticultural Crops Planting Material Authority

HOs Horticultural Officers

HYVs High Yielding Varieties

IARI Indian Agricultural Research Institute

IPM Integrated Pest Management

IRR Internal Rate of Return

KCC Kissan Credit Card

LDMs Lead District Managers

MACS Mutually Aided Coooperative Societies

ME Market Efficiency

MFPI Ministry of Food Processing Industries

MoP Murate of Potash

MPUs Mango Processing Units

MSUs Medium Scale Units

NDDB National Dairy Developmet Board

NHB National Horticulture Board

NHM National Horticulture Mission

NIN National Institute of Nutrition

NPV Net Present Value

PHC Pre Harvest Contractor

PLCPs Potential Linkaed Credit Plans

PP Producers' Price

PV Present Value

RRB Regional Rural Bank

RTS Ready to Serve

SCMS Supply Chain Management System

SCS Supply Chain System

SHGs Self Help Groups

SOD Secured Overdraft

SS Single Strength

SSUs Small Scale Units

SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats

TSS total soluable solids

UCT Upcountry Trader

VHTP Vapour Heat Treatment Plant

VT Village Trader

WC Working Capital

‡ãŠã¾ãÇãŠãÀãè ÔããÀãâÍã

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� 42 ‚ãã½ã „¦¹ã㪇㊠ãä‡ãŠÔãã¶ããò, 18 ‚ãã½ã ¹ãÆÔãâÔ‡ãŠÀ¥ã ƒã‡ãŠƒ¾ããò (¹ãʹ㠂ããõÀ •ãñÊããè ºã¶ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊããè) ‚ããõÀ 15 ̾ãã¹ãããäÀ¾ããò, ‡ãŠ½ããèÍã¶ã †•ãò›ãò, ãä¶ã¾ããæã‡ãŠãò ‚ãããäª ‡ãŠãñ Íãããä½ãÊã ‡ãŠÀ¦ãñ Öì† †‡ãŠ ¶ã½ãî¶ãã ¹ãÆñŠ½ã ¦ãõ¾ããÀ ãä‡ãŠ¾ãã Øã¾ãã. ¾ãÖ ¶ã½ãî¶ãã ¹ãÆñŠ½ã ‡ã슜 †ñÔãñ Þã¾ããä¶ã¦ã ½ãâ¡Êããò ½ãò Ôãñ ºã¶ãã¾ãã Øã¾ãã •ãÖãú ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠã àãñ¨ã ¹ãŠÊã ‚ããõÀ „¦¹ã㪶㠂ããä£ã‡ãŠ¦ã½ã ©ãã.

� ¼ããÀ¦ã ‡ãñŠ ‡ãìŠÊã ¹ãŠÊã „¦¹ã㪶㠽ãò, ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠã „¦¹ã㪶ã 43% Öõ. ‚ã㶣ãÆ ¹ãƪñÍã ‡ãñŠ ½ãã½ãÊãñ ½ãò ÌãÓãà 1951-52 ½ãò ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠãè ¹ãŠÔãÊã ‡ãñŠ ‚ãâ¦ãØãæ㠂ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊãã àãñ¨ã ¹ãŠÊã 0.6 Öñ‡ã‹›ñ¾ãÀ ©ãã •ããñ ÌãÓãà 2002-03 ½ãò ºãü¤‡ãŠÀ 3.2 ÊããŒã Öñ‡ã‹›ñ¾ãÀ Öãñ Øã¾ãã.

� ãäÌãÍÌã ‡ãñŠ ÊãØã¼ãØã 83 ªñÍããò ½ãò ̾ããÌãÔãããä¾ã‡ãŠ ¹ã Ôãñ ‚ãã½ã „Øãã¾ãã •ãã¦ãã Öõ. ãäÌãÍÌã ‡ãŠãè œ: ¹ãƽãìŒã ¹ãŠÊããè¾ã ¹ãŠÔãÊããò ½ãò ‚ãã½ã ¼ããè †‡ãŠ Öõ ãä•ãÔãñ ¼ããÀ¦ã, Þããè¶ã, ½ãñãä‡ã‹Ôã‡ãŠãñ, ¹ãããä‡ãŠÔ¦ãã¶ã, ƒâ¡ãñ¶ãñãäÍã¾ãã, ©ããƒÊãö¡, ¶ãフããèãäÀ¾ãã, ºãÆãû•ããèÊã, ãä¹ãŠãäÊã¹ãヶÔã ‚ããõÀ Öユããè ½ãò ̾ããÌãÔãããä¾ã‡ãŠ ¹ã Ôãñ „Øãã¾ãã •ãã¦ãã Öõ. ÌãÓãà 2005 ‡ãñŠ ªãõÀã¶ã Ôã½ãîÞãñ ãäÌãÍÌã ½ãò ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠã „¦¹ã㪶ã 28 ãä½ããäÊã¾ã¶ã ½ãñãä›È‡ãŠ ›¶ã (†½ã›ãè) ÀÖã ãä•ãÔã½ãò ¼ããÀ¦ã ‡ãŠã Ô©ãã¶ã ‚ãØãÆ¥ããè ÀÖã (10.8 ãä½ããäÊã¾ã¶ã †½ã›ãè) „Ôã‡ãñŠ ºã㪠‰ãŠ½ãÍã: Þããè¶ã (3.67 ãä½ããäÊã¾ã¶ã †½ã›ãè), ©ããƒÃÊãö¡ (1.8 ãä½ããäÊã¾ã¶ã †½ã›ãè), ½ãñãä‡ã‹Ôã‡ãŠãñ (1.5 ãä½ããäÊã¾ã¶ã †½ã›ãè), ‚ãããäª ‡ãŠã Ô©ãã¶ã ÀÖã.

� ¼ããÀ¦ã ½ãò ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠã „¦¹ã㪶㠇ãŠÀ¶ãñ ÌããÊãñ ¹ãƽãìŒã À㕾ã Öö „¦¦ãÀ ¹ãƪñÍã, Øãì•ãÀã¦ã, ‚ã㶣ãÆ ¹ãƪñÍã, ½ãÖãÀãÓ›È, „¡ûãèÔãã, ãäºãÖãÀ, ¹ããäÍÞã½ã ºãâØããÊã, ‡ãŠ¶ããÛ‡ãŠ, ØããñÌãã, ÖãäÀ¾ãã¥ãã, ½ã£¾ã ¹ãƪñÍã, ¹ãâ•ããºã ‚ããõÀ ¦ããä½ãÊã ¶ãã¡ì. ªñÍã ‡ãñŠ ãäÌããä¼ã¸ã ¼ããØããò ½ãò „ØããƒÃ •ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊããè ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠãè àãñ¨ãÌããÀ Êããñ‡ãŠãä¹ãƾã ãä‡ãŠÔ½ããò ½ãò ¹ããäÍÞã½ã ¼ããÀ¦ã Ôãñ ‚ãʹãŠã¶Ôããò ‚ããõÀ ‡ãñŠÔãÀ, ªãäàã¥ããè À㕾ããò Ôãñ ºãâØã¶ã¹ãÊÊããè, ¦ããñ¦ãã¹ãÀãè ‚ããõÀ ¶ããèÊã½ã, ¹ãîÌããê À㕾ããò Ôãñ û¹ãŠû•Êããè ‚ããõÀ „¦¦ãÀãè À㕾ããò Ôãñ ÊãâØãü¡ã, ÞããõÔãã ‚ããõÀ ªÍãÖÀãè Íãããä½ãÊã Öö.

� Ö½ããÀñ ªñÍã ½ãò àãñ¨ã-ÌããÀ ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠãè Œãñ¦ããè ‡ãñŠ ‚ãâ¦ãØãæ㠂ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊããè ‡ãìŠÊã ¼ãîãä½ã ‡ãŠã 20% ¼ããØã ‚ã㶣ãÆ ¹ãƪñÍã ½ãò Öõ. •ããñ ½ãÖãÀãÓ›È (22%) ‡ãñŠ „¹ãÀ㶦㠂ãã¦ãã Öõ ‚ããõÀ „Ôã‡ãñŠ ºã㪠„¦¦ãÀ ¹ãƪñÍã (12.6%), ãäºãÖãÀ (7%) ‚ããõÀ „ü¡ãèÔãã (6%) ‡ãŠã Ô©ãã¶ã ‚ãã¦ãã Öõ. ÌãÓãà 1996-97 Ôãñ 2004-05 ‡ãñŠ ªãõÀã¶ã ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠãè Œãñ¦ããè ‡ãñŠ ‚ãâ¦ãØãæ㠂ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊãñ àãñ¨ã ½ãò 4.7 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã ‡ãŠãè Ôãâ¾ãì‡ã‹¦ã ÌãããäÓãÇ㊠Ìãðãä® ªÀ (Ôãã膕ããè‚ããÀ) Ôãñ ºãü¤ãñ¦¦ãÀãè ÖìƒÃ Öõ. ‚ã㶣ãÆ ¹ãƪñÍã ½ãò „ØããƒÃ •ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊããè ãäÌããä¼ã¸ã ãä‡ãŠÔ½ããò ½ãò ºãâØã¶ã¹ãÊÊããè ‚ã©ãÌãã ºãñãä¶ãÍãã¶ã ãä‡ãŠÔ½ã ‡ãŠãñ ¹ãÆ£ãã¶ã¦ãã ¹ãÆ㹦ã Öõ ¦ã©ãã ¾ãÖ ãä‡ãŠÔ½ã ‚ã㶣ãÆ ¹ãƪñÍã ½ãò ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ ‚ãâ¦ãØãæ㠂ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊãñ ‡ãìŠÊã àãñ¨ã ‡ãñŠ 70 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã àãñ¨ã ½ãò „ØããƒÃ •ãã¦ããè Öõ. ¹ãÆ£ãã¶ã ¹ã Ôãñ ¾ãÖ ¦ã›ãè¾ã ‚ã㶣ãÆ ¹ãƪñÍã ‡ãñŠ ‡ãðŠÓ¥ãã ãäû•ãÊãñ ½ãò „ØããƒÃ •ãã¦ããè Öõ •ããñ ¹ãƽãìŒã ‚ãã½ã „¦¹ã㪇㊠àãñ¨ã Öõ.

� ¹ãÖÞãã¶ã ãä‡ãŠ† Øㆠ¶ã½ãî¶ãã ãäû•ãÊããò ½ãò ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ ºããØã ‡ãŠãñ Ô©ãããä¹ã¦ã ‡ãŠÀ¶ãñ ‡ãŠãè ÊããØã¦ã ‚ããõÔã¦ã¶ã 12,700 Á¹ã¾ãñ ¹ãÆãä¦ã †‡ãŠü¡ ‚ããâ‡ãŠãè ØãƒÃ Öõ ‚ããõÀ ¹ããúÞãÌãñ ÌãÓãà ¦ã‡ãŠ ‡ãñŠ ÀŒãÀŒããÌã ‡ãŠãè ÊããØã¦ã ‡ãŠãñ Íãããä½ãÊã ‡ãŠÀ¦ãñ Öì† ƒÔã‡ãŠãè ƒ‡ãŠãƒÃ ÊããØã¦ã ‡ãŠãñ 25,000 Á¹ã¾ãñ ¹ãÆãä¦ã †‡ãŠü¡ ºã¦ãÊãã¾ãã Øã¾ãã Öõ.

� ¹ãÆãäÍãàã¥ã ‚ããõÀ ‡ãŠã›-œãâ› ‡ãñŠ ãäÊㆠ½ã•ãªîÀãè ‡ãñŠ ‚ããä¦ããäÀ‡ã‹¦ã Œããª, Ìã¶ãÔ¹ããä¦ã ÔãìÀàãã ‚ããõÀ ãäÔãâÞããƒÃ ¹ãÀ ‚ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊãñ ŒãÞãà ÀŒãÀŒããÌã ÊããØã¦ã ‡ãñŠ ¹ãƽãìŒã Ü㛇㊠Öö. ¹ãîÀãè ¦ãÀÖ ãäÌã‡ãŠãäÔã¦ã ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ ºããØã (ªÔãÌãñ ÌãÓãà Ôãñ ‚ããØãñ) ‡ãñŠ †‡ãŠ †‡ãŠü¡ ‡ãñŠ ¼ããØã ‡ãñŠ ÌãããäÓãÇ㊠ÀŒãÀŒããÌã ¹ãÀ 5,500/- Á¹ã¾ãñ ‡ãŠãè ÊããØã¦ã ‚ãã¦ããè Öõ.

� ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ ºããØã ‡ãñŠ ‚ã©ãÃÍããԨ㠇ãŠã ‚ãã‡ãŠÊã¶ã †‡ãŠ ‚ããõÔã¦ã ¹ããäÀÔ©ããä¦ã ‡ãŠãñ £¾ãã¶ã ½ãò ÀŒã ‡ãŠÀ ãä‡ãŠ¾ãã Øã¾ãã Öõ. Ôã⪼ãããããè¶ã ÌãÓãà ‡ãŠãè „¹ã•ã, ½ãîʾ㠂ããõÀ ÊããØã¦ããò ‡ãñŠ ‚ãã£ããÀ ¹ãÀ, ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ ºããØã Ôãñ ¹ãÆ㹦ã ãä¶ãÌãÊã ‚ãã¾ã 17,000/- Á¹ã¾ãñ ¹ãÆãä¦ã †‡ãŠü¡ ‚ããâ‡ãŠãè ØãƒÃ Öõ. ‚㣾ã¾ã¶ã ãä‡ãŠ† Øㆠãäû•ãÊããò ‡ãñŠ ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ ºããØã, Ìã¦ãýãã¶ã ¹ãõªãÌããÀ (5 ½ãñãä›È‡ãŠ ›¶ã), ÊããØã¦ã (5,500 Á¹ã¾ãñ ¹ãÆãä¦ã †‡ãŠü¡ ¹ãÆãä¦ã ÌãÓãÃ) ‚ããõÀ ½ãîʾã (4,500 Á¹ã¾ãñ ¹ãÆãä¦ã ½ãñãä›È‡ãŠ ›¶ã) ‡ãñŠ Ô¦ãÀ ‡ãñŠ ¹ãÆãä¦ã ̾ãÌãÖã¾ãà ©ãñ ¦ã©ãã ‚ããâ¦ããäÀ‡ãŠ ¹ãÆãä¦ã¹ãŠÊã ªÀ (‚ããƒÃ‚ããÀ‚ããÀ) 20.83 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã ‚ããâ‡ãŠãè ØãƒÃ.

� ãä‡ãŠÔãã¶ããò, ̾ãã¹ãããäÀ¾ããò ‚ããõÀ ¹ãÆÔãâÔ‡ãŠÀ¥ã ƒ‡ãŠãƒ¾ããò ‡ãñŠ ¹ãÆãä¦ããä¶ããä£ã¾ããò ‡ãñŠ Ôãã©ã Öì† ãäÌãÞããÀ ãäÌã½ãÍãà ‡ãñŠ ‚ãã£ããÀ ¹ãÀ ¾ãÖ ¹ãã¾ãã Øã¾ãã Öõ ãä‡ãŠ †‡ãŠ „¹ã¼ããñ‡ã‹¦ãã ¦ã‡ãŠ ‚ãã½ã ÞããÀ Þãõ¶ãÊããò ‡ãñŠ Øãìû•ãÀ¦ãñ Öì† ¹ãÖìúÞã¦ãã Öõ, ¾ã©ãã „¹ã•ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊãñ Ôãñ ‡ãŠ›ãƒÃ ¹ãîÌãà ‡ãñŠ Ÿñ‡ãñŠªãÀãò ¦ã‡ãŠ, „¹ã•ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊãñ Ôãñ ªñÖã¦ããè ̾ãã¹ãããäÀ¾ããò ¦ã‡ãŠ, „¹ã•ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊãñ Ôãñ ØãÆã½ããè¥ã ̾ãã¹ãããäÀ¾ããò / ‡ãŠ½ããèÍã¶ã †•ãò›ãò ¦ã‡ãŠ ‚ããõÀ ‚ãâ¦ã ½ãò „¹ã•ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊãñ Ôãñ ‚ãã½ã ¹ãÆÔãâÔ‡ãŠÀ¥ã ƒ‡ãŠãƒ¾ããò ¦ã‡ãŠ. ƒÔã ¹ãƇãŠãÀ „Øãã¶ãñ ÌããÊãñ ‡ãñŠ ¹ããÔã Ôãñ ÞãÊã‡ãŠÀ ‚ãã½ã ƒ¶ã ½ãò Ôãñ ãä‡ãŠÔããè ¼ããè Þãõ¶ãÊã ‡ãñŠ ½ã㣾ã½ã Ôãñ „¹ã¼ããñ‡ã‹¦ãã ‚ã©ãÌãã ãä¶ã¾ããæ㠇ãñŠ ‚ã¹ã¶ãñ Øãâ¦Ìã¾ã ¦ã‡ãŠ ¹ãÖìúÞã¦ãã Öõ.

� ¦ã©ãããä¹ã, ƒ¶ã Þãõ¶ãÊããò ‡ãñŠ ºããèÞã ½ãò Ô¹ãÓ› ‚ãâ¦ãÀ ‡ãŠÀ¶ã㠂㦾ãâ¦ã Öãè ‡ãŠã䟶㠇ãŠã¾ãà Öõ, Þãúîãä‡ãŠ ‡ã슜 ‡ãŠ›ãƒÃ ¹ãîÌãà ‡ãñŠ Ÿñ‡ãñŠªãÀ ‡ãŠ½ããèÍã¶ã †•ãò›ãò ‡ãŠãè ¦ãÀÖ ¼ããè ‡ãŠã¾ãà ‡ãŠÀ¦ãñ Öö, ‡ã슜 ‡ãŠ½ããèÍã¶ã †•ãò› ̾ãã¹ãããäÀ¾ããò ‡ãŠãè ¦ãÀÖ ¼ããè ‡ãŠã¾ãà ‡ãŠÀ¦ãñ Öö. Ìãñ ÔÌã¾ãâ Öãè Ô©ãã¶ããè¾ã ©ããñ‡ãŠ ̾ãã¹ãããäÀ¾ããò ‡ãŠãè ¦ãÀÖ ¼ããè ‡ãŠã¾ãà ‡ãŠÀ¦ãñ Öö. ‡ãŠƒÃ ‡ãŠ½ããèÍã¶ã †•ãò› / ̾ãã¹ããÀãè ¦ããñ ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ ºããØããò ‡ãñŠ ½ãããäÊã‡ãŠ ¼ããè Öö ‚ããõÀ Ìãñ ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ „¦¹ã㪶㠽ãò ¼ããÀãè ¾ããñØãªã¶ã ªñ¦ãñ Öö. ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠã ÊãØã¼ãØã 55 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã ãäÌã¹ã¥ã¶ã „¹ã•ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊãñ Ôãñ ‡ãŠ½ããèÍã¶ã †•ãò› / ØãÆã½ããè¥ã ̾ãã¹ããÀãè ‡ãñŠ Þãõ¶ãÊã ‡ãñŠ ½ã㣾ã½ã Ôãñ Öãñ¦ãã Öõ.

� ãäÞ㦦ãîÀ ãäû•ãÊãñ ‡ãñŠ ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠã „¦¹ã㪶ã ãäÞ㦦ãîÀ ãäû•ãÊãñ ‡ãñŠ ¹ããúÞã ãäÌããä¼ã¸ã ½ãã‡ãóŠ› ¾ãã¡Ã ‚ããõÀ ãäÌã•ã¾ãÌããü¡ã ãäû•ãÊãñ ‡ãñŠ ¶ãì¸ãã ½ãã‡ãóŠ› ¾ãã¡Ã ½ãò ¹ãÖúìÞã¦ãã Öõ.

� ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ ½ãîʾããò ½ãò ¹ãƦ¾ãñ‡ãŠ ÌãÓãà ¹ããäÀÌã¦ãöã Öãñ¦ãã ÀÖ¦ãã Öõ. ¾ãÖ ¹ããäÀÌã¦ãö㠹ãƦ¾ãñ‡ãŠ ÌãÓãà ‡ãñŠ ‡ãìŠÊã „¦¹ã㪶㠂ããõÀ ‚㶾ã ãäÌããä¼ã¸ã ‡ãŠãÀ‡ãŠãò •ãõÔãñ Ìã¦ãýãã¶ã ½ãò ÊããØãî ½ãîʾã, ½ããúØã, ¹ããäÀÌãÖ¶ã, ãäÌã¹ã¥ã¶ã ÔãìãäÌã£ãã†â, ‚ãããäª ‡ãñŠ ‡ãŠãÀ¥ã Öãñ¦ãã Öõ. ãä‡ãŠ¶Öãèò ãäÌãÍãñÓã ãä‡ãŠÔ½ããò ‡ãŠãè ‚ãã¹ãîãä¦ãà / ½ããúØã, „¹ãÊ㺣ã¦ãã ‡ãŠãè ‚ãÌããä£ã¾ããò, ½ããõÔã½ã, ¹ããäÀÌãÖ¶ã ÔãìãäÌã£ãã‚ããò, ãä‡ãŠÔ½ããò, Øãì¥ãÌ㦦ãã ‚ãããäª ‡ãñŠ ‡ãŠãÀ¥ã ¼ããè ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ ©ããñ‡ãŠ ½ãîʾããò ½ãò ¹ããäÀÌã¦ãöã Öãñ¦ãã ÀÖ¦ãã Öõ. ‚ããäŒãÊã ¼ããÀ¦ããè¾ã Ô¦ãÀ ¹ãÀ ãä¹ãœÊãñ ªÔã ÌãÓããô ‡ãŠãè ‚ãÌããä£ã ½ãò ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠã ‚ããõÔã¦ã¶ã ½ãããäÔã‡ãŠ ©ããñ‡ãŠ ½ãîʾã ÔãîÞã‡ãŠãâ‡ãŠ ÌãÓãà 1995 ‡ãñŠ 128.9 Ôãñ ºãü¤‡ãŠÀ ÌãÓãà 2005 ½ãò 227.5 Öãñ Øã¾ãã. ¾ãÖ ºãü¤ãñ¦¦ãÀãè 6.25 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã ‡ãŠãè Ôãâ¾ãì‡ã‹¦ã ÌãããäÓã‡ãŠ Ìãðãä® ªÀ (Ôãã膕ããè‚ããÀ) ¹ãÀ ÖìƒÃ.

� ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ ãäÌã¹ã¥ã¶ã ½ãò ‡ãŠ½ããèÍã¶ã †•ãò› †‡ãŠ ½ãÖ¦Ìã¹ãî¥ãà ‡ãŠü¡ãè Öö ‚ããõÀ ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ ‡ãìŠÊã ºãã•ããÀ ‡ãŠã ¦ããè¶ã Þããõ©ãƒÃ ¼ããØã ƒ¶ã †•ãò›ãò ‡ãñŠ ãä¶ã¾ãâ¨ã¥ã ½ãò ÀÖ¦ãã Öõ. ¹ãÆÔãâÔ‡ãŠÀ¥ã „²ããñØããò ‡ãŠãñ ‡ãŠãè •ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊããè ‚ããä£ã‡ãŠ¦ã½ã ‚ãã¹ãîãä¦ãà ƒ¶ã †•ãò›ãò ´ãÀã Öãè ‡ãŠãè •ãã¦ããè Öõ. ãäÞ㦦ãîÀ ãäû•ãÊãñ ½ãò ¾ãñ ‡ãŠ½ããèÍã¶ã †•ãò› „¦¹ã㪇ãŠ-ÔãÖ-̾ãã¹ããÀãè ‡ãñŠ ¹㠽ãò ¼ããè ‡ãŠã¾ãà ‡ãŠÀ¦ãñ Öö ‚ããõÀ ‚ãã½ããò ‡ãñŠ ãäÌã¹ã¥ã¶ã ½ãò ½ãÖ¦Ìã¹ãî¥ãà ¼ãîãä½ã‡ãŠã ãä¶ã¼ãã¦ãñ Öö. ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ ãä‡ãŠÔãã¶ããò ‚ããõÀ ªñÖã¦ããè ̾ãã¹ãããäÀ¾ããò ‡ãñŠ ºããèÞã ̾ãã¹ããÀ ‡ãŠÀã¶ãñ ½ãò ‡ãŠ½ããèÍã¶ã †•ãò› ÔãÖã¾ã¦ãã ‡ãŠÀ¦ãñ Öö.

� „¹ã¼ããñ‡ã‹¦ãã ´ãÀã ‚ãªã ãä‡ãŠ† ØㆠŒãìªÀã ½ãîʾ㠂ããõÀ Ôã½ãã¶ã ½ãã¨ãã ‡ãñŠ „¦¹ããªãò ‡ãñŠ ãäÊㆠ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ ãä‡ãŠÔãã¶ã / „¦¹ã㪇㊠‡ãŠãñ ¹ãÆ㹦㠽ãîʾ㠽ãò ‚ãâ¦ãÀ ‡ãŠã ½ãîʾã ãäÌãÔ¦ããÀ ‡ãŠÖã •ãã¦ãã Öõ. ¾ãÖ ½ãîʾã ãäÌãÔ¦ããÀ Þãõ¶ãÊã 1 ½ãò ‚ããä£ã‡ãŠ¦ã½ã Öãñ¦ãã Öõ. ƒÔã ¹ãƇãŠãÀ Þãõ¶ãÊã 1 („¹ã•ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊãã � ‡ãŠ½ããèÍã¶ã †•ãò› / ØãÆã½ããè¥ã ̾ãã¹ããÀãè � ªñÖã¦ããè ̾ãã¹ããÀãè � ŒãìªÀã ̾ãã¹ããÀãè � „¹ã¼ããñ‡ã‹¦ãã) ¾ãÖ ã䪌ãÊãã¦ãã Öõ ãä‡ãŠ ‚ããä£ã‡ãŠ¦ã½ã ºããû•ããÀ ½ãããä•ãöã (65.5%) ‡ãñŠ Öãñ¦ãñ Öì† ¼ããè ºãã•ããÀ àã½ã¦ãã ¶¾ãî¶ã¦ã½ã Öõ, •ãÖãú Ôã¹ÊããƒÃ Þãñ¶ã ‡ãñŠ ¦ã֦㠇㊽ããèÍã¶ã †•ãò› ¦ã©ãã ©ããñ‡ãŠ ̾ãã¹ããÀãè ´ãÀã ‚ãã½ã „¦¹ã㪇ãŠãò ‡ãŠã ÍããñÓã¥ã Öãñ¦ãã Öõ. Ôã½¹ãî¥ãà ¶ã‡ãŠãÀ㦽ã‡ãŠ ¹ãƼããÞã Ô㦾㠂ããõÀ ½ãÖ¦Ìã¹ãî¥ãà Öõ ‡ã‹¾ããòãä‡ãŠ À㕾㠽ãò ‚ãã½ããò ‡ãŠãè ‚ããä£ã‡ãŠ¦ã½ã ‚ãã¹ãîãä¦ãà (55%) ƒÔããè Þãõ¶ãÊã ‡ãñŠ ½ã㣾ã½ã Ôãñ Öãñ¦ããè Öõ.

� ãäÞ㦦ãîÀ ãäû•ãÊãñ ½ãò †‡ãŠ ½ãöØããñ ¹ãʹ㠇ã‹ÊãÔ›À ‡ãŠã¾ãÃÀ¦ã Öõ ãä•ãÔã‡ãñŠ ‚ãâ¦ãØãæã 55 ¹ãÆ ¹ãÆãñÔãñãäÔãâØã ƒ‡ãŠãƒ¾ããú ‡ãŠã¾ãà ‡ãŠÀ ÀÖãè Öö. ƒÔã ‡ã‹ÊãÔ›À ‡ãŠãè Ô©ãããä¹ã¦ã àã½ã¦ãã 1,23,300 ½ãñãä›È‡ãŠ ›¶ã ½ãöØããñ ¹ãʹ㠄¦¹ããã䪦㠇ãŠÀ¶ãñ ‡ãŠãè Öõ. ƒ¶ã ƒ‡ãŠãƒ¾ããò ½ãò 51 ÊãÜãì ƒ‡ãŠãƒ¾ããú Öö ‚ããõÀ ÍãñÓ㠽㣾ã½ã ƒ‡ãŠãƒ¾ããú Öö.

� ã䡺ºãã ºã⪠¹ãʹ㠺ã¶ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊããè ƒ‡ãŠãƒ¾ããò ´ãÀã ‚ãããä•ãæã Ôã‡ãŠÊã ‚ããõÀ ãä¶ãÌãÊã ‚ãã¾ã ‰ãŠ½ãÍã: 122.12 ÊããŒã Á¹ã¾ãñ ‚ããõÀ 16.42 ÊããŒã Á¹ã¾ãñ ÀÖãè. Êãã¼ã ‡ãŠã ½ãããä•ãöã 13.45 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã ‚ããâ‡ãŠã Øã¾ãã Öõ.

� ¹ãîÌããê ØããñªãÌãÀãè ãäû•ãÊãñ ½ãò ½ãöØããñ •ãñÊããè ºã¶ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊãã ‡ã‹ÊãÔ›À †‡ãŠ ‡ã슛ãèÀ „²ããñØã ‡ãñŠ ¹㠽ãò ¹ãÆØããä¦ã ‡ãŠÀ ÀÖã Öõ. ƒÔã½ãò ÞããÀ ØããúÌã ¾ã©ãã Ôã¹ãÃÌãÀ½ãá, ãä¦ã½½ãÌãÀ½ãá, ¹ããâ¡îÁ (‡ãŠããä‡ãŠ¶ããü¡ã ØãÆã½ããè¥ã) ‚ããõÀ ‚ãã¨ãñ¾ãã¹ãìÀ½ãá Íãããä½ãÊã Öö. •ãñÊããè ºã¶ãã¶ãñ ÌããÊããè †‡ãŠ ƒ‡ãŠãƒÃ ‡ãŠãè ‚ããõÔã¦ã¶ã ãä¶ãÌãñÍã ÊããØã¦ã ‡ãŠÀãèºã 85,000/- Á¹ã¾ãñ ºã¦ããƒÃ ØãƒÃ Öõ. ¹ãƦ¾ãñ‡ãŠ •ãñÊããè „¦¹ã㪶㠃ã‡ãŠƒÃ ‚ããõÀ ¹ãÆãä¦ã ãä‡ãŠÊããñ •ãñÊããè ‡ãñŠ ãäÊㆠ‚ããõÔã¦ã „¦¹ã㪶ã ÊããØã¦ã ‰ãŠ½ãÍã: 2.45 ÊããŒã Á¹ã¾ãñ ‚ããõÀ 28.64 Á¹ã¾ãñ ‚ããâ‡ãŠãè ØãƒÃ Öõ. •ãñÊããè ƒ‡ãŠãƒ¾ããò ¶ãñ 3.0 ÊããŒã Á¹ã¾ãñ ‡ãŠãè Ôã‡ãŠÊã ‚ãã¾ã ‚ããõÀ 0.54 ÊããŒã Á¹ã¾ãñ ‡ãŠãè ãä¶ãÌãÊã ‚ãã¾ã ª•ãà ‡ãŠãè Öõ. Êãã¼ã ‡ãŠã ½ãããä•ãöã 18.16 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã ‚ããâ‡ãŠã Øã¾ãã Öõ.

� ¼ããÀ¦ã Ôãñ ¦ããû•ãã ‚ãã½ããò ‡ãñŠ ãä¶ã¾ããæ㠇ãŠãè ½ãã¨ãã ÌãÓãà 1987-88 ½ãò 20.30 Öû•ããÀ ½ãñãä›È‡ãŠ ›¶ã Ôãñ ºãü¤‡ãŠÀ ÌãÓãà 2004-05 ‡ãñŠ ªãõÀã¶ã 52.14 Öû•ããÀ ½ãñãä›È‡ãŠ ›¶ã Öãñ ØãƒÃ. ¾ãÖ Ìãðãä® 6.97 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã ‡ãñŠ Ôãã膕ããè‚ããÀ Ôãñ ÖìƒÃ. ƒÔããè ‚ãÌããä£ã ‡ãñŠ ªãõÀã¶ã ãä¶ã¾ããæ㠽ãîʾ㠇ãŠãè Ìãðãä® 9.85 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã ‡ãñŠ Ôãã膕ããè‚ããÀ Ôãñ ÖìƒÃ. ‡ãìŠÊã „¦¹ã㪶㠇ãñŠ ‚ãâ¦ãØãæã ãä¶ã¾ããæ㠽ãîʾ㠇ãŠãè ½ãã¨ãã ‡ãŠã¹ãŠãè ‡ãŠ½ã ©ããè •ããñ ãä‡ãŠ ÌãÓãà 1987-88 ½ãò ‡ãñŠÌãÊã 0.20 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã Ôãñ ©ããñü¡ã ºãü¤‡ãŠÀ ÌãÓãà 2004-05 ½ãò ‡ãñŠÌãÊã 0.45 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã Öãñ ØãƒÃ. ¼ããÀ¦ã ½ãò ÌãÓãà 2004-05 ‡ãñŠ ªãõÀã¶ã ‚ãã½ã ‚ããõÀ ‚ãã½ã ‚ãã£ãããäÀ¦ã „¦¹ããªãò ‡ãñŠ ãä¶ã¾ããæ㠽ãò ãä¹ãœÊãñ ÌãÓãà ‡ãŠãè ¦ãìÊã¶ãã ½ãò 6.62 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã ‡ãŠãè ©ããñü¡ãè Ôããè Ìãðãä® ª•ãà ‡ãŠãè ØãƒÃ. ¾ãÖ ãä¶ã¾ããæã ãä¹ãœÊãñ ÌãÓãà ½ãò 436.01 ‡ãŠÀãñü¡ Á¹ã¾ãñ ‡ãŠãè ¦ãìÊã¶ãã ½ãò 464.89 ‡ãŠÀãñü¡ Á¹ã¾ãñ Öãñ Øã¾ãã.

� ¼ããÀ¦ã Ôãñ ‚ãã½ã ‚ããõÀ ‚ãã½ã ‚ãã£ãããäÀ¦ã „¦¹ã㪠½ã쌾ã ¹ã Ôãñ Ôã…ªãè ‚ãÀºã, ¾ãî.†.ƒÃ, ¾ã½ã¶ã, ‡ãìŠÌãõ¦ã, ¾ãî.‡ãñŠ., ¾ãî.†Ôã.†., •ã½ãöããè, ¶ããèªÀÊãõ¶¡áÔã ‚ããõÀ •ãã¹ãã¶ã ‡ãŠãñ ãä¶ã¾ããæã ãä‡ãŠ† •ãã¦ãñ Öö. ºãâØÊããªñÍã, ¶ãñ¹ããÊã ‚ããõÀ ÑããèÊãâ‡ãŠã ¦ããû•ãã ‚ãã½ããò ‡ãñŠ „¼ãÀ¦ãñ ‚ãã¾ãã•ã‡ãŠãò ‡ãñŠ ¹㠽ãò Ôãã½ã¶ãñ ‚ãã ÀÖñ Öö. ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ ‡ãìŠÊã ãäÌãÍÌã ̾ãã¹ããÀ ½ãò ¼ããÀ¦ã ÌãÓãà ´ãÀã ÊããØã¼ãØã 16 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠã ãä¶ã¾ããæã Öãñ¦ãã Öõ. ¦ããû•ãã ‚ãã½ããò ‡ãñŠ ãä¶ã¾ããæ㠇ãŠã ÊãØã¼ãØã 85-90 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã ãä¶ã¾ããæ㠽㣾㠹ãîÌããê ªñÍããò ‡ãŠãñ, 5-7 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã ‡ãŠã ãä¶ã¾ããæ㠪ãäàã¥ã ¹ãîÌããê ªñÍããò ‡ãŠãñ ‚ããõÀ ÍãñÓã ãä¶ã¾ããæ㠾ãîÀãñ¹ããè¾ã ªñÍããò ‡ãŠãñ ãä‡ãŠ¾ãã •ãã¦ãã Öõ.

� ãäÞ㦦ãîÀ ‚ããõÀ ‡ãðŠÓ¥ãã ãäû•ãÊããò ½ãò ªãñ ‡ãðŠãäÓã ãä¶ã¾ããæã àãñ¨ã [†ãäØãÆ †‡ã‹Ô¹ããñ›Ã •ããñ¶Ôã (†ƒÃû•ãñ¡)] (½ãöØããñ ¹ãʹ㠂ããõÀ ¦ããû•ãã ‚ãã½ã) Öö. ãäÞ㦦ãîÀ ãäÔ©ã¦ã ¹ãʹ㠇ãðŠãäÓã ãä¶ã¾ããæã àãñ¨ã (†ƒÃû•ãñ¡) ‡ãŠãè Ôã¹ãŠÊã¦ãã ‡ãŠãè Øãã©ãã ¼ããÀ¦ã ¼ãÀ ½ãò ¹ãÆãäÔã® Öõ. ½ãöØããñ ¹ãʹ㠇ãñŠ „¦¹ã㪶㠽ãò 42 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã ‡ãŠãè Ìãðãä® ÖìƒÃ Öõ ¾ã©ãã ÌãÓãà 2002 ½ãò ƒÔã‡ãŠã „¦¹ã㪶ã 48,000 ½ãñãä›È‡ãŠ ›¶ã ©ãã •ããñ ÌãÓãà 2006 ½ãò ºãü¤‡ãŠÀ 83,000 ½ãñãä›È‡ãŠ ›¶ã Öãñ Øã¾ãã. ½ãöØããñ ¹ãʹ㠇ãñŠ ãä¶ã¾ããæ㠽ãîʾ㠽ãò ¼ããè 58 ¹ãÆãä¦ãÍã¦ã ‡ãŠãè Ìãðãä® ÖìƒÃ Öõ ‚ã©ããæ㠃Ôããè ‚ãÌããä£ã ‡ãñŠ ªãõÀã¶ã ãä¶ã¾ããæ㠽ãîʾã 75 ‡ãŠÀãñü¡ Á¹ã¾ãñ Ôãñ ºãü¤‡ãŠÀ 180 ‡ãŠÀãñü¡ Á¹ã¾ãñ Öãñ Øã¾ãã.

� ä¶ã¾ããæã Ô¦ãÀ ¹ãÀ ¹ãƽãìŒã ºãã£ãã†ú ƒÔã ¹ãƇãŠãÀ Öö, ¹ãÆ ¹ã‹ÊããƒÃ ‚ããõÀ Ô›ãñ¶ã ÌããèãäÌãÊã ‡ãŠãè ºãü¤¦ããè Ü㛶ãã‚ããò ‡ãñŠ ‡ãŠãÀ¥ã ‡ã슜 ªñÍããò ¾ã©ãã •ãã¹ãã¶ã, ‚ããùÔ›ÈñãäÊã¾ãã ‚ããõÀ ¾ãî.†Ôã.† ‡ãŠãñ ‚ãã½ã ‡ãñŠ ãä¶ã¾ããæ㠽ãò Á‡ãŠãÌã›ò ‚ãã ÀÖãè Öö, ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠã ‚ãã¾ãã¦ã ‡ãŠÀ¶ãñ ÌããÊãñ ªñÍããò ‡ãñŠ „¹ã¼ããñ‡ã‹¦ãã‚ããò ½ãò ‚ãʹãŠã¶Ôããñ ãä‡ãŠÔ½ã ‡ãŠãñ œãñü¡‡ãŠÀ ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠãè ‚ã¶¾ã ãä‡ãŠÔ½ããò ‡ãñŠ Ôãâºãâ£ã ½ãò •ãã¶ã‡ãŠãÀãè ‚ããõÀ •ããØã‡㊦ãã Ôãð•ã¶ã ‡ãŠã ‚ã¼ããÌã Öãñ¶ãã, ÍãìÁ‚ãã¦ã ‡ãñŠ ÌãÓããô ½ãò ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠãè ãä©ããä¸ãâØã ‡ãŠã ¹ããÊã¶ã ¶ã ãä‡ãŠ† •ãã¶ãñ ‡ãñŠ ‡ãŠãÀ¥ã ¼ããÀ¦ããè¾ã ‚ãã½ã ‡ãŠãè ‚ãÞœãè û¹ãŠÔãÊã ªãñ ÌãÓãà ½ãò †‡ãŠ ºããÀ ‚ãã¦ããè Öõ ãä•ãÔãÔãñ „¦¹ã㪶㠇㊽ã Öãñ¦ãã Öõ, „¦¹ã㪶㠇ãñŠ¶³ãò ½ãò ¹ãõ‡ãŠ-Öã„û•ãñÔã, ¹ãÆãè-‡ãîŠãäÊãâØã ‚ããõÀ ‡ãŠãñÊ¡ •ãõÔããè ‚ãã£ããÀ¼ãî¦ã ÔãìãäÌã£ãã‚ããò ‡ãŠãè ‚ã¹ã¾ããù¦ã¦ãã ‡ãñŠ ‡ãŠãÀ¥ã ¹ãŠÊããò ‡ãŠãñ ‡ãŠãñÊ¡ Þãñ¶ã ¦ã‡ãŠ ¹ãÖìúÞãã¶ãñ ‚ããõÀ ÀŒã¶ãñ ½ãò ªñÀãè Öãñ¶ãã, Ÿñ‡ãñŠªãÀãò ‡ãŠãñ ¹ãÖÊãñ Öãè „¹ã•ã ºãñÞã ªñ¶ãñ ‡ãñŠ ‡ãŠãÀ¥ã „¦¹ã㪇ãŠãò ´ãÀ㠇㊛ãƒÃ Ôãñ ¹ãîÌãà ‡ãñŠ ¹ãÆãñ›ãñ‡ãŠãùÊããò ‡ãŠã Ôã½ãìãäÞã¦ã ¹ã Ôãñ ¹ããÊã¶ã ¶ã ‡ãŠÀ¶ãã ‚ãããäª.

Executive Summary

• The commodity study on mango was conducted in Andhra Pradesh covering two

districts, i.e., Chitoor and Krishna, with the objectives of studying the cultivation

practices of mango as also studying the farm economics, aspects relating to

marketing of mango and mango based products, price spread, various channels,

their efficiency, etc., assessing extent and methods of mango processing,

analyzing the export performance of mango and mango based products,

performance of AEZs, etc.

• The sample frame constituted 42 mango growers, 18 mango processing units

(pulp and jelly making) and 15 traders, commisiion agents, exporters, etc. The

sample was taken up from selected mandals where area and roduction of mango

was dominant.

• Of the total fruit production in India, mango accounted for 43 per cent. In case of

Andhra Pradesh, area under mango cultivation increased from a mere 0.6 lakh ha.

in 1951-52 to 3.2 lakh ha. in 2002-03.

• Mango is commercially grown in about 83 countries in the world. Mango is one

of the six major fruit crops in the world grown commercially in India, China,

Mexico, Pakistan, Indonesia, Thailand, Nigeria, Brazil, Philippines and Haiti.

The total world production during 2005 was around 28 million metric tonnes

(MT) where India enjoys the top slot (10.8 million MT) followed by China (3.67

million MT), Thailand (1.8 million MT), Mexico (1.5 million MT), etc.

• The major mango growing states in India are UP, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,

Maharashtra, Orissa, Bihar, West Bengal, Karnataka. Goa, Haryana, MP, Punjab

and TN. The region wise popular varieties grown in different parts of the country

comprise Alphonso and Kesar from Western India, Banganpalli, Totapuri and

Neelam from southern states, Fazli from Eastern States and Langra, Chausa and

Dusheri from Northern States.

• Area-wise, Andhra Pradesh occupies 20 per cent of the total area under mango in

the country, next to Maharashtra (22%) and followed by UP (12.6%), Bihar (7%)

and Orissa (6%). The area under mango has grown at CAGR of 4.7 per cent

during 1996-97 to 2004-05. Among the several varieties grown in Andhra

Pradesh, Banganapalli or Baneshan occupies a predominant place at more than

70 per cent of the total area under mango. It is predominantly grown in Krishna

district, which is the major mango-growing belt in Coastal Andhra Pradesh.

• The cost of establishment of the mango orchards in sample districts, on an

average, was estimated at Rs.12,700 per acre and including the maintenance cost

up to 5th year the unit cost is reported at Rs.25,000/acre.

• Manuring, plant protection and irrigation are the major components in the

maintenance cost, apart from the labour charges for training, pruning, etc. The

annual maintenance cost of one acre of full grown mango orchard (from tenth

year onwards) is worked out to Rs.5,500/acre.

• The economics of mango orchards has been worked out for the average situation.

At the reference year yield, prices and costs, the net income from mango

orchards is worked out at Rs.17,000 per acre The mango orchard in the study

districts was viable with the present level of yield (5 MT), cost

(Rs.5,500/acre/annum) and price (Rs.4,500/MT) and the IRR worked out to

20.83 per cent.

• Based on the discussions with the farmers, traders and representatives of

processing units, it was observed that mango reaches to the consumer through

four channels, i.e., Grower to Pre-Harvest Contractors (PHC), Grower to Up-

Country Trader (UCT), Grower to Village Trader/Commission Agent (VT/CA)

and finally Grower to Mango Processing Units (MPUs). From the grower, mango

reaches the consumer and export destination through any of these channels.

• However, it is very difficult to come out with a clear cut demarcation of channels

as some PHCs also act as CAs, some CAs act as traders. They themselves also

act as local wholesalers. Many of the CAs/Traders are also mango orchard

owners and contribute substantially to the mango production. About 55 per cent

of mango is marketed through the channel of grower to CA/VT.

• Mango production in Chittor district arrives to five different market yards in

Chittoor and two to Nunna market yard in Vijayawada.

• Mango prices vary a great deal from year to year, depending upon each year’s

total production and various other factors like prevailing prices, demand,

transport, marketing facilities, etc. Wholesale prices of mangoes also vary

considerably, depending upon the supply/demand of particular varieties, periods

of availability, weather conditions, transport facilities, variety, quality, etc. The

average monthly wholesale price index of mangoes at all India level for the last

ten years period has grown from 128.9 in 1995 to 227. 5 in 2005 growing at a

CAGR of 6.52 per cent.

• The Commission Agents (CAs) are the most important link in the marketing of

mango and these agents control about two-thirds of the total market. Most of the

mango supply to processing industries is taken up by the CAs. In Chittoor district

these CAs are also act as grower cum trader and play a major role in the

marketing of mangoes. The CAs facilitate the trade between the mango farmers

and the UCTs.

• Price spread, the difference between the retail price paid by the consumer and the

price received by the farmer/producer for the same quantity of the produce, is

highest in Channel 1. Thus, Channel 1 (Grower → CAs/VTs → UCTs →

Retailers → Consumer) depicted the lowest market efficiency in terms of the

highest market margins (65.5%) indicating exploitation of the producers under

the supply chain involving commission agents/wholesalers. The total negative

impact is real and significant as maximum mangoes (55%) are supplied through

this channel.

• In Chittoor district, there is the mango pulp cluster containing 55 fruit processing

units operating with an installed capacity of 1,23,300 MT of mango pulp of

which 51 are small-scale units and rest are Medium Scale Units.

• The gross and net income realized by canned pulp making units is reported at

Rs.122.12 lakhs and Rs.16.42 lakh, respectively. The profit margin was worked

out to 13.45 per cent.

• Mango Jelly making cluster as a cottage industry is flourishing in East Godavari

district comprising four villages, viz., Sarpavaram, Thimmavaram, Panduru

(Kakinada Rural) and Atreyapuram. Average investment cost for a jelly-making

unit is reported at about Rs. 85,000. The average cost of production per jelly

manufacturing unit and per kg. of jelly was worked out to Rs.2.45 lakh and

Rs.28.64, respectively. The jelly units reported gross income of Rs.3.0 lakhs and

net income of 0.54 lakh. The profit margin was worked out to 18.16 per cent.

• The export volume of fresh mango from India has increased from 20.30 thousand

MT during 1987-88 to 52.14 thousand MT during 2004-05 growing at CAGR of

6.97 per cent. During the same period the export value has grown at CAGR of

9.85 per cent. The share of export volume to total production is miserably low

which has increased from a mere 0.20 per cent in 1987-88 to only 0.45 per cent

in 2004-05. India’s exports of mango and mango based products in 2004-05,

registered a marginal growth of 6.62 per cent over the previous year when the

same reached a level of Rs. 464.89 crore as against Rs. 436.01 crore.

• Mango and mango-based products are mainly exported to Saudi Arabia, U.A.E.,

Yemen, Kuwait, U.K., U.S.A., Germany, Netherlands and Japan from India.

Bangladesh, Nepal and Srilanka are the emerging importers for fresh mangoes.

India's mango export is about 16 per cent of the total global trade. Around 85-90

per cent of the fresh mango exports are to the Middle East. Another 5-7 per cent

of the fresh mangoes are to the South East and the balance to European countries.

• There are two AEZs (mango pulp and fresh mango) in Chittoor and Krishna

districts. The pulp AEZ in Chittor has been a success story in the country. The

production of mango pulp has increased by 42 per cent from 48,000 MT in 2002

to 83,000 MT in 2006. The export value of mango pulp has increased by 58 per

cent from Rs.75 crore to Rs.180 crore during the same period.

• Major constraints on export front are, incidences of fruit fly and stone weevil

putting hindrance to reach some countries such as Japan, Australia and USA, lack

of knowledge/awareness among consumers of the importing countries on

different varieties, inadequate infrastructure facilities such as pack houses, pre-

cooling and cold at production centres leading to delays in putting them in cold

chain, inadequate follow up of pre-harvest protocols by the producers because of

predisposing of the produce to the contractors.

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The mango, Mangifera indica L., is one of the most important tropical and subtropical fruits of the world and is popular both in fresh and the processed forms. It is called as the king of fruits on account of its nutritive value, taste, attractive fragrance and health promoting qualities. Mango has been in cultivation in the Indian sub-continent for well over 4000 years and has been the most favorite fruit since ages1. Presently, besides India, it is being cultivated world over especially, in all South & South-east Asian countries, African countries, tropical Australia and the USA2, Venezuela, Mexico, Brazil, Australia, West Indies Islands and Cambodia. 1.2 India ranks first among world’s mango producing countries accounting for 52.6 per cent of the total world’s mango production. It is grown over an area of 1.2 million hectares in the country producing 11.0 million tonnes. It accounts for 22.1 per cent of total area under fruit crops (5.6 million ha) and 22.9 per cent of total production of fruits (47.9 million tonnes) in the country. Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Punjab are the major mango producing states, of which Andhra Pradesh occupies number one position in both area and production of mangoes. The region - wise varieties grown in different parts of the country comprise: Alphonso and Kesar from western India, Banganapalli, Totapuri and Neelum from southern states, Fazli from eastern states and Langra, Chausa and Dusheri from northern states. The mangoes contribute a major share in the exports of horticulture items as well. During 2004-05, the country’s exports of mango and mango-based products were reported at Rs 464.9 crore.

I. Need for a Commodity-Specific Study on Mango in Andhra Pradesh

In case of Andhra Pradesh, area under mango cultivation increased from a mere 0.6 lakh ha. in 1951-52 to 3.9 lakh ha. in 2004-05 growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 3.7 per cent. A shift from traditional agriculture to mechanised agriculture, diversification and commercialization in agriculture resulted in shifting of cropping pattern from traditional crops to new crops, which had contributed to the increased area and production under mango. Changing demand pattern also contributed significantly to shifting of more area and production under mango. In Andhra Pradesh, the production of mango increased from 23.8 lakh MT during 1993-94 to 31.4 lakh MT during 2004-05. However, marketing and processing of mango have not picked up commensurate with the level of production. Further, supportive mechanism in the form of agricultural inputs, post harvest infrastructure set up, such as packaging, pre-cooling, cold storages, pack houses, etc., marketing system,

1 Historical facts revealed that mango was introduced to the Indian archipelago from the mainland. Some view that it had originated in the Indo-Burma region. 2 In USA, mango is grown mostly in Florida, Hawaii, Puerto Rico

2

institutional credit, etc. have not come up in proportionate to the increase in production of fruit. Even though India is the world's largest producer of mangoes, it accounts for less than one percent of the global mango trade. Around 95 per cent of India’s mango exports are routed to the Middle-East countries, whereas a meager 5 per cent is channeled to other countries in Europe and America, Japan, Hong Kong, etc. Further, exports of mangoes in the processed form remain limited. Further, because of high perishability, seasonality in production and absence of post-harvest facilities, a standardized supply chain system, etc. about 25-30 per cent of the total mango production is lost during post-harvest period, reducing further availability of fruits for consumption, value addition and export. It is also learnt that there are issues such as weak institutional arrangement, limited marketing facilities, lack of coordination among the various institutions, etc., acted as hindrance in the growth of mango. The whole lot of these issues encompasses the supply chain system (SCS) within the mango-processing sector. The importance of commodity-specific study on mango lies in addressing these issues affecting the above-mentioned parameters. Setting up of Agri-Export Zones

The Government of India (GoI) in 2001-02 initiated setting up of Agri-Export Zones (AEZs) in various States with the objectives of increasing India’s share in global agri-trade. The AEZs were meant to facilitate the development and sourcing of raw materials (agri produce) in a contiguous area for exports through processing/packaging. Presently, in Andhra Pradesh, 5 AEZs are operational in 10 districts, covering five crops. AEZs for mangoes have been set up in major producing states such as Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. In Andhra Pradesh, three AEZs3 have been set up for mango and mango pulp. , These AEZs were envisaged to establish a continuity factor and an assured supply base for export of quality mangoes and mango pulp from the State. Further, the National Horticulture Mission (NHM) identified mango as one of the core commodities having scope for further growth. The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) since its inception in 1986, has been playing a major role in the export of mango and mango based products by providing various services at both national and international level. Added to this, the State also enjoys a favourable environment, which inter alia includes favourable agro-climatic conditions, huge domestic market, cheap labour, etc. All these offer a tremendous potential to increase the overall production of mango and mango-based products thus contributing to the nation’s exportable surplus on the other. Against this backdrop, a commodity study on mango was planned in the

3 Three AEZs include two for fresh mangoes viz. Vijayawada AEZ covering Krishna district and Hyderabad AEZ covering Hyderabad, Medak and Mahabubnagar districts, and the third AEZ for mango pulp in Chittoor district.

3

state of Andhra Pradesh in order to have a full perspective of the commodity in its varied facets, i.e., production, processing, marketing, exports, etc.

II. Report

The study report has been organized into nine chapters. Chapter two explains the objectives, study design and methodology adopted for the study. Chapter three, while highlighting a global scenario of mango production, presents an overview of growth in area, production and productivity of mango in India in general and Andhra Pradesh in particular. Chapter four describes the cultivation practices and economics of growing mango. Chapter five elaborates the marketing channels, prices, etc. in the select districts. Extent and economics of mango processing have been analysed in Chapter six. Chapter seven describes the export of mango and performance of export in pre- and -post AEZ situations. Chapter eight analyses the supply chain of mango. In Chapter nine, constraints and strategies for furthering production, processing and export of mango has been presented.

III. Scope of the Study

The findings of the study are based on a sample of mango growers, traders, processors, exporters, etc. in two districts of Andhra Pradesh, i.e., Krishna and Chittoor. Besides, it is based on discussions with district level functionaries like, officials from the Department of Horticulture (DoH) at the district level, marketing committees, bankers, DDMs, LDMs of the study districts as also the final consumers of mango and mango-based products. Generally, mango arrivals and prices vary considerably across different markets even within a given district. Consequently, price spread, market efficiency and other related parameters differ. Therefore, the findings of the study presented in this report should be interpreted judiciously and should not be generalized across the States and places.

4

CHAPTER II

OBJECTIVES, STUDY DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

This chapter elaborates the objectives and methodology adopted for the study.

I. Objectives

The study has been conducted with the following objectives.

• To study the growth patterns in area, production and productivity of mango in Andhra Pradesh vis-à-vis India. To study the cultivation practices of mango as also the adoption of modern technologies, along with studying the economics of growing mango.

• To study the aspects relating to marketing of mango and mango based products, price spread, various channels, their efficiency, etc.

• To assess extent and methods of mango processing as also economics of processing, issues affecting the processing industries, etc.

• To study the export performance of mango and mango-based products, role of AEZs in export promotion, etc.

• To analyse the post-harvest management practices of mango as also availability of infrastructure and backward and forward linkages for an effective supply chain system for mango and mango based products.

• To study the constraints and offering strategies for strengthening different segments of supply chain system for mango industry.

II. Methodology and Sample Design

While addressing the issues affecting mango as a horticultural commodity, the study adopted ‘FARM to PLATE’ (FTP) approach. The study concentrated on issues involved from production of mango to its marketing and consumption by the households. In production stage, the study dealt with the ‘Farm Economics’ in brief to understand the cost of cultivation and income accrued to the cultivator of mango. In the processing stage, the study dealt with different products of value addition and economics of such value addition. Lastly, in marketing stage, the study focused on identification of different channels of marketing, price spread, marketing efficiency, etc. The study identified different channels available and also worked out the price spread, level of efficiencies in each channel and the critical issues involved for improving the efficiency. The study also dealt with ‘Supply Chain Management System' (SCMS) covering the collaborative and harmonized relationship covering input supply, production, harvesting, marketing, storage, processing, etc.

5

(i) Selection of Districts and Mandals

Production of mango is concentrated in all the districts in Andhra Pradesh. However, in terms of ranking, Krishna district in Coastal region (4.96 lakh MT), Chittoor district in Rayalseema region (3.91 lakh MT) and Khammam district in Telengana region (3.34 lakh MT) stand first, second and third position, respectively. Further, a number of mango processing units (pulp and jelly making) are located in Chittoor and Krishna districts. With a view to harnessing the export potential of mangoes produced in the State, AEZs for mango pulp in Chittoor district and AEZ for fresh mango in Krishna district have been set up in the State. Accordingly, Krishna and Chittoor districts were selected for the study. From both the districts, four blocks were selected in Chittoor districts and five blocks in Krishna district considering the area, production and arrival of mango to the nearest market yard. Damancheruvu, Chittoor, Tirupati and Bangarupalem blocks were considered from Chittoor district and Nuzivid, Tiruvur, Agiripalli, Vissannapet and Gampalagudem blocks were taken into account in Krishna district. (ii) Selection of Mango Growers/Processors/Export Units

A total of 42 mango growers were covered in the study. Growers were selected from across the selected blocks/mandals in both the districts. Two types of mango processing units were considered for the study. They were mango pulp making and mango jelly making. A total of 18 processing units were selected for the study. Mango jelly making units were concentrated in East Godavari district and 6 jelly making units were visited for the purpose of the study. Similarly, 6 traders, 8 commission agents, 2 exporters were also covered during the study. The sample frame for the study is indicated in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Sample Frame for the Commodity Study on Mango

Category/Districts Chittoor Krishna East Godavari Total

Mango Growers 18 24 --- 42

Mango Processors 10 2 6* 18

Traders/Exporters@ 8 7 --- 15

Total 36 33 6 75 *Mango jelly making units @ includes retailers, wholesalers commission agents, etc.

III. Data Collection:

The study is based on both primary and secondary data. Primary data were collected from mango growers, processors, traders/exporters, etc. Secondary data were collected mainly from published sources of State and Central Government, publications from APEDA, National Horticulture Board (NHB), Department of Marketing and Directorate of Economics and Statistics (DoES), GoAP, websites of different organizations and institutions, etc. Information was also collected from nursery and other input suppliers, units involved in post harvest handling of mango,

6

district level nodal officers for AEZs, market yards, banks and financial institutions. etc. The following parameters were broadly studied to address the objectives.

• Time series data on area and production of mango in different districts of AP.

• Costs and returns in mango cultivation

• Costs and returns in processing units (mango pulp, mango jelly making units)

• Trend in prices of mangoes

• All India mango exports and the state’s contribution

• Role of AEZs in export promotion in the State

• Information on organic mangoes and research in mango cultivation.

IV. Data Analysis

• The study was attempted to bring out the full perspective of all the aspects of mango cultivation as also value addition and export of mango.

• Different statistical tools, in addition to tabular analysis, ratios, percentages, were used keeping in view the suitability of their use in analyzing the data collected.

• The viability of mango orchards was analysed using the discounted cash flow technique and in terms of benefit cost ratio (BCR), the net present value (NPV) and the Internal Rate of Return (IRR).

• The marketing efficiency (ME) is arrived through the concept of ‘price spread’4. In the absence of direct linkage between the mango grower and the consumer, it is the middlemen who have been taking advantage of the situation. An indicator of the efficiency of any supply chain is the extent of the price spread between the producer and the consumer. A higher price spread would indicate a lower efficiency. Conversely, a lower price spread would indicate a high efficiency. The producer’s share in the consumer price is high when the marketing efficiency is high. The formula used to arrive at the market efficiency is as mentioned below.

ME = ∑ Im / (CP – PP), Where Im = Intermediary Margins CP = Consumer Price PP = Producers’ Farm Gate Price.

• Variety-wise analysis has been attempted, wherever information was available for all parameters for different varieties.

• The reference year for the study was reckoned as April 2005-March 2006. All cost and return parameters have been analysed on reference year prices.

4 The ‘price spread’ is defined as the difference between the price paid by the consumer and that received by the producer. This difference is accounted for by various costs, particularly marketing costs, incurred by the market intermediaries and the margins retained by them.

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CHAPTER III

AREA AND PRODUCTION OF MANGO:

GLOBAL SCENARIO, INDIA AND ANDHRA PRADESH

This chapter describes the area, production and productivity of mango in Andhra Pradesh. Production scenario at global level and all India, has also been highlighted.

I. Global Scenario

Mango is commercially grown in about 83 countries in the world (Appendix I). According to Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), mango is one of the six major fruit crops in the world grown commercially in major producing countries like India, China, Mexico, Pakistan, Indonesia, Thailand, Nigeria, Brazil, Philippines and Haiti. The total world production during 2005 was around 28 million metric tonnes (MT) where India enjoys the top slot (10.8 million MT) followed by China (3.67 million MT), Thailand (1.8 million MT), Mexico (1.5 million MT), etc. (Table 3.1). When compared to world average (7,226 kg./ha), India’s productivity (6,750 kg./ha.) is low. Brazil ranks first in productivity (12500 kg/ha), which is well ahead of world average productivity.

Table 3.1: Area, Production and Productivity of Mango - Global Scenario - 2005

(Area in ha., Production in Mt. & Yield in kg./ha.)

Country Area Share(% to

total) Production Share (% to

total) Yield

World 3870200 100.0 27966749 100 7226

Brazil 68000 1.8 850000 3.0 12500

China 433600 11.2 3673000 13.1 8470

Guinea 82000 2.1 164000 0.6 2000

India 1600000 41.3 10800000 38.6 6750

Indonesia 273440 7.1 1478204 5.3 5406

Mexico 173837 4.5 1503010 5.4 8646

Nigeria 125000 3.2 730000 2.6 5840

Pakistan 151500 3.9 1673900 6.0 11048

Philippines 160000 4.1 950000 3.4 5937

Thailand 285000 7.4 1800000 6.4 6315

Ohers 517723 13.4 4344635 15.5 --- Source: FAO database 2005

II. Area, Production and Productivity in India

India has been bestowed with wide range of climate and physio-geographical conditions and as such is most suitable for growing various kinds of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, flowers, nuts, spices and plantation crops. The total annual production of such crops has touched over 149 million tonnes. India is the

8

second largest producer of fruits (45.5 Million tonnes) and vegetables (90.8 Million tonnes) in the world, contributing 10.23 per cent and 14.45 per cent, respectively, of the total world production of fruits and vegetables. India enjoys the top position in production of mango, banana, sapota and acid lime. India accounted for about 53 per cent of world mango production. Mango is the most important fruit crop of India and comes next to banana, apple and oranges on the basis of global acreage and production. India is the largest producer and consumer of mangoes in the world. Mango accounts for over 23 per cent (45.5 Million tonnes) of the total fruit production and 41 per cent of the total fruit area (24.87 million ha) of the country (Table 3.2 & Chart 3.1). The CAGR showed that area growth (3.37%) is quite high compared to growth in production (0.82%). Productivity experienced a negative growth of 2.49 per cent.

Table 3.2: Area, Production and Productivity of Mango in India-1987-2005 (Area in ‘000ha., Production in ‘000MT & Productivity in MT./ha.)

Year Area % to total fruit area

Production % to total fruit Production

Productivity

1987-88 1232.9 43.5 10350.4 37.4 8.4

1991-92 1077.6 37.5 8715.6 30.4 8.1

1992-93 1136.7 35.5 9223.3 28.0 8.1

1993-94 1217.4 38.2 10113.3 27.1 8.3

1994-95 1228.3 28.5 10993.3 28.5 9.0

1995-96 1283.1 38.2 10810.9 26.0 8.4

1996-97 1344.9 37.6 9981.2 24.7 7.4

1997-98 1384.9 37.5 10234.2 23.7 7.4

1998-99 1401.6 37.6 9781.8 21.4 7.0

1999-00 1486.9 37.3 10503.5 23.0 7.1

2000-01 1519.0 39.3 10056.8 23.3 6.6

2001-02 1575.8 39.3 10020.2 23.3 6.4

2002-03 1623.4 42.9 12733.2 28.2 7.8

2003-04 1906.7 39.8 11490.0 23.3 6.0

2004-05 1961.9 40.9 11605.2 23.5 5.9

CARG (%) 3.37 --- 0.82 --- -2.49 Source: National Horticultural Board

Although, India is the world's largest producer of mangoes, its yield is at the lowest. Low yield is one among many problems identified, others being post harvest damage, size of orchards not amenable and absence of brands. Indian mangoes are world famous and have great potential for export as compared to other fruits of the country. The reasons for low productivity of our mangoes are that most of the commercial cultivars are location specific with long gestation period and alternate bearing habit viz., Deshehari, Langra, Chausa, Bombay Green, Alphonso, Banganpalli, Pairi, Himsagar, Kesar, Mulgoa etc

9

State-wise Scenario

The major mango growing states in India are UP, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Bihar, West Bengal, Karnataka. Goa, Haryana, MP, Punjab and TN. The region wise popular varieties grown in different parts of the country comprise Alphonso and Kesar from Western India, Banganpalli, Totapuri and Neelam from southern states, Fazli from Eastern States and Langra, Chausa and Dusheri from Northern States. Area-wise, Andhra Pradesh occupies 20 per cent of the total area under mango in the country, next to Maharashtra (22%) and followed by UP (12.6%), Bihar (7%) and Orissa (6%). In Andhra Pradesh, the area under mango has grown at CAGR of 4.7 per cent during 1996-97 to 2004-05 (Table 3.3).

Table 3.3: Growth in Area under Mango in Major States during 1996-97 to 2004-05

(Area in '000 ha.)

Year AP UP Ktka Bihar Mhtr WB Orissa Others India

1996-97 271.4 256.2 116.5 151.8 65.5 55.7 89.1 338.7 1344.9

1997-98 276.2 258.7 123.9 153.2 65.5 55.8 97.6 354.0 1384.9

1998-99 252.1 240.5 123.8 154.8 110.0 59.3 109.8 351.3 1401.6

1999-00 297.5 243.2 124.1 156.0 147.2 60.0 96.2 362.7 1486.9

2000-01 306.2 249.1 134.4 139.1 147.2 62.5 103.8 380.3 1522.6

2001-02 341.2 253.0 115.4 139.3 164.4 65.4 107.3 389.8 1575.8

2002-03 370.3 247.6 117.4 139.5 181.2 66.4 113.1 388.1 1623.4

2003-04 402.2 250.5 116.3 140.0 425.8 67.8 115.1 389.0 1906.7

2004-05 391.9 247.0 117.5 140.1 432.7 69.1 120.3 443.2 1961.9

CARG(%) 4.7 -0.5 0.1 -1.0 26.6 2.7 3.8 3.4 4.8

Andhra Pradesh produces 27 per cent of the total mango production in the country next to West Bengal (28.3%) and followed by Uttar Pradesh (22.3%). (Table 3.3).

Table 3.4: Growth in Production under Mango in Major States during 1996-05

(Production in '000 MT.)

Year AP UP K.taka Bihar Mahtra Others WB India

1996-97 3256.3 3548.0 1106.7 910.4 196.5 9017.9 963.3 9981.2

1997-98 3314.4 1722.3 1176.4 1838.9 65.5 8117.5 2116.7 10234.2

1998-99 2269.6 2418.7 1176.5 1858.1 196.9 7919.8 1862.0 9781.8

1999-00 2379.6 1106.7 1179.9 1871.9 500.5 7038.6 3464.9 10503.5

2000-01 2449.5 2250.3 1291.4 1112.5 500.5 7604.2 2632.8 10237.0

2001-02 2445.8 1950.0 1130.6 1253.5 559.0 7338.9 2681.3 10020.2

2002-03 2962.1 4031.3 1098.2 1255.6 615.9 9963.1 2770.4 12733.5

2003-04 3217.2 2100.1 1111.2 1540.1 629.8 8598.4 2891.6 11490.0

2004-05 3135.2 2585.6 1105.9 865.6 634.3 8326.6 3278.6 11605.2

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III. Area, Production and Productivity in Andhra Pradesh

Mango is the leading fruit crop of Andhra Pradesh, which occupies an area of 3.91 lakhs hectares which accounts for 60 per cent of the total area under fruits with an annual production of about 31.4 lakh tonnes. As per the Horticulture Vision 2020 of Govt. of A.P., area under mango shall increase from 2.76 lakh ha in 1997-98 to 5.52 lakh ha. by 2020. The major mango growing districts are Krishna, Chittoor, East Godavari, West Godavari, Visakhapatnam, Vizianagaram, Srikakulam, Khammam, Karimnagar and Adilabad (Table 3.7). The area and production in major four districts in the State are Krishna (61,977 ha with 4,95,816 tonnes), Chittoor (48,913 ha with 3,91,304 tonnes), Vizianagaram (35,634 ha with 2,85072 tonnes) and Khammam (41,840 ha with 3,34,720 tonnes). Among the several varieties grown in Andhra Pradesh, Banganapalli or Baneshan occupies a predominant place (<70% of the total area under mango). Banginapalli, predominantly grown in Krishna district, is famous for its good flavour, flesh qualities and keeping quality. Slowly and steadily it is gaining popularity in the international trade. Totapuri, the standard variety for pulp world over, is the major variety grown in Chittoor district. The other varieties grown in the state are Neelum, Imampasand, Rasalu varieties, etc. The area, production and productivity of mango in Andhra Pradesh since 1991-92 is presented in Table 3.5. The CAGR for area and production under mango in AP during 1991-92 to 2004-05 has been worked out to 5.0 per cent and 2.3 per cent, respectively.

Table 3.5: Area, Production & Productivity of Mango in Andhra Pradesh -1991-2005

(Area in lakh ha.)

Year Andhra Pradesh India % of AP to India

A P Y A P Y A P

1991-92 2.08 24.91 12.0 10.78 87.16 8.1 19.29 28.58

1992-93 2.25 Na Na 11.37 92.23 8.1 19.79 Na

1993-94 2.41 Na Na 12.17 101.13 8.3 19.80 Na

1994-95 2.56 Na Na 12.28 109.93 9.0 20.85 Na

1995-96 2.64 13.04 4.9 12.83 108.11 8.4 20.58 12.06

1996-97 2.71 32.56 12.0 13.45 99.81 7.4 20.15 32.62

1997-98 2.76 33.14 12.0 13.85 102.34 7.4 19.93 32.38

1998-99 2.82 22.70 8.0 14.02 97.82 7.0 20.11 23.21

1999-00 2.97 23.80 8.0 14.87 105.04 7.1 19.97 22.66

2000-01 3.06 24.50 8.0 15.19 100.57 6.6 20.14 24.36

2001-02 3.41 24.49 7.2 15.76 100.20 6.4 21.64 24.44

2002-03 3.70 29.62 8.0 16.23 127.33 7.8 22.80 23.26

2003-04 4.02 32.17 8.0 19.07 114.90 6.0 21.08 28.00

2004-05 3.92 31.35 8.0 19.62 116.05 5.9 19.98 27.01

CARG (%) 5.00 1.78 --- 4.71 0.82 --- --- --- Sources: 1.Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh, 2.National Horticultural Board

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Among the study districts, Krishna district is endowed with the highest area (62,000 ha.) under mango cultivation followed by Chittoor (48,900 ha.) and Khammam (41,800 ha.) districts. In terms of production, both Krishna and Chittoor districts stood first and second position producing 4.96 lakh MT and 3.91 lakh MT of mango, respectively, during 2004-05. In terms of area and production, both the districts share about 28 per cent of area and production of mango in Andhra Pradesh (Table 3.6). Even though, these two districts occupy the first and second position in terms of both area and production, gradually other districts have been increasing their area and production thus reducing the share of these districts, which has declined from 33 per cent (area) and 40 per cent (production) during 1998-99 to the present level (28%).

Table 3.6: Area, Production & Yield of Mango in Study Districts –1998-2005

(Area in ‘000 ha. & Production in ‘000MTs.)

Chittoor Krishna Andhra Pradesh % of Chittoor & Krishna

Year

A P A P A P A P

1998-99 33.0 106.8 61.2 803.4 281.9 2269.6 33.42 40.10

1999-00 42.8 342.1 61.3 490.5 297.4 2379.6 35.00 34.99

2000-01 45.1 360.2 61.4 491.5 306.2 2449.5 34.78 34.77

2001-02 45.6 368.9 65.0 492.7 341.2 2445.8 32.42 35.23

2002-03 47.8 382.7 67.5 539.9 370.3 2962.1 31.14 31.15

2003-04 52.7 421.8 72.5 579.9 402.2 3217.2 31.13 31.14

2004-05 48.9 391.3 62.0 495.8 391.9 3135.2 28.30 28.29

CARG (%) 6.8 24.2 0.2 -7.7 5.6 5.5 --- --- Source: Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh

In Chittoor district, mangoes account for 97 per cent share in total fruit production. Totapuri (50%) and Neelum (25%) are the major varieties grown in the district. In Krishna district, while Banganapalli occupies 60 per cent of the area, Totapuri accounts for 20 per cent. The balance area is under the coverage of other varieties like Chinnarasam, Peddarasam (both juicy varieties), Neelam, Suvaranrekha, Rasalu, Jala Navaneetham, Himayat, etc. The Banishan (Banganapalli) is the native variety in Krishna district. Totapuri and Neelam variety of mango is mostly used for processing. Banishan or Banganapalli variety is mostly used for export, both, domestic and outside. In Chittoor district, mango is grown in all mandals. Vissannapeta (10,000 ha), Nuzividu (9000 ha), Agripalli (8500 ha), Reddigudem (7000 ha), Chatral (6,000 ha) and Mylavaram (5000 ha ) are the major mango growing mandals in Krishna district.

12

Table 3.7: District-wise CARG of Area and Production of Mango in Andhra Pradesh during 1998-99 to 2004-05

(Area in ‘000 ha. & Pro

duction in ‘000MTs.)

1998-99

1999-2000

2000-01

2001-02

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

CARG (%)

Districts

Area

Prodn

Area

Prodn

Area

Prodn

Area

Prodn

Area

Prodn

Area

Prodn

Area

Prodn

Area

Prodn

Srikakulam

7.7

91.0

8.0

63.9

8.1

64.6

10.3

68.0

11.5

91.7

11.5

91.7

11.5

91.8

6.9

0.1

V. naram

27.7

95.0

29.7

237.5

30.9

247.4

31.1

259.1

36.7

293.9

36.7

293.9

35.6

285.1

4.3

20.1

V.patnam

15.4

56.9

15.6

124.6

19.6

156.7

17.3

125.6

17.0

136.1

17.0

136.1

19.0

151.7

3.5

17.7

E.Godaw

ari

20.3

52.4

20.6

164.7

19.5

156.3

17.6

150.9

21.0

167.7

21.0

167.7

18.3

146.4

-1.7

18.7

W. Godaw

ari

21.8

422.0

20.7

165.9

20.4

162.9

20.5

161.2

22.5

179.9

27.5

219.9

16.4

130.9

-4.6

-17.7

Krishna

61.2

803.4

61.3

490.5

61.4

491.5

65.0

492.7

67.5

539.9

72.5

579.9

62.0

495.8

0.2

-7.7

Guntur

0.9

10.5

1.0

7.7

1.0

7.9

1.0

8.0

2.0

15.9

2.0

15.9

1.0

7.8

0.8

-4.8

Prakasam

4.2

47.5

4.2

34.0

4.9

34.3

5.1

40.0

6.2

49.9

6.2

49.9

5.2

41.8

3.6

-2.1

Nellore

8.6

22.9

9.4

74.9

9.4

75.1

9.6

76.0

9.8

78.4

9.8

78.4

10.2

81.7

2.9

23.6

Sub-Total

167.8

1603.3

17.0

1363.6

174.6

1396.6

177.4

1381.4

194.2

1553.4

204.2

1633.4

179.1

1433.0

1.1

-1.9

Chittoor

33.0

106.8

42.8

342.1

45.1

360.2

45.6

368.9

47.8

382.7

52.7

421.8

48.9

391.3

6.8

24.2

Cuddapa

14.5

107.8

15.7

125.8

16.9

135.0

16.3

138.1

17.7

141.9

22.7

181.9

17.6

140.8

3.3

4.6

Anatapuram

3.4

22.8

3.4

26.9

3.4

27.1

3.8

26.8

6.0

47.7

6.0

47.7

6.4

51.2

11.3

14.5

Karnool

1.7

17.9

1.9

15.3

2.0

15.7

2.5

15.9

3.0

24.2

5.0

40.2

4.1

32.9

16.3

10.6

Sub-Total

52.6

255.3

63.8

510.2

67.3

538.4

68.1

549.7

74.6

596.5

86.5

691.6

77.0

616.2

6.6

15.8

Mehboobnagar

3.6

34.0

3.4

30.8

4.5

36.0

3.9

39.7

5.1

40.8

7.1

56.8

18.5

148.0

31.6

27.8

RangaR

eddy

3.0

12.2

2.8

22.5

2.8

22.1

2.7

21.6

2.9

23.6

7.9

63.6

4.6

37.1

7.7

20.3

Medak

1.8

14.4

2.3

18.4

2.0

15.9

4.1

17.9

4.7

37.8

4.7

37.8

5.3

42.3

19.9

19.7

Nizam

abad

0.6

3.3

0.6

4.8

0.6

5.1

1.5

5.5

1.6

13.2

1.6

13.2

1.9

15.1

21.3

29.0

Adilabad

3.3

35.0

3.0

24.3

2.9

22.8

11.8

13.3

13.3

106.1

13.3

106.1

17.0

136.4

31.7

25.4

Karim

Nagar

6.2

53.9

6.3

50.2

6.4

51.5

9.8

51.3

9.8

78.1

9.8

78.1

11.7

93.7

11.1

9.7

Warangal

4.4

19.1

4.7

37.9

5.1

40.8

14.9

41.5

15.5

123.9

15.5

123.9

19.7

158.0

28.2

42.2

Kham

am

31.9

150.0

32.2

257.4

32.4

259.6

32.7

261.8

35.2

281.3

38.2

305.3

41.8

334.7

4.6

14.3

Nalgonda

6.8

89.1

7.4

59.5

7.6

60.7

14.5

62.0

13.5

107.6

13.5

107.6

15.1

120.8

14.2

5.2

Sub-Total

61.5

411.0

63.2

505.8

64.3

514.6

95.7

514.7

101.5

812.3

111.5

892.3

135.7

1086.0

14.1

17.6

A.P Total

281.9

2269.6

297.4

2379.6

306.2

2449.5

341.2

2445.8

370.3

2962.1

402.2

3217.2

391.9

3135.2

5.6

5.5

Source: Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh

13

CHAPTER IV

CULTIVATION PRACTICES

AND ECONOMICS OF MANGO CULTIVATION

The chapter describes the cultivation practices of mango and the economics of mango cultivation. The analysis was supported by data/information gathered from 42 sample mango growers from the study districts, i.e., Chittoor and Krishna.

I. Botanical Description5

Mango trees grown from seeds are known as "seedlings". Tree is symbolically branched. Grafted trees on the other hand are dwarf with spreading branches. The compactness of the canopy, branching pattern and leaf component show eco-geographical dependence. Seedling trees live much more than 100 years whereas grafted ones live 80 years or less. Mango tree is medium to large (10-40 m in height), evergreen with symmetrical, rounded canopy ranging from low and dense to upright and open. The mango fruit varies considerably in size, shape, colour, presence of fibre, flavour, taste and several other characters. The shape of the fruit varies from rounded to ovate-oblong or longish, with the length varying from 2.5 to 30 cm in different varieties. II. Nutritional Value of Mango

Mango is very nutritious and excellent source of carotene as compared to other fruits. The nutritive value of per 100 g of Mango is presented in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Nutritive value of per 100 g of Mango

Nutrients Ripe mango Green or raw mango

Protein (g) 0.6 0.7

Fat (g) 0.4 0.1

Minerals (g) 0.4 0.4

Fibre (g) 0.7 1.2

Carbohydrates (g) 16.9 10.1

Energy (kcal) 74 44

Vitamin C (mg) 16 3

Total carotene (mcg) 2,210 90

Beta carotene (mcg) 1,990 NA

Potassium (mg) 205 83

Sodium (mg) 26 43

Calcium (mg) 14 10

Iron (mg) 1.3 0.33

Phosphorus (mg) 16 19 Source: National Institute of Nutrition NIN), Hyderabad

5 Sourced from http://www.horticultureworld.net.

14

A 100 g. of edible portion of the mango contains about 1990 ug of beta-carotene (vitamin A), which is much higher than in other fruits. The total carotenoids in mango increase with the stage of ripening. Eating mangoes in the season may provide a store of vitamin A in the liver, sufficient to last for the rest of the year and highly beneficial for the prevention of vitamin A deficient disorders, like night blindness. Mangoes, both ripe and unripe, are very good a source of vitamin C. About 16 mg of vitamin C is present in 100 g of mango. Both vitamins A and C are antioxidants and help to prevent free radical injury and thus reduce the risk of certain cancers. Ripe mango provides a good source of calories. A ripe mango supplies 74 kcal per 100 g (mainly derived from fructose).

III. Cultivation Practices

Climate: Mango is grown in areas from sea level to an altitude of 1500 m. It thrives well in regions with no high humidity, rain or frost during the flowering period. During summer (April-May) when the temperature is high (420 - 440 C) growing shoots wither and dry up and the fruits get sunburn due to desiccation, intense sunlight (550 cal/CM2 /day) and low atmospheric humidity (less than 20%). Most of the mango varieties thrive in places with good rainfall (75 to 375 cm per annum). Soil: Mango grows well on wide variety of soils, such as lateritic, alluvial, sandy loam and sandy. The loamy or alluvial, well-drained, aerated and deep soils (minimum 6') rich in organic matter with a pH range of 5.5 to 7.5 are most suitable for mango cultivation. In Andhra Pradesh, it is mostly grown in light textured sandy loams (Chalka and Dubba soils) and trees attain only low to medium height. Varieties: Though there are nearly 1,000 varieties of mango in India, only a few varieties are grown on a commercial scale in different states (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2: Major Mango Varieties grown in Different States

No States Varieties

1 Andhra Pra Banganpalli, Bangalora,Cherukurasam, Suvarnarekha

2 Bihar Bombai, Langra, Fazli, Himsagar, Kishen Bhog, Sukul, Bathua

3 Goa Fernandin, Mankurad, Alphonso

4 Gujarat Alphonso, Kesar, Rajapuri, Vanraj

5 Haryana Dashehari, Langra, Bombay Green

6 Karnataka Alphonso, Bangalora, Mulgoa, Neelum, Pairi

7 Kerala Mundappa, Olour, Pairi

8 Madhya Pra Alphonso, Bombai, Langra and mostly seedling types

9 Maharashtra Alphonso, Kesar, Mankurad, Mulgoa, Pairi

10 Orissa Baneshan, Langra, Neelum, Suvarnarekha

11 Punjab Dashehari, Langra, Chausa

12 Tamil Nadu Banganpalli, Bangalora, Neelum, Rumani, Mulgoa

13 Uttar Pradesh Dashehari, Fajri, Langra, Safeda Lucknow, Chausa

14 West Bengal Bombai, Himsagar, Kishan Bhog, Langra Source: www.horticultureworld.net.

15

It is reported that at least 350 varieties are propagated in commercial nurseries. Most of the leading Indian cultivars are seedling selections. Over 50,000 crosses were made over a period of 20 years in India and 750 hybrids were raised and screened. Of these, Mallika, a cross of Neelum (female parent) with Dashehari (male parent) was released for cultivation in 1972. Another hybrid, Amrapali with Dashehari (female parent) and Neelum (male parent) was developed as a dwarf, precocious, regular and heavy bearer version. The Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI) Experiment Station, Hyderabad evaluated nine table varieties (firm-fleshed), four juicy varieties, and five hybrids as suitable for processing. Recently, a few mango hybrids have been released for cultivation by different institutes/universities as presented in Appendix II.

Propagation and Planting: Of late, mango orchards in the State are developed through grafted plants. Several old seedling orchards are also seen in certain pockets. Quality planting materials are produced in 72 State Horticulture Farms (SHFs). Land is prepared by deep ploughing followed by harrowing and leveling with a gentle slope for good drainage. Pits of 1m x 1m x 1m are dug and the pits are filled back by adding farmyard manure (FYM), tank silt, leaf mould, single super phosphate, muriate of potash, etc. Orchards are laid out by adopting square system of planting. All the sample farmers were found to have cultivated a mix of varieties rather than a single variety so as to minimize various problems associated with incompatibility, productivity, consumers’ choice, time of maturity and harvesting, etc. Spacing varied from 10 m x 10 m in the dry zones where growth is less to 12 m x 12 m in good rainfall areas. Dwarf hybrids like Amrapali are planted at a closer spacing of 5-6 m. For effectively utilizing the available natural resources and for increasing productivity, the Department of Horticulture (DoH) encourages establishment of new mango orchards under high density planting system with an espacement of 7.5 m x 7.5 m using grafts. To encourage this, the Department is extending subsidy to the extent of 50 per cent on the cost of planting material.

Training and Pruning: Trees are trained usually about one meter from the base on the main trunk free from branching and the main stem was allowed thereafter spaced at 20-25 cm apart in such a way that they grow in different directions. The DoH through various training programmes has been advocating the importance of proper pruning and canopy opening for increased fruit production, reducing pest and disease incidence and improved fruit quality. To encourage this, pruning saws are also supplied to the growers on subsidy. Fertiliser Application: The DoH recommended a fertilizer dose of 200 g nitrogen, 100 g phosphorus and 100 g potassium to one-year-old grafts, which should be increased with plant age (Table 4.3). However, in both the districts, majority of sample mango growers were not applying chemical fertilizers. A good number of growers were reported to have applied organic manures like, FYM at 2-3 years interval. Some of the mango growers especially in Krishna district were reported to have applied zinc sulphate through foliar feeding. When grown under rainfed

16

conditions, spray of 2 per cent of ammonium sulphate during fruit growth is advocated. Further, as most of the soils in the state are different in zinc, spray of zinc sulphate and urea mixture and soil application of zinc sulphate (@0.50 kg to 1.00 kg/plant, depending on the age) once in two years are recommended.

Table 4.3: Recommended Fertilizer Application

Age of Plant FYM (kg) Urea (g) SSP (g) Muriate/sulphate of potash

1 20 400 625 190

2 40 960 1100 290

3 60 1085 1560 415

4 70 1410 2030 540

5 80 1750 3125 830

6 100 2170 6250 1660 Source: Department of Horticulture, GoAP.

Irrigation: About 92.7 per cent of mango area owned by sample mango farmers was taken up under irrigation, mostly under drip irrigation. Availability of subsidy to the farmers under Andhra Pradesh Micro Irrigation Project (APMIP) appears to be one of the factors resulting in increased area under drip irrigation. Young plants are watered frequently for proper establishment and for grown up trees, irrigation at 10-15 days interval from fruit set to maturity is practiced for improving yield.

Plant Protection: Mango is prone to a large number of pests and disorders. ‘Powdery mildew’ is the most widely prevalent disease in both the districts. First, the symptoms appear as white patches, which later coalesce and infect the entire inflorescence. The infected inflorescence and flowers dry up and fail to bear fruit. For healthy growth of the plant, recommended control measures6 need to be properly followed.

Inter cropping: While in Chittoor districts, most growers were not practicing inter-cropping, in Krishna districts, many growers were cultivating short duration crops as inter crops to effectively utilize land and water resources. As mango is a long

6 Most important and common pests and diseases of mango are (i) Mango hopper : Two

sprays (at panicles emergence and at pea size of fruits) of carbaryl (0.15%), monocrotophos (0.04%) or phosphamidan (0.05)., (ii) Mealy bug : Ploughing inter spaces in November and dusting 2% methyl parathion @200 g per tree near the trunk and fixing 20 cm wide 400 gauge polythene strips around the trunk with grease applied on the lower edge in January as prophylactic measures and two sprays of monocrotophos (0.04%) at 15 days interval are needed. (iii) Powdery mildew : Two to three sprays of wettable sulphur (0.2%) or Kerathane (0.1%) at 10-15 days interval. (iv) Anthracnose : Two sprays of Baistin (0.1%) at fortnight interval. (v) Malformation : One spray of 200 ppm NAA in October followed by deblossoming at bud burst stage in December - January. (vi) Fruit drop : Regular irrigation during fruit development, timely and effective control of pests and diseases and spraying 20 ppm NAA at pea size of fruits.

17

gestation period of 5-7 years, many cultivators in Nuzivid, Tiruvur mandals were practicing paddy cultivation as an inter cropping. The water and nutrient requirements of the inter crops were being met separately. It was also observed that certain growers in Krishna district, had grown mango with guava as intercrop with a spacing of 10m.x 10m. for mango and 5m x 5m. for guava which is grown up to 7-8 years. The actual practices as against the recommended practices of mango cultivation are presented in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4: Actual Practices as against the Recommended Practices of Mango Cultivation

No Item of Package Actual Practices Recommended Practice*

1 Soil selection --- All healthy soils

2 Varieties All varieties including local Totapuri, Neelam, Banishan

3 Manures & fertilizers

Mature tree: DAP & MoP: 2:1, 4.5 kg/ acre

FYM -25 kg/pit NPK: as per recommendation

4 Spacing 12-16 m (18-40 plants/acre) 7 –10 metres

5 Planting Season June – December

6 Seedling selection Whatever available Healthy seedling

7 Micro nutrient usage

ZnSO4 5 gm + 10 gms Urea in 1 ltr water foliar spray

8 Pest Management Need based

9 Weed Management Ploughing for 2 times in rainy season

10 Disease Management

Nil to 3 (rainfed) to 5 (irrigated) sprays of Sevin + Sulpher (before pericle insiction), Endosulfan + Bavistin (on female emergener), Nuvacron / Corfidor : Thrips Clorpyriptos / Sgnetic pyratherid Hopper

IPM approach Need based

*Source: 19, Strategic Research and Extension Plan of Chittoor District-19, MANAGE, Hyderabad

IV. Economics of Mango Cultivation

(i) Profile of Mango Farmers and Mango Orchards

(a) Age and Education

Age may be a factor influencing adoption of better cultivation practices. The study indicated that young farmers are adopting better and modern cultivation practices and shifting to a commercial mode of cultivation. The age of sample farmers ranged from 20 to 69 years with an average of 43 years. Further, 59.9 per cent of sample farmers belonged to the age category of 20-35 years. Education is considered as a factor influencing favourably to adoption of modern and better cultivation practices. The analysis indicated that all mango farmers were literate. Further, 47.7 per cent of farmers had education of secondary level and above (Table 4.5).

18

Table 4.5: Age and Education-wise Distribution of Sample Mango Farmers

Age Education

Category Sample Farmers (No.)

Per cent

Category Sample Farmers (No.)

Per cent

20-25 5 11.6 Primary & 4 9.5

26-35 20 48.3 Post Primary 6 14.3

36-45 14 33.1 Secondary 12 28.6

46 & 55 1 3.5 H. Secondary 18 42.9

< 56 1 3.5 Degree & Above 2 4.8

Total 42 100.0 Total 42 100.0

(b) Size Class of Mango Orchards

The size of sample mango orchards varied from 2.5 to 120.0 acres, with an average size of 13.5 acres. About 24 per cent of the mango orchards belonged to the small category of less than 5.0 acres. About 43 per cent of the mango orchards belonged to the category of 10.0 acres and above. The distribution of sample mango orchards according to size is presented in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6: Size-wise Distribution of Sample Mango Orchards

Size in Acres No. of Sample Farms

Per cent to Total

Total Area Average Area

Below 2.50 2 4.8 4.5 2.3

2.51-5.0 8 19.0 32.5 4.1

5.01 – 10.0 13 31.0 117.5 9.0

10.01 – 25.0 15 35.7 303.5 20.2

25.01 – 50.0* 3 7.1 110.0 36.7

Total 41 97.6 568.0 13.5 * An orchard of size 120 acres belonging to a trader was not included for estimating average size of orchards

(c) Age-wise Distribution of Mango Orchards

The age of sample mango orchards varied from 3 years to 80 years. Nearly 73 per cent of the orchards belonged to the age group of 15 to 40 years, i.e., the period of getting stabilized yield. The distribution of sample mango orchards according to age is presented in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7: Age-wise Distribution of Sample Mango Orchards

Size in Acres No. of Sample Farms Per cent to Total

3 to 7 years 4 9.8

7 to 10 3 7.3

10 to 15 4 9.8

15 to 25 13 31.7

25 to 40* 17 41.5

Total 41 100.0 *An orchard belonging to a trader was about 80 years old is not included while calculating percentages.

19

(ii) Costs & Returns of Mango Cultivation

(a) Cost of Establishment

The cost of establishment of mango orchards was estimated at reference year prices rather than at historical prices since majority (73%) of the sample mango orchards were of more than 15 years of age and as such the reliability of the historical costs would be questionable as it is fraught with memory recall bias and the farmers do not maintain any records of expenses made by them. The cost of establishment of the mango orchards in sample districts, on an average, was estimated at Rs.12,700 per acre during first year (Table 4.8). The cumulative cost of establishment (Rs.12,700) and maintenance (Rs.12,300) till 5th year is reported at Rs.25,000, depending on the quality of soil, irrigation and planting material.

Table 4.8: Average Cost of Establishing Mango Orchard during First Year (per acre)

Particulars Average Amount Percentage

Land preparation 2500 19.69

Manures & Fertilisers 2400 18.90

Plant protection 1200 9.45

Planting material 1250 9.84

Implements* 700 5.51

Fencing 1250 9.84

Intercropping 1900 14.96

Irrigation 900 7.09

Miscellaneous 600 4.72

Total 12700 100.00 *expenses on sprayers and other implements used

(b) Cost of Maintenance

Manuring, plant protection and irrigation are the major components in the maintenance cost, apart from the labour charges for various cultural operations such as weeding, input application, training, pruning, etc. The annual maintenance cost/acre of full grown mango orchard (from 10th year onwards) has been is worked out to Rs.5,500/acre (Table 4.9).

Table 4.9: Cost of Maintenance of Mango Orchards (per acre)

Particulars Amount Percentage

Labour 1400 25.45

Manures & Fertilisers 1700 30.91

Plant protection 800 14.55

Irrigation* 1000 18.18

Miscellaneous 600 10.91

Total 5500 100.00 *includes minor repairs drip irrigation system

20

(c) Gross and Net Income

The average yield of mango varies from orchard to orchard depending on the climate, soil texture, cultivation practices adopted, etc. In case of the sample mango orchards in the study districts, the average yield was reported at 5 MT/acre in a stabilized orchard of 15 years and above. Considering the same yield, the economics of mango orchards has been worked out for the average situation as presented in Table 4.10. At the reference year yield, prices and costs, the net income from mango orchards at Rs.17,000 per acre was low compared to the normal years. Apart from the yield, the size of mango garden was also an important factor influencing profitability.

Table 4.10: Gross and Net Income from Sample Mango Orchards

(Rs./acre)

No. Particulars Amount (Rs.)

1 Gross Returns (@ average yield of 4 tonnes /acre and selling price of Rs.4,500/-/tonne)

22500

2 Annual Cost of Maintenance 5500

3 Net Income 17000

(e) Economics

The economics of mango orchards in the sample districts was worked out with the following parameters as assessed during the study.

• Since the sample mango orchards were established without replacing any other crop, the pre-development income of these lands was assumed to be zero.

• The mango orchard starts yielding from the sixth year onwards and stabilized yield is obtained from 15 year up to 35 year.

• The costs of maintenance of a mango orchard in the early years of planting is less than the matured garden, viz., Rs.4,000/acre (6th/7th year), Rs.4,500/acre (up to 9th year), Rs.5,500/acre (from 10th year). The variation is due to increase in nutritional and intercultural requirements. The cash flow in mango orchard is presented in Tables 4.11.

Table 4.11: Cash Flow from Cultivation of Mango Orchards (Rs./acre)

Years Items

1 - 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15-35

Yield (MT/ac)

0 0.8 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.0 4.5 5.0

Returns* 0 3600 6750 9000 11250 13500 15750 18000 18000 20250 22500

Cost 25000 4000 4000 4500 4500 5500 5500 5500 5500 5500 5500

Net Surplus

-25000

-400 2750 4500 6750 8000 10250 12500 12500 14750 17000

*@Rs.4,500/-/tonne

21

The mango orchard in the district was viable with the present level of yield, cost and price and the IRR worked out to 20.83 per cent (Table 4.12). The farmers in Chittoor district were of the opinion that the recurring drought for the third consecutive year, viz., 2002-03, 2003-04 and 2005-06, had affected the economics of existing mango orchards.

Table 4.12: Economics of Mango Orchards

Sl. No.

Pariculars Value

1 PV of costs at 15% DF (Rs./acre) 42553

2 PV of benefits at 15% DF (Rs./acre) 50499

3 NPV (Rs./acre) 7946

4 BCR 1.19

5 IRR (%) 20.83

22

CHAPTER V

MARKETING ASPECTS: ROLE OF DIFFERENT CHANNELS,

MARKET ARRIVALS AND PRICE SPREAD

A healthy marketing system for a particular commodity has to provide required information, technology, marketing linkages for better price realization by farmer. Marketing efficiency of a particular commodity is evaluated by looking at the producer’s share in the consumer’s rupee. The present chapter addresses the issues affecting marketing of mango. The major commercial varieties of mango marketed in Andhra Pradesh are Banganapalli, Neelam, Totapuri, Suvarnarekha. I. Marketing Channels for Mango

Based on the discussions with the farmers, traders and representatives of processing units, it was observed that mango reaches to the consumer through four channels, i.e.,

1. Grower to Pre-Harvest Contractors (PHC) 2. Grower to Up-Country Trader (UCT) 3. Grower to Village Trader/Commission Agent (VT/CA) 4. Grower to Mango Processing Units (MPUs)

From the grower, mango reaches the export destination through any of these four channels. A comprehensive chart depicting different channels/sub-channels is depicted in Chart 5.1.

(i) Pre-Harvest Contractors

The mango orchard owner leases out his orchard as per contract to the PHCs. Both the parties agree to abide by the terms and conditions stipulated at the time of agreement (which is almost invariably oral in nature). The PHCs visit the mango orchards just after the mango-harvesting season (during August, September) to survey the orchards after which the negotiation takes place between the grower and the contractor. These contractors also take up the works of required input applications to the leased in orchards including plant protection to obtain optimum fruit yield. PHCs, after harvesting mango, sell it in the open market or to processing units like a grower who undertakes self-marketing.

(ii) Upcountry Traders

Many traders from neighboring states visit mango markets in Chittoor and Krishna districts during mango season. Traders from Bangalore, Chennai, Mumbai, New Delhi, Kolkatta, Nagpur, Jaipur, Ahmedabad and Hyderabad participate in mango trading in Chittoor and Krishna District. UCTs visit mango orchards during the months of January-February and survey the orchards at flowering stage and estimate the output for the forthcoming harvesting season. Based upon the estimation, UCTs fix the prices for the purchase of mango production from the orchard owners. Unlike

23

the PHCs, the UCTs do not undertake maintenance of the farm. Under an informal agreement, UCTs pay an advance (10 to 20 %) to the orchard owner. The price is settled before the harvest and payment is made soon after the completion of marketing,.

(iii) Mango Processing Units

Processors purchase mango for the production of pulp from traders as well as mango growers. Totapuri mangoes are mainly used for preparing pulp because of its high pulp-yielding rate. Processors visit the mango orchards and testify the quality and determine the price and some also offer advances to the growers. As pulp content depends upon quality, processors insist on sorting and grading of mangoes and prices are determined depending on the grade. Processing units purchase mangoes from market yards as they are assured of large quantities to run the unit continuously till the mango season is over.

(iv) Village Trader/Commission Agent

About 60 per cent of mango growers transact through village trader/commission agent (VT/CA). VTs often provide advance to the farmer with the condition that the grower has to sell his produce to them. They resell mangoes to UCTs/ MPUs/retailers. But VT collects 10 per cent of volume of trade amount towards commission charges. If, due to any unforeseen situations (pests, cyclones, etc.) the grower fails to settle the advance, the same gets adjusted from the next year sale proceeds. However, inadequate information of prices and lack of weighing facilities are a few limitations of this channel. Overall, mango reaches to the consumer through five different channels (Table 5.1). However, it is very difficult to come out with a clear cut demarcation of channels as some PHCs also act as CAs, some CAs act as traders. They themselves also act as local wholesalers. Many of the CAs/Traders are also mango orchard owners and contribute substantially to the mango production. Discussions with different players in the market as mentioned above revealed the following types of possible marketing channels.

Table 5.1: Share of Different Marketing Channels in Marketing of Fresh Mangoes

No. Marketing Channels Share (%)

1 Grower → CAs/VTs → UCTs → Retailers →Consumer 55.0

2 Grower → PHCs → CAs→Retailers →Consumer 25.0

3 Grower → UCTs → Retailers → Consumer 10.0

4 Grower → Local Wholesalers →Retailers →Consumer 7.0

5 Grower → Processors 3.0

6. Growers → Consumer Negligible

Total 100.0

24

Chart 5.I

II. Mango Market Yards in Chittoor and Krishna Districts

Mango production in Chittor district arrives to five different marke yards. They are Chittoor, Damancheruvu, Bangarupalem, Tirupati and Puttur. In Krishna districts mango production mostly arrives to Nunna market yard in Vijayawada. In Chittoor market yard the major varieties of the mangoes are Totapuri, Banganapalli, Mulgoa, Khadar (Alphanso), Natu (local) and Neelam. The commission agents facilitate the trade between the mango farmers and the purchasers. Puttur MY mostly handles smaller quantities of mango. As it lies on the Tirupathi Chennai highway, mango production mostly reaches either Tirupati or Chennai from the mango orchards directly. In Tirupati market yard, three varieties such as Banganapalli, Totapuri and Neelam form the majority of the mangoes being traded. The arrivals of mangoes are mainly from outside the notified area such as Puttur, Nagari, Kodur (Kadapa district).

Mango Grower

Pre-harvest Contractor

Upcountry Trader

Processor Village Trader

Exporter

Market Commission Agent/ Wholesaler

Upcountry

Market

Industrial User/Unit

Processing Unit

Importer

Upcountry Trader

Retailer

Wholesale

Stockist Retailer

Retailer

Stores

Fruit, Pulp, Juice / Soft Drink, Pickles

Retailer

Consumer

25

Damalacheruvu market yard, one of the oldest private market yards in Chittoor district and consists of about 100 mandis. It is an open market and no auction takes place. Mangoes mostly arrive from Vellore, Kuppam and all the mandals of the district. The varieties are mainly Totapuri, Banganapalli, Neelam, Khadar (Alphanso). Traders from far of places like, Delhi, Kolkata, Ahmedabad, Nagpur, Mumbai, Bangalore, Raipur visit this market yard for buying mango. The command area of Bangarupalyam market yard covers four mandals viz., Bangarupalyam, Thavanampalle, Irala and Yadamari(part). It covers 77 villages consisting of about 800 mango growers. The arrivals of mangoes are mainly from within the command area and varieties such as Banganapalli, Totapuri and Neelam form the majority of the mangoes being traded. The Nunna market yard under Golapudi AMC near Vijayawada consists of 81 shops. Every year about 6,000-7,000 trucks each containing 9-10 MT of mango are being transported to different parts of the counry, mostly to Azadpur mandi in Delhi. Traders in this marke yard also provide finance to the farmers. Major varieties coming to Nunna MY are Benishan, Totapuri, etc. About 15-20 per cent of Totapari mango only comes to the market and rest is sold in the orchards itself. Maharashtra, Gujarat, West Bengal use this for picking in the early season. About 70 per cent of mangoes are exported to other States and rest 30 per cent is sold local traders. Traders from Maharashtra, Gujarat, West Bengal visit Nunna MY and take the advantage of early season pickling, when the prices remain usually high. Market Arrival and Prices of Mango

The annual arrival of mangoes and prices in five market yards in Chittoor and Nuna Market yard in Krishna Districts during 1997-98 to 2005-06 is presented in Table 5.2. The continuous drought conditions in Chittoor district during the last four years had affected the arrival of major agricultural produce in the market yard. Further, production of mango fluctuates due to alternate bearing nature of the crop, that affects the market arrival as well. Absence of effective marketing linkages also hampers the mango arrival to various market yards. Growers prefer to sell directly to processing units, local wholesalers and directly to outside wholesalers.

Mango prices vary a great deal from year to year, depending upon each year’s total production and various other factors like prevailing prices, demand, transport, marketing facilities, etc. Wholesale prices of mangoes also vary considerably, depending upon the supply/demand of particular varieties, periods of availability, weather conditions, transport facilities, variety, quality, etc. Daily arrivals have also a direct bearing on the prices. Thus, the fluctuations in prices are of an irregular pattern. Ordinarily, the prices are high at the commencement of the season, declining gradually as the supplies increase. Later on, when the arrivals decrease, they tend to recovery and reach a high level again before the close of the season. The monthly wholesale price index of mangoes (all India) for ten years period is presented in Table 5.3.

26

Table 5.2: Market Arrival of Mango and Prices in Chittoor and Krishna Districts (Q in MT & P in Rs.)

Years Bangarupallem Chittor Damancheruvu

Q P Q P Q P

1997-98 11307 2500 28721 3000 44426 5000

1998-99 3522 4500 17292 5000 28118 4000

1999-00 10499 3500 58319 2000 81825 2000

2000-01 3346 4250 14915 5200 22777 4000

2001-02 33423 2000 57321 3316 31612 3500

2002-03 7004 3000 19872 5536 34700 3000

2003-04 13750 4220 13096 4340 44025 3000

2004-05 31214 5840 27994 7828 46490 2500

2005-06 33491 3533 19975 5100 38307 2500

2006-07 na na 8732 na 49031 3000

Years Puttur Tirupati Nuna

Q P Q P Q P

1997-98 18651 3250 9125 2500 na Na

1998-99 7856 4000 2876 5000 20542 5074

1999-00 38903 3000 16710 2700 60000 5055

2000-01 8600 4000 3270 4500 52000 5386

2001-02 13371 3500 13421 2500 62058 5015

2002-03 na na 9650 4518 46824 5919

2003-04 na na 21411 2966 59285 7000

2004-05 na na 19288 4011 27710 6867

2005-06 na na 22257 3078 76538 5514

2006-07 na na 17794 4380 66720 6163 Q: Quantity of output in Quintals, P: Price per Quintal in Rs. Source: AMC offices of respective market yards

Table 5.3: Monthly Wholesale Price Index of Mangoes in India (1995 to 2006)

Base Year: 1993-94 = 100 Year

April May June July Average

1995 175.2 109.7 125.5 105.0 128.9

1996 141.3 119.5 137.7 156.2 138.7

1997 173.8 104.9 111.9 95.4 121.5

1998 191.0 195.8 204.7 242.0 208.4

1999 222.7 118.3 111.0 124.8 144.2

2000 208.6 168.5 180.6 174.6 183.1

2001 181.8 157.9 129.9 146.7 154.1

2002 196.6 163.5 149.8 160.2 167.5

2003 201.4 176.9 197.9 197.9 193.5

2004 240.0 223.4 176.8 176.8 204.3

2005 247.9 240.4 210.9 210.9 227.5

CARG (%) 3.53 8.16 3.52 4.76 6.52 Source: Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India

27

Role of Up Country Traders in Price Fixation

Field study revealed that UCTs obtain supply prospects of mango from the village and supply to the terminal markets. UCTs, acting as traders, also determine prices at the village level and at the terminal markets. In fact, daily price depends upon visit of number of UCTs in the village and market yard everyday. If number of UCTs is large, mango price is reported to be high and vice versa. Thus, the influence of UCTs is high on prices than the local traders. Growers, mostly small and marginal farmers, are unaware of the final price of their produce, which they sell to the traders. Farmers feel cheated as traders garner higher margin.

However, as UCTs facilitate selling of mangoes on the farm itself, small farmers those who do not have their own transport are greatly benefited. If UCTs purchase from market, UCTs engage in financial links with mandi owners (traders). Traders borrow from UCTs before the mango season to meet working capital requirement and the account is settled in installments or at the end of the season. After the purchase from the farmer or market, depending upon the distance, transport arrangements are made by the UCT. Around 300 trucks take mango to upcountry markets every day during the season (April-May) from Nuzivid mandal of Krishna district. About 35-40 rakes are exported in a year from this station (one rake = 40 wagons x 26.MT/wagon=1040 MT.). Similarly, about 100 trucks leave from Damancheruvu market yard in Chittoor to different places in North India.

Role of Commission Agents

The Commission Agents (CAs) are the most important link in the marketing of mango controling about two-thirds of the total market. These CAs also act as grower cum trader and facilitate the trade between the mango grower and the UCTs. The study revealed that the purchasers normally pay Rs 60 for loading/unloading/grading of mangoes to CAs. They are required to pay 1 per cent of the turnover as market fee to the AMC and 4 per cent of the turn over as commission to the CAs. The CAs collect the market fee from purchasers on behalf of the AMC. For this purpose, the AMC provides receipts to the CAs. CAs, who are also traders, avail Secured Over Draft (SOD) from banks and utilize the same in lending to mango farmers for consumption/production purpose (@ 24 % interest p.a). The amount of advance is decided on several factors such as area under mango, expected production, past track record of the mango supply to the CAs, etc. After harvest of mangoes, farmers sell mangoes to the CAs and pay 10 per cent of the sale proceeds as commission charges.

Price Spread

Price spread is the difference between the retail price paid by the consumer and the price received by the farmer/producer for the same quantity of the produce. Price spread in marketing of mango is analysed by following the product movement from the mango grower to the consumer. Various costs (particularly marketing costs) and margins together with the farm gate price constitute the consumer price of mango. It

28

is a fact that there is a direct relationship between the consumer price and the length of the marketing channel. In other words, consumer price is the lowest when the marketing channel is the shortest, i.e., when the mango grower directly sales to the consumer. However, the magnitude of sale take place through this direct channel was negligible (Table 5.1). In the absence of direct linkage between the mango grower and the consumer, it is the middlemen alone who have been taking advantage of the situation. An indicator of the efficiency of any supply chain is the extent of the price spread between the producer and the consumer. A higher price spread would indicate a lower efficiency. Conversely, a low level of price spread would indicate a high efficiency of the supply chain mechanism. The producer’s share in the consumer price is high when the marketing efficiency is high. The price spread in different channels of mango marketing is presented in Table 5.5.

The marketing margin as percentage of consumer – producer price difference is a measure of efficiency of the marketing channel. High per cent indicates low efficiency and vice versa. The producer’s share in consumer price and market margins as percentage of consumer – producer price differential in various channels of marketing of mangoes is presented in Table 5.4. The analysis indicates that the share of the grower in the consumer price was 100 per cent when the transaction was direct without the involvement of the middlemen. The marketing efficiency was the highest under this channel. However, direct transaction between the grower and consumer constituted the negligible share (>1%)of the total transactions in the product and cannot be considered as an effective supply chain management. Conversely, Channel 2 depicted the lowest market efficiency in terms of the highest market margins (68.5%) indicating exploitation of the producers under the supply chain involving commission agents and PHCs. The total negative impact is real and significant as most of the mangoes (55%) are supplied through this channel.

Table 5.4: Share of Different Marketing Channels in Marketing of Fresh Mangoes

No Marketing Channels Producer share in consumer price

Margin as %of consumer-

producer price differential

Market Efficiency

1 Grower → CAs/VTs → UCTs

→ Retailers → Consumer 28.80 63.8 High

2 Grower → PHCs →

CAs→Retailers → Consumer 34.74 68.5 Lowest

3 Grower → UCTs → Retailers

→ Consumer 33.59 65.5 Low

4 Grower → Wholesalers →

Retailers → Consumer 44.05 62.2 Higher

5 Grower → Consumer 100.0 0.0 Highest

29

Table 5.5: Price Spread for a tonne of mango in different Marketing Channels (V

alue in Rupee

s)

No

Particulars

Channels

I II

III

IV

V

1

Mango Grower

Sale price

3600 (28.80)

3300 (34.7)

4400 (33.6)

3700 (52.9)

6000 (100.0)

Marketing costs

- -

200 (1.4)

- -

Net price received

3600 (28.80)

3300 (34.7)

4200 (32.1)

3700 (52.9)

-

2

VT/CA/PHC

Purchase price

3600 (28.80)

3300 (34.7)

- -

-

Marketing costs

200(1.61)

300 (3.2)

- -

-

Sale price

4400 (35.2)

4400 (46.3)

- -

-

Net m

argin or profit

600 (4.8)

800 (8.4)

- -

-

3

Local wholesaler

Purchase price

4400 (35.2)

4400 (46.3)

4400 (33.6)

3700 (52.9)

-

Marketing costs

150 (1.2)

800 (8.4)

150 (1.1)

400 (4.7)

-

Sale price

5100 (40.8)

6300 (66.3)

5300 (40.5)

4900 (67.1)

-

Net m

argin or profit

550 (4.4)

1100 (11.6)

750 (5.7)

800 (9.4)

-

4

UCTs/Distant wholesaler

Purchase price

5100 (40.8)

- 5300 (40.5)

- -

Marketing costs

1900 (15.2)

- 1900 (14.5)

- -

Sale price

9100 (72.8)

- 9300 (71.0)

- -

Net m

argin or profit

2100 (16.8)

- 2100 (16.0)

- -

5

Retailer

Purchase price

9100 (72.8)

6300 (66.3)

9300 (71.0)

4900 (67.1)

-

Marketing costs

1000 (8.0)

850 (8.9)

950 (7.3)

850 (9.7)

-

Sale price

12500 100.0)

9500 (100.0)

13100 (100.0)

8400 (100.0)

-

Net m

argin or profit

2400 (19.2)

2350 (24.7)

2850 (21.8)

2650 (23.5)

-

Gross m

arketing m

argin

8900 (68.0)

6200 (65.3)

8700 (66.4)

4700 (47.1)

-

Consumer’s purchase price

12500 (100.0)

9500 (100.0)

13100.0 (100.0)

8400 (100.0)

6000 (100.0)

Note: figures in parentheses indicate percentages to consumer’s purchase price.

30

CHAPTER VI

MANGO PROCESSING: PROCESSED PRODUCTS, VALUE

CHAIN AND ECONOMICS OF MANGO PROCESSING

The present chapter narrates the processing aspects of mango, value chain involved in processing; economics of mango processing, problems associated with mango, mango based processed products and processors, etc.

I. Processing of Mangoes

In Andhra Pradesh, 90 per cent of the mango orchards are having Baneshan (Banganapalli) variety, which is not a pulp variety. Of the remaining 10 per cent area, most of it is occupied by Totapuri (also called as Collector) and Suvarnarekha, which are suitable for pulp extraction. It is estimated that only 6 per cent of the total mango production is processed. Mangoes are processed into various types of products as mentioned elow.

(a) Raw Mango Products: Pickle, Amchoor, Mango Slice and Green mango

beverage

For pivckles, the fruits are peeled, sliced into small pieces and mixed with 20 per cent salt, 7.5 per cent chilly powder and 1 per cent assafoetida on weight basis. Spices are then mixed in it and the slices dipped in boiled but cool oil. The whole mixture is then kept for few days with frequent stirring and then filled in clean glass jars. Mango slices from peeled mangoes are dipped in solution of potassium metabisulphite (1.5%) for 5 minutes and dried in sun or solar dehydrator. Amchoor is obtained by grinding the dried slices. Raw mango slices are dipped in 1.5 per cent potassium metabisulphite solution for 5 minutes, drained, mixed with equal amount of powdered salt and stored in polythene pouches. These slices could be used later for the required food / product preparation.

Whole raw mangoes are boiled with equal amount of water and pulp is extracted. To one kg of extract, 1.6 kg sugar, 1.6 litres water, 80 g salt, 20 g mint, 10 g cumin, 4 g black pepper and 20 g citric acid are mixed. This mixture is heated and filled in clean glass bottles. It may be used as raw mango squash, a modified version of ‘Panna’. (b) Ripe Mango Products:Pulp, Mango Jelly, Beverages,Squash, Mango leather Fully ripe mangoes are washed, peeled and cut into slices. The slices are then homogenized into pulp, which is filtered through a sieve to remove the fibre. The pulp is heated to 76-780 C and 2 g citric acid and 2g potassium metabisulphite are added per kg of pulp. It is filled in sterilized glass jars and lids are sealed with wax. For mango jelly, mango is cut into 6 to 8 slices, the bulky juice is sent to sieving, seeds are separated and thick mango juice collected in wooden pots. Sugar or

31

jaggery is mixed in 1:4 proportions. The preparation is subjected to natural drying process on bamboo-thatched beds. About 7 to 9 layers of juice is applied for natural drying every day and the process goes for 25 days. Mango juice may be prepared by mixing 1/3rd of fresh or stored pulp with 2/5th of water. Sugar and citric acid are added so that the total soluble solids (TSS) and acidity of the product reach 15 and 0.3 per cent, respectively. The mixture is heated to 950C, filled hot in clean, sterilized bottles. The bottles are sterilized for 10-15 minutes, cooled to room temperature and stored. Squash is prepared by mixing 1 kg of pulp with sugar syrup (1 kg sugar in 750 ml water). The whole mixture is heated to 76-780 C and 25-30 g citric acid is added to it. The prepared squash is filled in clean, sterilized bottles and stored. Homogenized mango pulp is taken and potassium metabisulphite is added to it @ 2 g/kg of pulp. The pulp is then spread on trays smeared with butter and sun dried. The process is repeated so as to obtain a thickness of 0.60 to 1.25 cm. Finally, the dried product is cut into pieces and wrapped in butter paper or polythene cellophane sheet. Different processing activities in the mango product chain are presented in the following Chart.

Chart 6.1: Different Processing Activities in Mango Product Chain (c) Waste Utilisation

During the processing of mango, peel and stones are generated as waste, which is about 40-50 per cent of fruit weight. They are rich in various nutrients and many

Matured Mangoes

Grading

Peeling & Slicing

Processing

Raw Mango Products

- Pickle, Amchoor, Slices - Green Mango Beverage

Ripe Mango Products - Pulp, Juice & Nectar - Slices, Mango Jelly

Consumer

Marketing Channels

32

value added products could be obtained from them. Good quality jelly grade pectin and edible fibre could be extracted from ripe mango peel. Mango peel has lignocellulosic composition and hence its complete break down is difficult. It’s co-composing with cow dung in 3:1 ratio results in its successful biodegradation. Mango kernel contains high amount of fat and starch. The oil extracted from kernel is of good quality and could be used in cosmetic and soap industries. About 10 per cent alcohol could be obtained from mango kernel by co-culture fermentation. II. Mango Processing in Sample Districts

Major value added products prepared out of mango are mango pulp, mango pickles and mango jelly. While many medium and small scale pulp making units have come up in Chittor district (Box-6.1), jelly making and pickles making have been taken up as village and household enterprises in Krishna, East Godavari and Vishakhapatnam districts. Sunsip, Allana, Vinsari Fruitech, Jain Irrigation, Galla Foods, Capricorn Food Products, etc. are major processors of mango fruit pulp and concentrates in Chittoor district.

Box-6.1

Mango Pulp Cluster in Chittoor District

The mango pulping units could be bifurcated into small scale industries (SSI) and medium scale industries (MSI), based on the investment range, technology level and working capital requirement. About 85 per cent of the units are in the SSI sector. In Chittoor district, at present there are 53 fruit processing units operating with a total installed capacity of 2,06,700 MT of mango pulp, of which 46 (87%) are small-scale units and rest are in medium scale (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1: Mango Pulp Units in Chittoor Cluster

Capacity (in MT) Investment (Rs. lakh) No. Category

No.

Total Average Total Average

1 Small Scale Units 46 67000 1456 2981.60 64.8

2 Medium Scale Units 7 40300 5747 3576.33 510.9

3 Projects on pipeline 5 16000 3200 1903.5 380.7

Total 58 123300 3467 8461.43 145.9

The most common range of installed capacity at SSI level was 25-40 tonnes of pulp and in the medium scale units, it was about 80-100 tonnes of pulp per day. These units predominantly process Totapuri (also called as Bangalora or Collecor) variety and the average recovery (yield) of pulp was reported about 50 per cent (on weight basis). Alphonso mango is also being processed to a certain extent and the average recovery varies from 47-49 per cent. The average brix (total soluble solids) of Totapuri pulp is around 14.50, the minimum and maximum levels varies from 13.5 to 17.00. In respect of Alphonso, the brix is around 15.5 per cent, depending on fruit maturity and origin. The acidity levels of mango pulp are maintained between 3.5 and 4.0 pH. During peak operation period, the units were found to operate continuously for 13- 15 hours a day.

33

(a) Manufacturing Process of Mango Pulp

A flow chart of processes involved in preparation of mango pulp is presented in Chart 6.2. Once the mango season starts, the matured mangoes are bought from the market and are ripened in the ripening sheds. Usually, the fruits ripen in about 7-8 days under tropical conditions. The usual practice is to place the fruits in single layers on paddy straw in closed but well ventilated rooms. The fruits ripe uniformly in a temperature range of 19.4o to 21.1oC. The ripened fruits are then washed with water in tubs to remove the adhering impurities and dirt. The prepared mangoes are passed through pulper fitted with 30 mesh sieve to obtain the pulp. The pH of the pulp is adjusted to 3.8 - 4 by adding citric acid. It may also be sweetened so that a brix value of 16-18o is attained, as per the requirement. Ascorbic acid if added to the pulp is helpful for retention of colour, flavour and carotene. The pulp is then heated to 850 C and sterilized cans are filled with hot pulp. Thereafter, the cans are sealed, processed at 1000 C for 45 minutes and cooled. Then the cans are moved to store room, where the cans are labeled and packed in card board cartoons until they are lifted by the export houses/agents. The indicative cost for establishing a mango-pulping unit with an installed capacity of 600 tonnes of pulp per annum is about Rs. 35 lakh, while for an aseptic unit, the cost is estimated at Rs. 200 lakh (Table 6.2).

Table 6.2: Indicative investment cost of mango pulping unit

(Rs Lakh)

Aseptic Packing Units Canning Units

Particulars Value % Particulars Value %

Land value (lease) 1.50 1.25 Land value (lease) 0.10 3.04

Buildings 25.00 5.32 Buildings 15.00 28.69

Machinery 168.00 89.63 Machinery 15.53 55.70

a. Plastic Crates 0.30 0.16 a. Plastic Crates 0.13 0.46

b. Fruit washer 2.50 1.33 b. Fruit washer 2.00 7.17

c.Inspection conveyor

1.80 0.95 c. Belt conveyor 1.00 3.58

d. Screw conveyor 2.00 1.06 d. Screw conveyor 1.00 3.58

e. Pulper 2.50 1.33 e. Pulper 2.00 7.17

f. Roto pumps 1.00 0.53 f. Roto pumps 0.75 2.69

g. Boiler 3.50 1.86 g. Boiler 3.00 10.76

h. Genset 3.00 1.59 h. Kettles/Pasteurizer 2.40 8.61

i. Filtron machine 2.00 1.6 i. Filling tank & pipeline

0.50 1.79

j. Star asept 150.00 79.74 j. DS - 24 0.50 1.79

ETP 8.00 4.25 k. Retards 0.10 0.36

Total 203.10 100.0 l. Genset 2.15 7.71

4. ETP 3.50 12.55

Total 34.88 100.0

34

Chart 6.2: Flow Chart of Preparation of Mango Pulp

(b) Economics of Pulp Making

The length of operation of mango processing units depends on the varieties of mango processed and the source of procurement. For example, if the unit processes only Totapari mango produced in Chittoor district, the fruits are available from first week of June to the end of July (50-60 days of operation). If the fruits of Totapari are procured from Krishna district also by taking the advantage of early cropping in that

Ripe Mangoes

Washing

Peeling/Slicing

Pulp Extraction

Pulp

Brix and acidity adjustment

(Brix 16-18 0, pH 3.8 – 4)

Heating to 85 0 C

Filling Hot Pulp into Cans

Sealing

Processing (45 min at 1000C)

Cooling

Labeling

Packing

Storing

35

region, the length of processing could go up by another 15 days (from 15 May). Similarly, those units, depending on the orders received from the export houses, when process Alphonso mango, the fruits are available from April end onwards from Karnataka. Thus, the operation of these units is only seasonal. With a view to increasing the operational days and the profit ratios, some of the units have been exploring the possibilities of processing other fruits and vegetables, such as papaya, tomato, guava, etc. The average annual operational cost of a 600 MT capacity pulp making unit was estimated to be about Rs.105.7 lakh (Table-6.3). The cost of production per tonne and per kg. of pulp worked out to Rs.12,858.50 and Rs.12.86. The canned units reported gross income of Rs.122.12 lakhs and net income of 16.42 lakh. The profit margin was worked out to 13.45 per cent in case of canned pulp making units.

Table 6.3: Costs and Returns of Processing Mango into Canned Pulp

Item Per (600 tonnes)/ Unit (Rs.)

Per tonne (Rs.)

% to total

Per kg. (Rs.)

A. Input Costs

1 Mango 6570000 9825 76.41 9.13

Sugar 1008000 1000 7.78 0.88

Citric acid 165000 93.8 0.73 0.09

Labour 1260000 633.92 4.93 0.63

2 Utilities (electricity, diesel etc.,)

941864 784.89 6.10 0.62

3 Packing Material * * * *

Total input cost 9944864 11346.36 95.95 11.39

B. Interest on Working Capital (@13%p.a. per 6 months)

625068 520.89 4.05 0.52

C. Total Cost (A + B) 10569932 12858.50 100 12.86

D. Gross Returns 12211922 14856.01 --- 14.86

E. Net Returns (D - C) 1641990 1997.51 --- 2.00 * : Supplied by the buyer

Packaging is an important component in canning. However, as all canned pulp units mostly do job work and after receiving orders from various export houses, they need not incur any cost on packaging. The export houses are supplying all materials for canning and packaging. Tin cans are made of thin steel plate of low carbon content lightly coated with tin metal. The cans are lacquered inside with acid resistant gold coloured enamel to seal microscopic spaces on the surface of ordinary tin can. Depending upon the requirement of the export houses, the cans are manufactured in situ in the processing units. Three sizes of cans, 5.25 kg., 3.1 kg. and 0.85 kg. are extensively used by canning units for consignment.

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Various profitability ratios have been computed and presented in Table 6.4. These ratios measure the efficiency of canning units’ activities, thus identifying operating problems and strengths. The ratio of net profit to sales measures the earning capacity of canned firms. Ratio of expenses to sales measures the extent of expenses that occurred in relation to sales and indicates the control of the management over the expenses. The ratio is indicative of the operational efficiency of canning firms. The high value of this ratio suggests that limited control is exercised over the expenses casting aspersions on the operational efficiency. It may be noted that raw material is the major cost center in canning units as in any other agro-processing industry. On the other hand, demand for processed foods being damp and sloggy the consumption will be price elastic and scope for pegging higher price is remote. So the revenue would continue to be strained just to offer normal returns in the business. The low ratio of net profit to sales also proves this point. Large canning units were cut above the others with slightly higher value. Thos canning units were slightly in an advantageous position to survive in the face of falling sales prices, rising cost of production or declining demand for the product. It was difficult for low net profit farms to withstand these adversities. The ratio of net profit to capital employed is a measure of return on investment and is an useful way of looking at the overall performance of the business. It indicates that performance can be improved either by generating more sales volume per rupee of capital employed or by increasing the profit margin on each rupee. However, the ratio (0.47) was not that encouraging for canning units and the capital intensity and limited scope for triggering demand for mango pulp posed as hurdles to improve the ratio. Further, the narrow margin (13.45%) in caned units (% of manufacturing cost to gross value of production) is an area of concern suggesting appropriate management of various cost centers for greater profitability.

Table 6.4: Profitability Ratios of Canned Pulp Making Units

No. Particulars Value

1 Total Cost (Rs. lakh) 105.70

2 Gross Returns (Rs. lakh) 122.12

3 Net Profit (Rs. lakh) 16.42

4 Capital (Rs. lakh) 34.88

5 Ratio of Expenses to Sales 0.87

6 Ratio of Net Profit to Sales 0.13

7 Ratio of Net Profit to Capital Employed 0.47

8 Capital Output Ratio 0.29

9 Capital/Labour Emp. 2.77

10 Mnfg. Cost as % to Gross Value of Prodn. 86.55

(ii) Mango Jelly Cluster in East Godavari District

Mango jelly making is a age old cottage industry in East Godavari district. It is mostly a seasonal industry functioning from May to July in a year (Box-6.2).

37

Box-6.2

Mango Jelly Units in East Godavari District . Locally known as Mamidithandra, it is mainly concentrated in Kakinda (Rural) and Athreyapuram mandals (Sarpavaram, Thammavaram, Panduru and Penumarthi villages in Kakinada Rural mandal and Athreyapuram, Lolla and Rally villages in Athreyapuram mandal). More than 500 units are reported to operate in these clusters with an estimated production of 35,000 MT of jelly per annum. Of this, Panderu accounts for about 15,000 MT, Sarpavaram about 10,000 MT, Thammavaram about 5,000 MT and the balance 5,000 MT in the rest of the areas. In Athreyapuram, about 70 SHGS are reported to have taken up mango jelly making as an income generating activity. The major reasons for growth and concentration of these units are: (i) has been a traditional activity for more than a century, (ii) raw material availability (iii) availability of abundant skilled workforce in this activity (iv) expanding market (iv) tastes and preferences of this product by a large population in Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai, Gujarat and Northern India. An analysis of mango jelly cluster revealed that its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) lie in :

� Strengths: Availability of adequate and skilled labour, abundant raw material availability, suitable climatic conditions, prospective banking network for investment.

� Weakness: No collective market (to procure raw materials and to market finished product), no specific brand image, predominantly a cottage or household industry, inadequate cold storage facility for extending the shelf-life of the finished product, no preservatives added in general, open drying process – prone to dust and flees, lack of hygiene, less concentration on attractive packaging.

� Opportunities: Scope for development of branding, scope for mechanical drying so as to extend the period of production, production of intermediate / diversified / value added products

Threats: Manual handling throughout the process, lack of hygienic atmosphere in manufacturing, marketing dominated by commission agents.

(a) Manufacturing Process of Mango Jelly

Jelly is a semi-solid product prepared by boiling a clear strained solution of pectin-containing fruit extract free from pulp after the addition of sugar and acid. Pectin is the most important constituent of jelly. Usually, about 0.5 – 1.0 per cent of pectin of good quality in the extract is sufficient to produce jelly. Pectin, sugar, acid and water must be present approximately in required proportion (i.e., pectin-1%, sugar- 60-65%, citric acid – 1% and water – 33-38%). The ripe mango fruits are cut into 6 to 8 slices by manual peeling. At this stage the juice looks like bulky material. This bulky juice is sent to sieving, which is done through muslin cloth or plastic sieves. The sugar is sprinkled into the fruit extract

38

while it is boiling and is thoroughly mixed by stirring to ensure complete dissolution. Cooking promotes cohesion of jelly components and also brings them to setting state. The setting of jelly is determined both by cold plate test and sheet/flake test. A drop of the boiling jelly is taken from the pan and placed on a plate and allowed to cool quickly. If the jelly is about to set, the mixture on the plate will crinkle when pushed with a finger. In the sheet/flake test, a small portion of jelly is cooled slightly and then allowed to drop off from a large laddle. If the jelly drops off from syrup, it requires further concentration, if it falls in the form of sheet or flakes, the end point has been reached. Well-prepared mango pulp is spread on clean bamboo mats evenly to form a sheet of two mm thickness. The size of the mat generally used is 1.35 m x 1.35 m. On its drying, another layer is spread over this and allowed to dry. About 7 to 9 layers of pulp are applied for natural drying every day. This process is continued till a thickness of about 3 cm is attained. The dried slab is cut into required sizes and packed for marketing. Generally, packs of 2 kg are made and 30 numbers of such packs are bulk packed in a wooden box. Thus, the wholesale dealers normally collect jelly in lots of 60 kg. The consistency / strength of pulp used in jelly making is thicker than that of the pulp obtained in a pulping unit. Generally, from one MT of ripe mango fruit, 350-400 kg of pulp used in jelly making is produced (as only 2% of water is added in the process, as against 10-20% water added in normal pulp making, where the recovery of pulp is about 50% on weight basis). The slab thickness varies from 2 to 4 cm. About 500 kg of mango pulp mixed with 40 kg of sugar on drying yields 80 kg of jelly. Generally, the production of jelly is quantified in the number of mats used for the process (e.g., 100 mats, 200 mats, etc.). On each mat of 1.35 m x 1.35 m size when the jelly of 3 cm is produced, it weighs about 80 kg.

(b) Economics of Jelly Making

A total of 6 jelly making units were visited during the study. All entrepreneurs covered in the sample were middle aged (32-50 years). All entrepreneurs, except one, had small land holdings and hence their main occupation was jelly making. Past experience (as jelly making had been a traditional enterprise for many households), simple technology, high profit margin are the motivating factors for taking jelly making occupation as a household enterprise. Costs and returns of a jelly making are presented in Table 6.5. The average cost of production of jelly manufacturing unit and per kg. of jelly was worked out to Rs.2.45 lakh and Rs.28.64, respectively. The profit margin was worked out to 18.16 per cent. Jelly making units do not incur cost on packing material, as the trader bears the concerned expenditure. As soon as the agreement on price and quantity to be sold is reached between the entrepreneur and the marketing agent, the 60 kg. jelly slab is cut into small pieces (i.e., 30 slabs each of 2 kg.) and packed with laminated paper foils first and then staked in wooden boxes/cardboard cartons lined with waxed paper. The consignment is then moved in trucks or trains to distant markets in Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai, etc.

Table 6.5: Costs and Returns of Sample Jelly Manufacturing Units

39

No. Particulars Per Unit (Rs.

lakh.) Per kg. of Jelly (Rs.)

Percent

1 Input Cost (a to f) 2.455 28.64 100.00

a Mango 1.500 17.50 63.31

b Sugar 0.600 7.00 21.71

c Labour 0.155 1.81 6.54

d Consumables* 0.128 1.49 5.40

e Depreciation 0.057 0.66 2.39

f Interest 0.015 0.18 0.65

2. Gross Income 3.000 35.00 ---

3. Net Income (2-1) 0.545 6.36 --- *mat, cloth, firewood, etc.

Various profitability ratios have been computed and presented in Table 6.6. Ratio of expenses to sales is indicative of the operational efficiency of jelly units. The high value of this ratio (0.82) suggests that limited control is exercised over the expenses casting aspersions on the operational efficiency. Raw material is the major cost center in jelly making units. The ratio of net profit to sales is also low at 0.18. The ratio of net profit to capital employed (0.64) was encouraging for jelly units that demonstrate efficiency in the use of capital with higher rate of returns. However, profit margin (18.16%) in jelly making units (% of manufacturing cost to gross value of production) need to be further improved through appropriate management of various costs. The waste generated in the process of manufacturing mango jelly is solid waste i.e., skin, seed and negligible quantity of water for cleaning the vessels. There is no pollution of air, sound and no contamination of ground water. However, substantial number of flees are attracted to the solid waste requiring some waste disposal mechanism to be put in place.

Table 6.6: Profitability Ratios for Jelly Making Units

No. Particulars Overall

1 Total Cost (Rs.) 245510

2 Gross Returns (Rs.) 300000

3 Net Profit (Rs.) 54490

4 Capital (Rs.) 85000

5 Ratio of Expenses to Sales 0.82

6 Ratio of Net Profit to Sales 0.18

7 Ratio of Net Profit to Capital Employed 0.64

8 Capital Output Ratio 0.28

10 Mnfg. Cost as % to Gross Value of Prodn. 81.84

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CHAPTER VII

POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT, EXPORT OF MANGO &

MANGO BASED PRODUCTS, PERFORMANCE OF AEZs The present chapter analyses the post-harvest management of mangoes for exports, export performance of mango/mango-based products. The role of AEZs has also been explored.

I. Post Harvest Management of Mangoes for Exports

Mangoes are generally harvested at physiological mature stage and ripened for optimum quality. Fruits are hand picked or plucked with a harvester. The best way to observe maturity in mango is the colour of the pulp, which turns cream to light yellow on maturity. The harvesting needs to be done in the morning hours and fruits should be collected in plastic trays and kept in shades. Fruits harvested with 8-10 mm long stalks appear better on ripening as undesired sports on skin caused by sap burn are prevented. Such fruits are less prone to stem-end rot and other storage diseases. A simple, low cost and portable mango harvesting device has been propagated by AEZ, Krishna costing Rs.2,000, which is subsidized by 50 per cent. The post harvest losses in mangoes have been estimated in the range of 20-30 per cent from harvesting to consumption stage (Table 7.1).

Table 7.1: Post Harvest Losses t Various Stages and Crops in Andhra Pradesh

No. Stage % of losses Crop % of losses

1 Field level 10 Grape 25

2 Transport 5 Mango 20

3 Packing 2 Pomegranate 10

4 Storage 9 Sweet Orange 20

5 Processing 4 Banana 30

Total 30 Sapota 20

Onion 25 Source: S.Mahendra Dev & N. Chandrasekhara Rao (2004), “Food Processing in Andhra Pradesh – Opportunities and Challangres”, Working Paper No.57, June.

Grading

In order to reduce the value loss and to remove the field heat, the produce should be harvested during coolest part of the day, i.e. in the morning. A preliminary grading is done immediately after harvesting at the field level. The mangoes are graded according to size and maturity. Desapping

Matured mangoes exude large amounts of sap from the cut stem. As the sap contains lots of resorcinol (oil), which burns the mango skin if contacted by the sap, the

41

mangoes are desapped by placing them in framework in an inverted position for two hours to completely remove the sap from the fruit.

Processing

After the desapping process, the mango is processed in a post harvest treatment line having following operations in a common facility center (pack house). Post-harvest Operations

(i) Pack house/Grading and Packing Centre

A pack house is a place where products are brought after harvesting to prepare them as per the market requirements, in terms of washing, brushing, waxing, grading, packing, cooling, etc. It also carries out value addition without modifying the appearance of the product. The shelf life of the product is enhanced by providing the congenial conditions. Keeping in view the variety of crops, two to three grading and sorting lines may be installed. After sorting, the produce is packed in various desired packs and pre-cooled. The operational steps in the pack house would be as under:- Sorting, Cleaning and Washing

A preliminary sorting of produce is carried out to remove unmarketable pieces and foreign matter such as plant debris, soil, stone etc. before the produce is passed on for further operations.Cleaning and washing are carried out with flush of cold water to clear produce which has acquired latex stains from injures caused during harvesting. Fungicides Treatment

As decay caused by moulds/bacteria is a major cause of loss of fresh produce during distance transportation and marketing, the fungicides are applied after the produce is washed and dried. The fruits are taken to a trough containing detergent and 0.5 per cent fungicidal solution. After treating the fruit with the detergent and diluted fungicidal solution (Benomyl powder), the fruit is wiped off with white muslin cloth till dirt and latex stains are completely removed. After treatment with the fungicidal solution, the fruit is dried with dry muslin cloth and spread on the grading table and air-dried. Size Grading and Waxing

The fruits so treated are finally graded according to the size, maturity and quality without any blemish. Selection and grading in a small packinghouse are best done by human eye and by hand, assisted by sizing rings. For long distance destinations the fruit is treated with wax. The wax emulsion is kept in a vessel and a muslin cloth is soaked in it and applied on individual fruit. This is carried out to enhance appearance and limit water loss from produce.

42

Packaging

The fruit is packed in corrugated fibre boxes (CFBs) with necessary bursting and puncture resistance and compression strength. The specification details of CFB boxes are recommended by APEDA7. Pre-cooling

8

After packaging the mango in CFB boxes, the packed cartons are placed in the pre-cooling rooms where the temperature is set at 12.50C with 90 to 95 per cent relative humidity. Once produce is placed in the pre-cooled, it will radiate heat to the room by virtue of field heat and heat of respiration. The sooner the produce is brought to its optimum storage temperature then the sooner will respiration be brought under control and the maximum storage life of the produce be realized. It is observed that the fruit pulp temperature comes down from 350 to 12.50 C in about 6 hours.

(ii) Cold Storage

After the pre-cooling, the produce is brought to the cold storage to extend its shelf life. The harvested fruits are pre-cooled to 10-120 C and then stored at an appropriate temperature. The fruits of Dashehari, Mallika and Amrapali are pre-cooled at 120 C and then stored at 80 C with 85-90 per cent relative humidity. The fruits can be stored for 3-4 weeks in good condition at low temperature. The development of cold storages, including cold chain, for transport has an important role to play in reducing post-harvest losses9. The bio-chemical and microbial changes are slow at low temperatures. As such, refrigerated cold storages are used to prolong the shelf life of perishable produce. The fruits can be stored for 3-4 weeks in good condition at low temperature. The problem of chilling injury at low temperature can be overcome by keeping the fruits in 0.5 per cent ventilated polythene bags.

Transportation

The truck has been adopted as the most convenient mode of transport due to its easy approach from the orchards to the market. However, these trucks are not found

7 For Banganpalli mangoes, 400mm Χ 250 mm Χ 110 mm. size with telescopic design with 2 pieces box. Mango is packed in tilted position in single layer in the box touching each other and no tissue paper or any packing material is used for packing. The standard net weight of the box is 4 kgs. And the empty box alone weighs 0.5 kg. 8 This rapid cooling of the produce to bring down the metabolic activity to bare minimum is referred as pre-cooling. Pre-cooling is a pre-requisite for export to increase the shelf life of mangoes. The pre-cooling removes the field heat and retards the metabolic activity of mangoes, and helps substantially to maintain the orignal quality of the produce by keeping it fresh. 9 The post harvest losses in mangoes have been estimated in the range of 20-25 per cent from harvesting to consumption stage.

43

suitable for transporting this live material as they exert lot of pressure on the fruits and do not bossed temperature control devices. Therefore it is imperative to design and develop suitable transport system. Reefer containers (Refrigerated vans) may be found useful for long distance transport and export purposes, as they would help in reducing the post harvest losses. The processes in post-harvest management of mangoes are depicted in Chart 7.1.

Chart 7.1: Flow Chart of Post Harvest Operations of Mango Export

Harvesting of Ripe Mangoes

Grading at the Field

Desapping

P R O C E S S I N G

Sorting

Cleaning & Washing

Fungicides Treatment

Size Grading

Packaging

Pre-cooling

Export

Waxing

COLD STORAGE

44

II. Export Performance of Mango and Mango-based Products

(a) Fresh Mango

Of the total world production of mango, only 0.6 per cent is accounted in international trade in the form of fresh fruit. USA, UK, France, Germany, Holland and all Middle East countries, Japan and Hungary are the major importing countries. The major exporting countries are Mexico, Haiti, Venezuala, Pakisthan, India, Kenya, South Africa, Phillipines, etc. In case of India, at present a few varieties such as Alphonso, Kesar, Banganapalli, Totapuri, Suvarnarekha, Dashehari and Langra have export quality and are being exported. The export volume of fresh mango from India has increased from 20.30 thousand MT during 1987-88 to 52.14 thousand MT during 2004-05 growing at CAGR of 6.97 per cent. During the same period the export value has grown at CAGR of 9.85 per cent. The share of export volume to total production is miserably low which has increased from a mere 0.20 per cent in 1987-88 to only 0.45 per cent in 2004-05 (Table 7.2).

Table 7.2: Export of Fresh Mangoes from India

Year Production (,000MT)

Export Volume (‘000MT)

Value (Rs.crore)

% of export volume to Production

1985-86 --- 16.54 19.32 ---

1986-87 --- 16.26 19.12 ---

1987-88 10350.4 20.30 23.34 0.20

1991-92 8715.6 16.84 22.11 0.19

1992-93 9223.3 12.01 16.75 0.13

1993-94 10113.3 19.38 31.22 0.19

1994-95 10993.3 23.10 36.00 0.21

1995-96 10810.9 25.85 45.99 0.24

1996-97 9981.2 22.79 43.87 0.23

1997-98 10234.2 30.00 57.74 0.29

1998-99 9781.8 40.00 77.00 0.41

1999-00 10503.5 50.00 96.25 0.48

2000-01 10056.8 37.11 68.61 0.37

2001-02 10020.2 44.43 80.99 0.44

2002-03 12733.2 38.00 84.19 0.30

2003-04 11490.0 60.54 110.52 0.53

2004-05 11605.2 52.14 86.95 0.45

CARG (%) 0.82 6.97 9.85 6.10 Source: APEDA

(b) Mango Pulp

There are only nine major exporters of mango pulp in the country. Sourcing of the product is done primarily from South-India viz. Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh

45

and Krishnagiri district of Tamil Nadu. Exports of mango pulp in quantity and value terms during 1995-96 to 2004-05 is presented in Table 7.3.

Table 7.3: Exports of Mango Pulp from India (Rs. crore)

Year Qty (MT) Value (Rs. crore)

1995-96 36023 84.61

1996-97 40302 105.01

1997-98 45874 125.31

1998-99 38133 138.56

1999-00 72384 196.53

2000-01 57303 263.85

2001-02 76735 241.34

2002-03 96107 297.02

2003-04 89515 241.99

2004-05 300.90 Source: APEDA

(c) Other Mango-based Products

India’s export of mango and mango-based products during 2004-05 registered a marginal growth of 6.62 per cent over the previous year (Table 7.4). Table 7.4: India’s exports of Mango/Mango based products to major Markets -2002-

05

Country 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 % Change

Saudi Arabia 103.96 86.82 103.12 18.77

UAE 66.88 69.09 54.72 (-) 20.80

Netherland 42.41 40.50 49.16 21.38

Bangladesh 13.89 35.36 29.20 (-) 17.42

UK 36.68 25.25 25.62 1.47

Kuwait 20.24 19.22 16.04 (-) 16.55

Yemen Rep 28.32 18.23 34.07 86.89

USA 19.44 17.14 15.38 (-) 10.27

Japan 9.45 7.33 14.42 96.73

Nepal 8.07 6.15 5.66 (-) 7.97

Lebanon 7.62 5.42 6.37 17.53

Oman 5.67 5.48 6.07 10.77

France 9.73 3.69 7.71 108.94

Total 468.87 436.01 464.89 6.62 Source: APEDA

Saudi Arabia continues to be the largest market for Indian mango and mango-based products. Exports to this market in 2004-05 registered a steep growth of 18.77 per cent over the previous year when the same reached a level of Rs. 103.12 crore as against Rs. 86.82 crore. The other markets registering a steep growth during the period comprised: France (108.94%), Yemen Rep (86.89%), Netherland (21.38%)

46

and Lebanon (17.53%). On the other, the countries showing a decreasing trend during the period included: UAE (20.80%), Bangladesh (17.42%), and Kuwait (16.55%). Country-wise export of mango are presented in Appendix V.

In Andhra Pradesh, two of the exportable varieties, viz. Banganapalli and Totapuri, are grown in larger scale. Even though Andhra Pradesh is the second largest producer of mango, producing about 3.14 million MT, exports from the State have never crossed the 1,000 tonne mark despite huge production. The major reasons for this were poor infrastructure, inadequate quality fresh mango, lack of mango processing units, absence of air link to Vijayawada, which is the main production center. From the State, mangoes are exported mainly to the Gulf countries, Hong Kong, Singapore and Malaysia since 1993 under the brand name “Vijaya Gold” by farmer societies on a cooperative basis, but no significant headway has been made so far. The State Government, on its part, set up a pre-cooling unit at the Gollapudi market yard, Vijayawada, with a capacity of 40 tonnes but it is grossly inadequate to take up exports in a substantial scale.

Export Prices of Mango and Mango Pulp

APEDA since its inception in 1986 has been playing a major role in the export effort of mango and mango-based products by providing various services to the trade and industry, such as identifying new markets, regular participation in both national and international trade fairs and also vigorously launching of promotional campaigns for mango and mango-based products like mango pulp, juices, chutney, and pickles. The computation of the ratio of FOB price at Chennai as collected from exporters in both the study districts to the international border prices shows that both mango pulp and fresh mango are highly price competitive in the international market (Table 7.5).

Table 7.5: Export Competitiveness of Mango and Mango Pulp (Rs./tonne)

Prices during 2005-06

FOB Price, Chennai Domestic Price Items

(US$) (Rs.)* (Rs.)#

Ratio of Domestic Price to FOB Price

Fresh Mango-Alphonso 1820 80080 18000 0.225

Neelam 1000 44000 8000 0.182

Banganapalli 1600 70400 4500 0.064

Mango Pulp-Totapuri 900 184186 23000 0.125

Alphonso 1050 214884 ---- ----

Raspuri 900 184186 23000 0.125 *US$ is converted to rupee@ Rs.44 per US $., # Standard price at which the processors procure mango from various Market Yards in Chittoor and Vijayada. Source: Exporters from Chittor and Vijayawada

III. Role of Agri- Export Zones in Promotion of Mango Exports

Three Agri- Export Zones (AEZs) for mango, i.e., two for fresh mangoes viz., Vijayawada AEZ covering Krishna district and Hyderabad AEZ covering Hyderabad,

47

Medak and Mehabubnagar districts and third AEZ for mango pulp in Chittoor district were set up in Andhra Pradesh in 2002-03. For successful implementation of AEZ activities, the following fiscal measures were taken up.

• Exemption of market fee/cess. Exemption of sales tax on all the inputs used for exports including containers used for packing by the units in AEZ

• AP Transco has declared fruit processing industry as a seasonal industry in the tariff order from 01 April 2003. Accordingly, 70 per cent exemption has been provided on payment of fixed demand charges during off season.

• Further, fruit processing units are eligible for concessional electricity tariff @ Re.1 per unit for period of five years in terms of State Food Processing Policy.

During the field study, the AEZ offices in both the districts were visited to gather the information on the performance of AEZs. Field level findings were as presented below.

(i) Chittoor AEZ for Mango Pulp The impact of AEZ on mango production, processing, export in pre and post AEZ scenario is presented in Table 7.6.

Table 7.6: Impact of Agri. Export Zone, Chittoor District

Status of AEZ % change No Items

Before AEZ After AEZ

1 Mango productivity/ha. 8.0 20.0 60.0

2 Area under mango (ha.) 44950 49221 8.7

3 No. of Processing Units (No 24 50 52.0

4 Mango Pulp Production (MT) 48000 83000 42.2

5 Export Value (Rs. crore) 75.0 180.0 58.3

7 Mango stone weevil infestation (%)

17.0 2.0 -750.0

8 Area under IPM (ha.) 0 4280 100.0

9 Area under drip irrigation (%) 0.67 10.50 93.6

10 Post Harvest Losses (%) 25 15 -66.7

11 Farmers trainings/exposure visits --- 11037 ---

12 Aseptic packing units --- 2 ---

13 Plastic crates (no.) --- 147511 ---

14 Intermediate Ripening Sheds (nos)

--- 54 ---

15 ETPs (nos) 6 33 81.8

16 HACCP Certification (nos) 5 33 84.8

17 Aseptic Packaging (No.) 1 2 50.0

18 Quality Testing Lab (No.) --- 1 ---

19 Cold storage units (No) 5 6 16.7

20 Pack Houses (No.) -- 2 100.0 Source: Department of Horticulture, AEZ office, Krishna District

48

Chittor AEZ is involved in educating the farmers on Integrated Nutrient Managament (INM), Integrated pest management (IPM) and high density planting to increase the productivity of mango; conducting seminars and exposure visits on subjects of importance to farmers; supply of pruning saws and plant protection chemicals; providing training on post harvest management practices, etc. Subsidy is also provided under AEZ for cold storages and pack houses. The project envisaged improving the mango yield from the existing 10 tonnes to 18 tonnes per acre by 2005 and increasing export of mango pulp and other value added products from Rs.80 crore in 2002 to Rs.150 crore by 2005. The aggregate investment required by the processing units was estimated to be at Rs.236.09 crore with GoI share of Rs.52.92 crore. State Government’s share of Rs.25.87 crore and private participation at Rs.157.31 crore.

As a result of these initiatives taken by the AEZ, the exports have grown over the years. The quantity of mango pulp exported increased from r50,000 metric tones in 2002-03 to 95,360 metric tones in 2005-06 (Table 7.8). However, still thee is a lot of scope to increase exports from the region. Table 7.8: Export of Mango Pulp from Chittoor AEZ during 2002-03 to 2005-06

(Quantity in MT & value in Rs.crore)

Year Quantity Annual Change Value Annual Change

2002-03 50000 --- 75.0 ---

2003-04 42130 -18.68 84.2 10.93

2004-05 81500 48.31 175.2 51.94

2005-06 95360 14.53 190.7 8.13

CARG (%) 24.0 --- 36.5 --- Source: Department of Horticulture, AEZ office, Krishna District

(ii) Vijayawada AEZ for Mango

The Vijaywada AEZ for mango was notified in September 2002 because of two reasons, (i) to promote production and export of Banganapalli mangoes from Krishna district and (ii) good connectivity by road and rail from Vijayawada to Hyderabad, Mumbai and Chennai where international airports are present. The aggregate investment required for setting up of the AEZ was estimated at Rs.17.90 crore with GoI share of Rs.3.775 crore. State Government’s share of Rs.4.235 crore and private participation at Rs.9.89 crore. It was targeted that such an investment would result in export of 4,000 MT of mangoes valued at Rs.18.67 crore. A number of activities were suggested under the AEZ to facilitate exports, which included (i) interventions at farm level like appropriate agronomical practices, IPM & INM programmes, (ii) demonstrations and trainings, (iii) promotion of drip irigation, (iv) post harvest practices like usage of plastic crates, precooling centers, cold storages, pack houses and marketing areas leading to an integrated approach for export development, (v) creation of and upgradation of post harvest infrastructure required for exports. (vi) exclusive market yard for mangoes at Gollapudi market yard. The performance of mango export during the last four years is presented in Table7.9. The AEZ took up the following measures to strengthen the mango sector in the district.

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� Exposure visits for 100 farmers to Integrate Pack House (IPH) at Washi, Indian

Institute of Packaging (IIP) at Washi.

� About 41,813 plastic crates were supplied.

� 335 training programmes conducted, about 70 programes on post harvest management.

� Planting material for 512.2 ha were supplied on 50 per cent subsidy basis.

� Additional controlled grading hall and hot water treatment plant was set up at a cost of Rs.15.92 lakh and two de-sapping sheds were established at AMC Vijayawada.

� An exclusive buyer/seller meet was organized with exporters, growers and bankers.

� 220 foot sprayers and 7 mechanised chains saws were supplied to farmers. About 180 Thaiwan sprayers and 500 folding handsaws were supplied to mango farmers.

� 17 pack houses were constructed in Nunna market for packing, grading, washing.

� Organic farming is encouraged. 120 acres of Prakash Bio Farm is organically certified.

� Workshops on EUREGAP/HACCP were conducted for officers and mango farmers.

Table 7.9: Export of fresh mango from Krishna district

Year Export Volume (MT) Annual Change

2002-03 268.84 ---

2003-04 253.74 -5.95

2004-05 341.91 25.79

2005-06 448.00 23.68

CARG (%) 18.56 --- Source: Department of Horticulture, AEZ office, Krishna District

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CHAPTER VIII

SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT IN MANGOES

Supply Chain Management (SCM) represents the management of the entire set of production, manufacturing/transformations, distribution and marketing activities by which a consumer is supplied with a desired product. The practice of SCM encompasses the disciplines of economics, marketing, logistics and organizational behaviour to study how supply chains are organized and how institutional arrangements influence industry efficiency, competitions and profitability. One can also include the production practices in the field to understand food safety and traceability (Ramaswamy 2007)10. Supply chain development not only benefits the private sector but also creates sequel to stimulate sustainable social, economic and environmental development in the region. The specific gains may be reduction of product losses in transportation and storage, increasing of sales, dissemination of technology, capital and knowledge among the chain partners, etc.

I. Supply Chain Management in Mangoes

Supply Chain System (SCS) for mangoes covers a balanced and efficient relationship encompassing input supply, production, harvesting, storage, processing, marketing, export, etc., of mangoes and managing such relationship in a collaborative and efficient manner to garner optimum benefit out of it for all the players in the chain.

Agri Export Zones

Considering the existing production of mango and mango pulp on one hand and keeping in view the future potential on the other, for facilitating the supply chain management, AEZs for mango and mango pulp were notified in 2002. However, there is no significant development in linkages, both backward and forward, and no breakthrough in developing quality standards and post harvest management for furthering exports. Number of pulp making units, production of mango pulp as also export of fresh mango and pulp have picked up in Chittoor AEZ, but infrastructure in terms of post harvest facilities, like pack houses, cold storages, etc., have not come up to exploit the potential. In mango AEZ in Krishna district, as against the target of 25 pack houses only two have come up. Only one post harvest facility is available at AMC, Vijayawada (Gollapudi). Export of fresh mango from Krishna district has always been below 500 MT per annum. Currently, export of mango by air is in passenger aircraft, due to which the freight charges are very high. There are Mango Growers’ Cooperative Organisations and they have not been able to plan an

10 Ramaswamy, C.(2007), “Supply Chain Management in Agriculture: Trends Staus, Initiatives taken up by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University”, Paper presented in the 8th Agricultural Science Congress held at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India. 15 - 17 February, 2007.

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organized production and marketing system and have also not been able to reduce the marketing channels, which are so long thus increasing the margins to the middle men and thus aggravating marketing inefficiency. Post Harvest Operations

In order to facilitate the SCM, the GoAP had sanctioned a scheme for promotion of export of mangoes through Mango Growers’ Cooperative Organisations. As a part of the scheme, a cold storage plant was set up in 1993 as ‘Post Harvest Temperature Management Scheme’ at AMC, Vijayawada. Exports were taken up under the management of Marketing Department during the initial years through reefer containers by sea and air. However, the progress in export front was not that encouraging (Table 9.1). The AMC, Vijayawada was charging nominal service charges from exporters11. The unit has the facilities of one cold storage plant with 20 MT capacity, two pre-cooling units each with a capacity of 20 MT.

Table 9.1: Performance of Post Harvest Management Unit at AMC VIjayawada

(Rs.lakh)

Period Avg. Quantity exported (MT)

Avg. Service Charges Collected

Avg. Expenses Incurred

Countries Exported

1993-2001 143.82 1.70 7.33

2002-2006 124.20 0.61 5.81

Singapore, Dubai, Hong Kong, Malaysia,

Vijaya Association of Fruits & Vegetable Growers, consisting of 230 members in Vijayawada, has been engaged in export of mangoes since 1994. They have been using the pack house and cold storage unit at Gollapudi AMC. They use the protocol developed and given by Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI) for export though central marketing fund of mango. Further, as the protocol for sea shipment has not yet stabilized, APEDA engaged a scientist from Belgium to develop a protocol for cases where more than 15 days sea journey is required. Vitas Company (Exports) Pvt. Ltd., Chennai visits AMC, Gollapudi every year and also visits the mango orchards and purchases the fruits at the ripening stage. The graded mangoes are priced at Rs.15,000/MT and are of good size and quality (labeled as "Garden Fresh Mangoes"). Marketing

In both the districts, exclusive mango market yards are functioning for marketing the produce. There is also excellent network of traders, both local and upcountry, commission agents, etc., to assist in smooth flow of the product (fruits) from growers to final consumers. However, even though growers/traders associations are informally functioning in both the districts, these have not taken up any initiatives to

11 For desapping and cold storage treatment Rs.3.50/kg., for hot water treatment Rs.0.50/kg. and rent per crate per day Rs.0.10.

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reduce the large margins eaten by the middle level functionaries. They have not made any attempt even to reduce the length of the marketing channels. Such growers associations have not made any visible attempts in creating awareness with regard to quality improvements in fruits. However, conduct of ‘Mango Festival’ has been a regular affair in Chittoor that creates a lot of awareness among the growers/traders/processors on quality issues.

Growers’/Processors’ Federation

In order to smoothen out the Supply Chain Management for mango processing sector, Chittoor District Canners’ Federation was formed during 1991. Later, it was rechristened as Chittoor District Fruit Processors’ Federation. The Federation used to assist units in hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) Certification with assistance from APEDA, modernization of cluster through Andhra Pradesh Industrial and Technical Consultancy Organization (APITCO), seek soft loans and subsidies with APEDA, Ministry of Food Processing (MFPI) and National Horticulture Board (NHB). In consultation with Pollution Control Board (PCB) and other technical institutes, the Federation helps units in formulating exact technology to treat liquid and solid effluent wastes. Federation of Farmers’ Associations (FFA) in Andhra Pradesh plays a formidable role addressing current issues and problems in consultation with GoAP and other stakeholders. This year, FFA managed to form six exclusive mutually aided cooperative societies (MACS) of mango growers in Chittoor district. AgriTerra of the Netherlands, through the FAO, FFA and Horticulture Department of Andhra Pradesh, has initiated this project and helping the farmers to develop these cooperatives. The cooperatives are expected to result in an additional value of up to 20 per cent to the growers as they cut second-rung traders/commission agents from the supply chain by providing a direct interface between the buyer and the seller. Besides making it easier for companies to enter into agreements, these MACS are expected to strengthen the hands of mango growers. The tie-ups would result in saving of transportation charges and market cess. The idea is to strengthen the supply chain and facilitate a direct linkage between the corporate buyers and the farmers (Kurmanath 2007)12. On its part, the FFA would give training to the farmers on issues such as use of pesticides and improving soil quality. Input Supply

As far as the input availability is concerned, for growers- plant materials are available sufficiently in Srikalahasthi, Tirupati, Mallavalli in the study districts. All sorts of pesticides and chemicals are locally available in major towns. For processors, mango as a major raw material is available in plenty. Processors procure mangoes (i) directly from mandies, (ii) directly from growers after visiting the orchard, (iii) directly from

12 Kurmanath, K. V., (2007), “ Mango growers join hands to gain more value”, http://www.thehindubusiness line.com/ 2007/02/ 23/ stories/

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the growers who brought to factory sites in carts and trolleys, head-load and (iv) through traders who purchase directly from the orchards. Generally, the processors go for a storage capacity of 7 days fruit requirement to match with the ripening cycle. Totapuri is the key variety of mango used in the pulping industry and in both the districts this variety is grown in significantly large areas. Power supply by AP Transmission Corporation (APTransco) is quite adequate to run the units. Diesel generating units have been installed to meet power requirements during power shut downs. Water being a major requirement for processing units is available sufficiently at site. A good network of transport arrangements is available to transport both raw material and the finished product. Both sea and air transport is available at Chennai, which is only 185 km from Chittoor and 300 km from Vijayawada. Various enzymes, i.e., bio-tropilase enzyme for consistency of mangoes, are being purchased from M/s Biocon, Bangalore. Citric acid (for maintaining the pH. level of the pulp), ascorbic acid (added as per the customer’s requirement) are being arranged from Bangalore and Chennai. Various machineries required for installing the canning unit, like Plastic Crates, Fruit washer, Belt conveyor, Screw conveyor, Pulper, Roto pumps, Boiler, Kettles/Pasteurizer, Flanger (to seal one side of the tin), Embosser (for labeling), etc. are available in Chittoor (Nazim Industries) and Bangalore (Lakshmi Industries). Another important input in the pulping industry is the packaging and packing material, such as cans, aseptic bags, cartons, etc. In respect of units which undertake processing on job work basis, the required can material, labels, packing material are supplied by the export house which has provided production orders. Discussion with two aseptic packing units revealed that they procure aseptic bags from M/s Goglio, Germany, M/s Dupont, India and M/s Scholle, Australia. Aseptic packing sizes are mostly of 200 litre [228 kg double strength (DS) or 215 kg single strength (SS)], 45 kg, 54 kg and 91 kg, depending on buyer specifications. Mostly DS aseptic packages go to Europe and USA and SS aseptic packages are supplied to Coca Cola, Indian fruit juice manufactures like Pepsi, Parle, Coco Cola, Godrej, etc. Cans are mainly supplied to Middle East countries, (Saudi Arab, Dubai, Yamen, Kuwait), Korea, Japan, Singapore, Australia, etc. Credit Support

Data collected from a sample of 10 bank branches (CBs, RRBs and DCCBs)13 revealed that crop credit to mango during the last three years constituted a share of

13 Sample bank branches consisted of (1) Indian Bank, Diguamagham, (2) RRB, Kanipakam, (3) RRB, Gajulapalli, (4) RRB, Bangarupalem (all in Chittoor district), (5) Saptagiri Grameena Bank (RRB), Vellaturu, (6) RRB, Vinugadapa, (7) Indian Bank, Vissannapeta, (8) DCCB, Nuzivid, (9) DCCB, Tirvur (10) Indian Bank, Nuzvidu (Krishna).

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38.7 per cent of total crop loan accounts and 47.1 per cent of total crop loan amount (Table 9.2). Table 9.2: Crop Loan for Maintenance of Mango Orchards by Sample Bank Branches

(A/Cs in No. & Amt. in Rs.lakh)

Crop Loan Of which Mango Percentage Year

A/Cs Amt. A/Cs Amt. A/Cs Amt.

2003-04 10452 883.83 3786 396.76 36.22 44.89

2004-05 12214 1190.19 4818 560.92 39.45 47.13

2005-06 16303 1756.18 6306 836.85 38.68 47.65

Overall 38969 3853.81 15070 1814.03 38.67 47.07

Pre-harvest contractors, VT/CAs are adequately provided with ‘Secured Overdraft' (SOD)14 facility from banks. They utilize the same in lending to farmers as also in going for lease/contract of mango orchards. Bank loan is also utilized by them for procuring mangoes from the field as also from the market in order to supply to upcountry traders, as there remains time lag of 30 to 75 days while getting payments from UCTs. Similarly, term loan for establishment of mango orchards constituted 19.1 per cent of the total Agricultural Term Loan (ATL) A/Cs and 17.2 per cent of the ATL amount during the period 2003-06 (Table 9.3). However, interactions with banks revealed that bankers are not inclined to provide term loan owing to its long term tenure, i.e., up to 10 years. Table 9.2: ATL for Establishment of Mango Orchards by Sample Bank Branches

(A/Cs in No. & Amt. in Rs.lakh)

ATL * Of which Mango Percentage Year

A/Cs Amt. A/Cs Amt. A/Cs Amt.

2003-04 42 19.87 21 13.25 50.00 66.68

2004-05 227 124.3 33 20.25 14.54 16.29

2005-06 281 240.16 51 32.6 18.15 13.57

Overall 550 384.33 105 66.1 19.09 17.20 *ATL – Agricultural Term Loan

Various mango pulp making units procure mangoes directly from growers or source from market yards, VT/CAs, etc. In order to get quality fruits one or two aseptic packing units had tie up arrangement with banks to purvey credit to the growers/traders. Bank credit was arranged for the growers and professional suppliers under tripartite arrangement, i.e., (i) company, (ii) mango grower/professional supplier, (iii) bank. The bank finances mango growers /suppliers through its branches under tie up with the company (Capricorn Food Products India Ltd.). Branches procure the list from the company and enter into tie up arrangement with the company depending on feasibility/ viability, finance growers/ professional suppliers. The company after procuring the fruits from the growers/ professional suppliers route the entire sale proceeds through their bank accounts. The system is good so long as

14 ‘Secured overdraft' facility’ is sanctioned against fixed deposits, NSC, and other securities.

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there is smooth flow of the margin to the grower after adjusting their loan repayment. However, growers complained that the company delays the payment resulting in delayed repayment of loan by growers, which amounts to more repayment in terms of interest (@11.0%). All processing units have working capital (WC) arrangement with banks, which range from a lowest of Rs.20 lakh to a maximum of Rs.60 lakh depending on their requirements. Banks work out the WC requirements as per Nayak Committee’s recommendation.

Agri-extension

Horticulture Officers, (HOs) posted in the districts, take care of extension activities. However, HOs are not adequately posted. For 48 mandals in Krishna district, 10 HOs have been posted, which hampers extension mechanism. Further, the Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) at district level plays a lead role for technology dissemination. In case of mango, its role is laudable in conducting awareness camps on IPM, encouraging marketing tie-up of Farmers’ Interest Groups (FIGs) with direct purchaser, conducting training programmes, Kisan Melas, exposure visits to FIGs, encouraging installation of drip and sprinkler irrigation systems.It also plays a lead role in introducing HYVs through FIGs and also creating revolving fund for popularization of these varieties and promoting inter cropping practice in young mango orchards. To create awareness among the mango growers, it has organized “Campaign on Mango Crop Protection (CMCP)” in nine major mango growing mandals jointly with Horticulture Department in Chittor district.

Export Houses

All small scale canning units in Chittoor are receiving job orders from export houses. Some of the major export houses providing job orders to the units are located in Delhi (M/s Sundarshan Overseas Ltd., M/s Jadli International Exports, M/s Usha International), Mumbai (M/s Godrej Exports, M/s Foods & Inns Ltd., M/s Parle Industries.), Ahmedabad (M/s Vadilal Industries, M/s Himagiri Foods) and Bangalore (M/s Jagdale Exporter, M/s Lasa Foods Exports, M/s Fairy Foods Pvt. Ltd., M/s Eicher International, Mysore Fruit products, M/s Hopwell Exports, Bangalore and M/s Exotic Food Exports. There are no specific terms and conditions of job work. All these export houses label the product, give brand name and emboss (as Manufacturer and Exporter) before undertaking exports. As regards to payments, about 60 per cent of the work order is paid before lifting of consignment. Rest is paid after lifting of the full consignment. ITC-IBD15, with its operations based at Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh, has procurement and processing network covering important fruit and vegetable belts all over India. Mango pulps (Totapuri/Raspuri varieties) are packed in bulk (industrial packings), catering and consumer packs in aseptic bags, OTS cans, frozen & IQF form according to the buyer’s requirements. Fruit processing operations have been given a special thrust by IBD with an emphasis

15 Sourced from http://www.itcibd.com/pfhis.asp

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on developing strategic partnerships across the value chain, especially fruit procurement and processing. IBD has established its presence as a reliable and competitive exporter to USA, Western Europe, Far East and Middle East countries. Quality Certification

About 37 out of 53 canning units in Chittoor have got HACCP certification. All aseptic units are ISO 9001-2000 certified along with HACCP. They have also got US accredited Food and Drugs Administration (FDA) certification. One unit has also got certification from International Raw Material Association (IRMA) that stipulates standards for pulp used as a raw material for other products. SURE, a Global Fair Certification, has also been received by aseptic units for mango pulp that acts as a raw material for blending, juices etc.

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CHAPTER IX

CONSTRAINTS AND STRATEGIES

As seen from previous chapters, India has achieved a remarkable success variety-wise, taste-wise and size-wise in the production of mango. However, both in value addition and exports, mango constituted a very meager share of its total production because of several constraints.

I. Constraints

(i) Cultivation Aspects

• Field study revealed that availability of genuine plant material is lacking and small and marginal farmers are often deceived. Despite large wealth of mango cultivars available, none of the cultivars have all the qualities like precocity, dwarfness, prolificity, regularity in bearing, resistance to pests and diseases, etc. However, adequate efforts have not gone into developing improved varieties of mango through breeding. Further, efforts have also not made to popularize the hybrid varieties and educate the growers and consumers on such varieties.

• The study also revealed that orchard management is not proper among many of the farmers. Improper spacing not based on soil type, variety, rainfall/irrigation, etc. giving rise to poor yield, is not uncommon. Efforts have not been made to rejuvenate the old orchards through new plantations. Certain farmers followed a blanket fertilizer dose and doses are not based on soil type, irrigation and the plant condition. Several mango orchards have been intercropped with paddy, which has resulted in good yield in the beginning, but may result in several orchard problems at a later stage like low yield, declined fruit quality and increased mortality of mango trees. Inundation and chloride injury had started leading to leaf burning and twig drying and outbreak of diseases.

• Mango does not bear a good crop every year and tends to follow alternate bearing pattern.. However, there is no effort to minimize irregular bearing by adopting suitable cultural practices, like open canopy management, pruning, adequate manuring, etc.

• Fruit drop has been a problem for certain farmers. Farmers viewed that even after careful farming, mangoes were infected with spots (‘Mangu’ disease), which didn't fetch remunerative prices. However, in most cases, the farmers tended to take the advise of the local fertilizer / pesticide dealers for its control, which often failed. Application of recommended doses of plant growth regulators at the appropriate stages of fruit growth, following of proper plant nutrition, plant protection measures and cultural practices, especially irrigation schedule, could greatly reduce the fruit drop.

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(ii) Inadequate Extension Services

• Field study revealed that there is lack of training and awareness creation on various cultivation practices for producing good quality mango. Growers cultivate mangoes just for the sake of cultivation and they have no adequate knowledge on good agricultural practices. Horticultural Officers (HOs) are not adequately posted in the districts for providing the required extension services. The Horticulture Department has always been facing shortage of staff. There is inadequate awareness on post-harvest needs and its technology among the mango growers/traders.

(iii) Infrastructure Bottlenecks

• It has been reported that more than 20-30 per cent of the produce is lost in the post-harvest operations. This is mainly because of factors like non-availability of proper infrastructure in terms of facilities for handling the produce, inadequate transport and storage facilities. For distant markets and exports, infrastructure in the form of pack houses with automatic sorting, washing, waxing, packing, pre-cooling, storage and marketing has not developed commensurate with the level of production and export prospects. To address a few of these issues and for giving further boost to the export of fresh mangoes from the state, especially in the light of opening of mango exports to Japan, action has been initiated by the Department for establishment of 2 vapour heat treatment plant centers, one each at Nuzvid (Krishna district) and Tirupati. AP Agros has been identified as the Nodal Agency for establishing these units. The Government is also contemplating to develop a Horticulture Hub, with an end-to-end approach, under private-public partnership at Nuzvid in Krishna district, at an estimated cost of Rs. 28 crore. The modalities are being worked out.

• The poor transportation and road conditions coupled with inappropriate packing and temperatures as high as 40oC further deteriorates the quality. The prices of mangoes in international market fluctuate on daily basis and long period of journey reduces the freshness as also price realization for mangoes.

• The present position of post harvest handling is not up to the mark. Even grading standards are not uniform and limited to a few varieties and that are not mandatory. Only AMC, Gollapudi is having one unit with facilities of cold storage, processing hall, hot water drip treatment, etc.

(iv) Lack of Export Promotion and International Competition Strategies

• Generally, the international trade demands mango varieties that are with fibreless flesh, good aroma, attractive colour (preferably red, pink, purple or yellow) and better sugar and acid blend. Efforts are not being made to produce and grade our mango based on such tastes and varieties. Therefore, export strategy should be to respond to the choices of the consumers of the importing countries. Fresh mangoes are now one of the most liked tropical fruits in the United States. Per

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capita consumption doubled from 1.1 lbs per person in 1995 to an estimated 2.2 lbs in 2004. The U.S. imported 638 million lbs of mangoes in 2004 at a cost of $196 million. Mexico (63%), Peru (11%) and Brazil (9%) were the major supply countries to the USA market.

• The mango marketing seasons in various countries are given in Annexure V. India’s major mango marketing season is April to July, whereas it is produced round the year in Brazil, Columbia, Kenya and Venezuela. The season is quite long in Burkino Faso, Costa Rica, Indonesia, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicargua and Puerto Rico. Very big mango orchards of a single variety of the size ranging from 2,000 to 10,000 ha area have come up in those countries, keeping an eye on export market which require consistent bulk supply of uniform good quality.

• Many African and Latin American countries have become major suppliers to European market. Philippines (70%) is the largest supplier to Japan, having invested heavily in vapor heat treatment technology to ensure that export variety of the ‘Manila Super” could be certified as fruit fly-free by Japanese quarantine inspectors. Australia exports its ‘Kensington Pride’ variety to Japan after winning Japanese health authorities of its vapour heat treatment programme. Pakistan gives higher subsidies, charges low freight tariff and also its proximity to gulf countries has given it’s ‘Ratual’ mango a permanent place in eating table in the gulf. Therefore, our efforts for mango export need to be re-christened with well planned strategies.

II. Issues and Strategies

A number of issues need to be addressed to strengthen mango crop so as to cater to the export demand of mango and mango-based products from India.

a. Growers

(i) Fruit Size and Shape Improvement

Under-nourished trees cannot exhibit correct shape and size of the fruits. For optimal development of the fruit, location specific nutrient management schedules with optimal doses need to be developed and provided to the farmers. Hit and miss methods as followed by certain farmers may not serve the purpose. Canopy management need to be stressed to achieve the desirable leaf size. In the study area, it was observed that the average age of the orchards is more than 40 years and the interplant spacing ranged from 12-16 m. (ii) Uniformity of shape and colour exhibition

An attractive shape is always appealing to the buyer. Colour development and bright exhibition is possible through exposure of the fruit to solar light and temperature, which means canopy management, adequate nourishment and stage of harvest. Early harvests always lack good colour development on ripening.

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(iii) Blemishes / Scars on fruits

Different types of blemishes and scars on the fruit make it unattractive for marketing and get rejected while grading. Various causes for the occurrence of blemishes/scars need to be identified and suitable remedial measures may be taken up to reduce such occurrences. The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, has introduced two new mango varieties which have an acidic-sweet taste and also developed a technology to prevent infection of mango fruits by insects. These two mango varieties - Pusa Arunima and Pusa Surya, with characteristics such as appropriate acidic-sweet blend, golden colour of the pulp and a cylindrical nut, would help the country in competing with Philippines in mango exports to Europe.

b. Exporters and Traders

(i) Export Promotion Strategies

Concerted efforts need to be stepped up to intensify export promotion efforts. Some of the points which merit attention of the policy makers in this respect include (i) strengthening infrastructure base, (ii) efficient post harvest management, (iii) better and improved packaging, (iii) exploring new markets, (iv) improving cold storage and transportation logistics, (v) developing India brand mangoes and campaigning abroad about their quality, (vi) developing an efficient export marketing network to optimize our export, and (vii) setting up of more quality control laboratories in the export processing zones. Exploring new export destinations has to be the priority. Japan16 has opened up its market by lifting its 20-year-old ban on Indian mangoes in June 2006. Banganapali, including other exportable varieties can now be imported by Japan. Chinese market also needs to be tapped by our mango farmers.

(ii) Post-Harvest Infrastructure

The success of post-harvest considerations depends upon the identification of appropriate technologies, sourcing and creation of need-based infrastructure, followed by its proper management. With the post harvest losses roughly pegged at 25-30 per cent of the production level (8.86 lakh MT) in the study area, it implies a wastage of 2.7 lakh MT. The volume of production (even at the farm gate price of Rs. 4,500/ tonne) results in a loss of Rs.122 crore of revenue to the mango sector. Since the creation of post-harvest infrastructure requires huge capital investment initially, its creation has to be considered on merit so that proposed infrastructure remains in operation for at least 200-250 days in a year. Creation of collection centers with facilities of sorting, grading, transport and marketing in nearby urban areas need to be stressed. Such facilities could be created by a group of farmers growing mango by forming a cooperative society or a association of farmers or self

16 Japan had imposed a ban on import of Indian mangoes in 1986 on the ground of infestation by melon fruit fly and oriental fruit fly.

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help groups (SHGs). Some AMCs are contemplating to strengthen the existing market and post-harvest handling infrastructure by utilizing the subsidy assistance from the MoA, GoI through the Scheme for Development / Strengthening of Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure, Grading and Standardisation.

Pack Houses

For distant markets and exports, establishment of pack houses with automatic, sorting, washing, waxing, packing, pre-cooling, storage & marketing on large scale could be considered by private and public sectors and these facilities could be made available on hire basis to the farmers. Certain criteria like, urban areas with concentrated pockets of production, having good connectivity, availability of electricity and water round the year, hygienic surroundings, etc. need to be considered for setting up of pack houses. The pack-houses need to have the adequate capacity and should have the provision of pre-cooling unit/cold storage. Provision of refrigerated/insulated van to have cool chain upto marketing may also be considered in the pack-house with the aim to market quality graded products. Cold Storage

The development of adequate cold storage capacity with latest technology17/cool chain would help not only in increasing the shelf life and minimizing post-harvest losses through proper storage but also help farmers in taking timely marketing decisions. Cold storages with multi-chamber/multi-commodity concept need to be popularized. Environment friendly and modern cooling system need to be introduced at par with some other developing countries. Vapour Heat Treatment Plant

There is the need to establish one vapour heat treatment plant (VHTP) to sort out the problem of fruit fly, which is the main hindrance for exporting mangoes to Japan, USA and European countries. There should be provision for the export of mangoes in modified atmospheric containers.

17Modified and Controlled Atmosphere Technology (MOCAT) is being adhered in ultra-modern plants in developed countries. In such cases of storage, carbon-di-oxide and oxygen ratio is varied to slow down the respiratory changes in the stored produce. In case of cold storage, it has to be kept in mind that commercial refrigerated preservation of perishable commodities is a short-term process. Costly produce like dry-fruits, potatoes, oranges, chemicals, processed foods like fruit juices, pulp, concentrate, dairy products, frozen meals; fish, poultry etc are being stored in cold storages. These cold storages should be multi-chamber having facilities for storage of various kinds of fruits, vegetables, spices etc at different temperature and humidity. This would help in better utilization of cold storages, throughout the year and will be more economical. These cold storages should preferably be established in market yards/consuming areas.

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Rail and Road Transport

Mangoes are transporated through trucks, open pickup or bigger trucks. Specialized transport vehicles should be used, which may have separate cabins and partial shade so that losses during transport are minimized. Around 300 trucks take mango to upcountry market every day during the season (April-May) from Nunna market yard in Vijayawada. Mango is also sent through a special wagon from Nuzvid railway station. For export purpose, mango is being transported to Chennai airport. Gannavaram airport near Vijayawada need to be upgraded and special cargo flights need to be introduced for mango. Capacity building

There is shortage of trained and skilled manpower for the management and operations at field level. There is need to create world-class farms/mango orchards for which capacity building needs to be initiated. An effective technology transfer system (ETTS) may be promoted to take up technology development/transfer to the mango growers/ processors.

c. Processors

Mango pulp making units put forth a lot of their grievances during the field study. As almost all canning units are operating on work order basis, export houses give only 50 per cent of the cost as advance. Rest is paid after the consignment is lifted in phases, which may go up to 6-7 months. Processors’ money remains locked and they pay interest to banks on their borrowings. Further, because of competition and inconsistent international prices, exporters are offering unattractive conversion charges (Rs.22000/MT of pulp). Thus, most of the units are operating on reduced net margins (Rs.200/MT of pulp). Processors requested for a rationalization of sales tax rates. As per the existing structure, sales tax rate @12.5% is levied if the pulp is manufactured and sold within the state of Andhra Pradesh. However, the same is only 4% if the pulp is sold in other states or that manufactured in other states is sold in Andhra Pradesh. With regard to paying of 1% market cess to the AMCs on he procurement of mangoes, this is waived by the Government if the end product is exported or deemed as exported. However, this benefit has not been received by many of the processing units. Similarly, the subsidy on power tariff as announced under the Food Processing Policy of the State Government has not reached many of the units, as reported. Because of stiff competition from he large corporate units, increasing costs of manufacture which are not adequately compensated by the job charges being paid by the export houses, many of the pulping units in the small scale sector are under the threat of becoming sick. It is also observed that for exporters, the interest charged by the banks under EPC is 7-8 per cent, whereas small-scale processing units are charged at 12-13 per cent interest per annum. Exporters viewed that shipments by sea

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are not preferred due to unreliable sea protocols. Freight charges for Singapore, Dubai & Middle East is at Rs.50/kg now. However, there is no airfreight subsidy for mangoes. A few other facilities required in Chittoor district as revealed by processors are setting up of a common solid waste treatment facility, warehousing facility to avoid carrying the produce to Chennai, etc. The Marketing Department may also conduct extensive studies and provide information to the industry on a continuous basis the demand and international market prices.

d. Marketing

Discussions on previous chapters revealed that middlemen are considered as necessary evils in the mango marketing system. Two types of measures need to be directed for controlling the activities of middlemen, i.e., (i) regulating the marketing of mango, (ii) creating alternative channels of trade for marketing of mango. It is a known fact that the present commission charged by the commission agents is nearly 4-10 per cent of the total value. But the commission charges fixed under the APMC Act of State may be 1 to 1.5 per cent. To correct the situation it is necessary to have a dialogue with the traders and fix a reasonable commission (4-6%), which may partly be borne by sellers and buyers instead of sellers alone paying it as at present. This type of realistic approach may give results in getting the markets regulated and prevent other losses in weighing, handling, etc. It is often suggested that creating producer cooperative organizations will solve most of the problems and increase the bargaining power. But marketing is a specialized activity and producer cooperatives consisting of small growers cannot undertake the job. So it is necessary to create marketing organizations, which can take care of marketing as well as trade in mango. The main features of the organization may include establishing collection centers at growing regions, regulating all buying/selling activates through the organization at the market yard, registration of all buyers with the organization, advancing loans on the pledge of the produce, disbursing of inputs through collection center and arrangement with banks for advancing production loans, etc. For maintaining the organization, a commission of 4-6 per cent may be charged. The DoH can be closely associated with the organization and some responsibility of collection centers can also be entrusted to their field staff. Considering the success of MAHAMANGO, a Federation of mango producers’ societies in Maharashtra, promoted by the Maharashtra State Agricultural Marketing Board, the Department may undertake a detailed study on its functioning and assess the scope for formation of similar such interventions in Andhra Pradesh. e. Institutional Credit

The credit requirement of mango is very high. Presently, middlemen meet a part of the requirement of the credit for which the farmer market the produce through the

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middlemen. Therefore, to shorten the activities of the middlemen in the marketing channel, it is also necessary to provide the credit required by the growers. Presently, though the banks are advancing the credit, it is limited to production of crop/establishment of mango orchards and does not cover the marketing cost. This can be achieved if the marketing organization through its assembling centers arranges to supply the inputs on credit basis on the understanding that the producer through its assembling centers sell through that marketing organisation. This organization may suggest the banks located in the area to route the credit through them. As the assembling centers of the organizations will be distributing the credit in kind and cash components, there will be less scope for misutilisation. The repayment will also be regular as the produce is marketed through the organization.

III. Policy Suggestions/Action Points

• Mango being a potential horticulture crop, needs to be developed by adopting a cluster approach. The Department of Horticulture may categorise the district into specific clusters and go for a thorough survey of orchard areas, mango growers, processing units, market yards, etc. to identify the constraints and try to put in place the required extension support, infrastructure, etc.

• There are several varieties, which need to be identified and given a geographical identity, such as ‘Nuzividu Chinna Rasalu’ a highly delicious juicy variety. Such varieties are dependent upon specific soil and climatic conditions. The DoH may identify and make efforts to screen out the places linked with a particular variety of mango and thereafter attempt for registration of geographical identity of such local varieties. Branding in such a way would lead to integrated growth of that crop.

• As many as 17 lakh mango trees have died in Andhra Pradesh since May 2003. The worst-affected area is the Nuzveed belt in Krishna district (Jayan 2007)18. Considering this, large-scale re-plantation needs to be initiated to rejuvenate the senile and unproductive orchards. Improved rootstocks need to be introduced and strategies finalized to promote high density planting of mangoes. The Department of Horticulture may popularize the improved package of practices among the growers and ensure that new plantations are established accordingly.

• The study revealed that availability of genuine plant material of the required quantity is lacking. It is learnt that bankers are reluctant to offer term credit on account of non-availability of adequate quality planting material. The DoH may take necessary action and ensure that adequate good quality planting material is available for new mango plantations. Sometimes, there has been a demand in certain quarters to create Horticultural Crops Planting Material Authority (HCPMA) for ensuring quality of planting material.

18 Jayan, T. V., (2007), “In a pickle: Mango crop runs into rough weather”, http://www.downtoearth.org.in/full6.asp.

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• It is revealed that alternate bearing has been creating problems in mango production to a large extent. While in one year it creates glut with excess production, the next year it results in short supply due to low production thus leading to high price of mango, which affects processing units with high cost of production. The crop production can be regulated to a certain extent through pruning immediately after the harvest followed by adequate manuring, judicious irrigation and effective plant protection measures. The appropriate package of practices need to be popularised by the Department.

• There is increasing need to set up pack houses with washing, waxing, packing, pre-cooling and storage, including refrigerated vans for transport at the production centres. The pack houses need to be designed in such a manner to facilitate year round operation, taking into consideration the availability of other perishable products in the region. These should be linked with the terminal markets.

• There is the need to establish one vapour heat treatment plant (VHTP) to sort out the problem of fruit fly, which is the main hindrance for exporting mangoes to Japan, USA and European countries. There should be provision for the export of mangoes in modified atmospheric containers in ships.

• Mango processing industry, particularly pulp making, has enough potential to grow in the future considering the declining consumer preferences towards synthetic drinks because of growing health consciousness and increase in purchasing power. Jelly and pickles making has also enough potential to grow. Proportionately, production and productivity of good quality/processing-worthy mango has to increase, for which availability of adequate institutional credit is essential. Credit is needed for crop establishment and maintenance, installation of on-farm infrastructure, such as drip irrigation, processing units, export credit, etc. Banks to provide adequate credit to various segments of mango industry, keeping in view the banking plan prepared/potential envisaged in PLCPs by NABARD.

• The credit purveyed to the mango sector is not getting reflected in the present system of data generation by banks. There is a need to streamline data on credit flow to mango separately for various activities, especially in the AEZs. Credt flow in AEZs may be included as an item of agenda in the district-level and state level bankers’ meets.

• Similarly, the data on area, production and yield also need to be streamlined after conducting proper survey. Data generated by the Department and other agencies at the field level vary to a large extent. Similarly, there is a need to streamline the data and put in place a system to update and publish the data on market arrival and prices of mango variety-wise.

• There is need to regularly review and monitor the progress and various issues confronted by the stakeholders in AEZs at the State/District level so as to identify constraints and initiate corrective actions.

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Appendix I

Important Mango Cultivars in Major producing Countries

Country Cultivars

Australia Kensington Pride, Banana, Earlygold, Glenn, Haden, Irwin, Keitt, Kent, 'Zill'

Bangladesh 'Aswina', 'Fazli', 'Gopal Bhog', 'Himsagar','Khirsapati', 'Langra', 'Kishan Bhog', 'Kohinoor', 'Kua Pahari', 'Mohan Bhog'

Brazil 'Bourbon', 'Carlota', 'Coracao', 'Espada', 'Itamaraca', 'Maco', 'Magoada', 'Rosa', 'Tommy Atkins'

China 'Baiyu', 'Guixiang', 'Huangpi', 'Huangyu', 'Macheco', 'Sannian', 'Yuexi No. 1'

Costa Rica 'Haden', 'Irwin', 'Keitt', 'Mora', 'Tommy Atkins'

Ecuador 'Haden', 'Keitt', 'Kent', 'Tommy Atkins'

Egypt 'Alphonso', 'Bullock's Heart', 'Hindi Be Sennara', 'Langra', 'Mabrouka', 'Pairie', 'Taimour', 'Zebda'

Guatemala 'Haden', 'Kent', 'Tommy Atkins'

Haiti 'Francine', 'Madame Francis'

India 'Alphonso', 'Banganapalli', 'Bombay', 'Bombay Green', 'Chausa', 'Dashehari', 'Fazli', 'Fernandian', 'Himsagar', 'Kesar', 'Kishen Bhog', 'Langra', 'Mallika', 'Mankurad, 'Mulgoa', 'Neelum', 'Pairi', 'Samar Behisht Chausa?, 'Suvarnarekha', 'Totapuri', 'Vanraj', 'Zardalu', 'Amrapali', 'Bangalora', 'Gulabkhas'

Indonesia 'Arumanis', 'Dodol', 'Gedong', 'Golek', 'Madu', 'Manalagi', 'Cengkir', 'Wangi'

Israel 'Haden','Tommy Atkins','Keitt', 'Maya', 'Nimrod', 'Kent', 'Palmer'

Kenya 'Boubo','Ngowe','Batawi'

Malaysia 'Arumanis', 'Kuala Selangor 2', 'Golek', 'Apple Rumani', 'Malgoa', 'Apple Mango', 'Maha-65', 'Tok Boon'

Mali 'Amelie','Kent'

Mexico Haden, Irwin, Kent, Manila, Palmer, Sensation, Tommy Atkins, Van Dyke

Myanmar 'Aug Din', 'Ma Chit Su', 'Sein Ta Lone', 'Shwe Hin Tha'

Pakistan 'Anwar Ratol', 'Baganapalli', 'Chausa', 'Dashehari', 'Gulab Khas', 'Langra', 'Siroli', 'Sindhri', 'Suvarnarekha', 'Zafran'

Peru 'Haden', 'Keitt', 'Kent', 'Tommy Atkins'

Philippines Carabao, Manila Super, Pico, Binoboy, Carabao, Dudul, Pahutan, Senora

Singapore 'Apple Mango', 'Arumanis', 'Golek', 'Kaem Yao', 'Mangga Dadol'

South Africa 'Fascell', 'Haden', 'Keitt', 'Kent', 'Sensation', 'Tommy Atkins', 'Zill,

Sri Lanka 'Karutha Colomban, Willard, Vellai Colomban, Petti amba, Malwana amba, Parrot Mango and Peterpasand, Dapara, Hingurakgoda

Thailand 'Nam Doc Mai', 'Ngar Charn', 'Okrong', 'Rad', 'Choke Anand', 'Kao Keaw', 'Keow Savoey', 'Pimsenmum'

USA 'Keitt', 'Kent', 'Tommy Atkins'

Venezuela 'Haden' 'Keitt' 'Kent' 'Tommy Atkins

Vietnam ‘Combodiana’ Source: horticulture world.net.

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Appendix II

Characteristics of Important Indian Mango Varieties19

1. Alphonso : This is the leading commercial variety of Maharashtra state and one of the choicest varieties of the country. This variety is known by different names in different regions, viz. Badami, Gundu, Khader, Appas, Happus and Kagdi Happus. The fruit of this variety is medium in size, ovate oblique in shape and orange yellow in colour. The fruit quality is excellent and keeping quality is good. It has been found good for canning purpose. It is a mid season variety

2. Bangalora : It is a commercial variety of south India. The fruit size is medium to large, its shape is oblong with necked base and colour is golden yellow. Fruit quality is poor. Keeping quality is very good. It is widely used for processing. It is a mid season variety.

3. Banganpalli: It is a commercial variety of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu and also known as Chapta, Safeda, Baneshan and Chaptai. Fruit is large in size and obliquely oval in shape. The colour of the fruit is golden yellow. Fruit quality and keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety and is good for canning.

4. Bombai : It is a commercial variety from Bihar state. It is also known as Malda in West Bengal and Bihar. Fruit size is medium, shape ovate-oblique and colour yellow. Fruit quality and keeping quality are medium. It is an early season variety.

5. Bombay Green : It is commonly grown in north India due to its early ripening habit. It is also called Malda in Northern India. Fruit size is medium, shape ovate oblong and fruit colour is spinach green. Fruit quality is good and keeping quality is medium. It is a very early variety.

6. Dashehari : This variety derives its name from the village Dashehari near Lucknow. It is a leading commercial variety of north India and one of the best varieties of our country. The fruit size is medium, shape is oblong to oblong oblique and fruit colour is yellow. Fruit quality is excellent keeping quality is good. It is a mid season variety and is mainly used for table purpose.

7. Fajri : This variety is commonly grown in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. Fruit is very large, obliquely oval in shape. Fruit colour is light chrome. Fruit quality and keeping quality are medium. This is a late season variety.

8. Fernnadin : This is one of the oldest varieties of Bombay. Some people think that this variety originated in Goa. Fruit size is medium to large, fruit shape is oval to obliquely oval and fruit colour is yellow with a red blush on shoulders. Fruit quality and keeping quality are medium. It is a late season variety mostly used for table purpose.

19 Source: www.horticultureworld.net.

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9. Himsagar : This variety is indigenous to Bengal. This is one of the choicest varieties of Bengal and has gained extensive popularity. Fruit is of medium size, ovate to ovate oblique. Fruit colour is yellow. Both fruit and keeping quality are good. It is an early variety.

10. Kesar : This is a leading variety of Gujarat with a red blush on the shoulders. Fruit size is medium, shape oblong and keeping quality is good. It is an early variety.

11. Kishen Bhog : This variety is indigenous to Murshidabad in West Bengal. Fruit size is medium, fruit shape is roundish oblique and fruit colour is yellow. Fruit quality and keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety.

12. Langra : This variety is indigenous to Varanasi area of Uttar Pradesh. It is extensively grown in northern India. Fruit is of medium size, ovate shape and lettuce green colour. Fruit quality is good. Keeping quality is medium. It is a mid season variety.

13. Mankurad : This variety is of commercial importance in Goa and in the neighbouring Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. The variety develops black spots on the skin in rainy season. Fruit is medium in size, ovate in shape and yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good. Keeping quality is poor. It is a mid season variety.

14. Mulgoa : This is a commercial variety of southern India. It is quite popular among the lovers of mango owing to high quality of its fruit. Fruit is large in size, roundish oblique in shape and yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good. Keeping quality is good. It is a late season variety.

15. Neelum : This is a commercial variety indigenous to Tamil Nadu. It is an ideal variety for transporting to distant places owing to its high keeping quality. Fruit is medium in size, ovate oblique in shape and saffron yellow in colour. Fruit quality is good and keeping quality is very good.

16. Chausa : This variety originated as a chance seedling in the orchard of a Talukadar of Sandila district Hardoi, U.P. It is commonly grown in northern parts of India due to its characteristic flavour and taste. Fruit is large in size, ovate to oval oblique in shape and light yellow in colour. Fruit quality is good keeping quality is medium. it is a late variety.

17. Suvarnarekha : This is a commercial variety of Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh. Other synonyms of this variety are Sundari, Lal Sundari. Fruit is medium in size and ovate oblong in shape. Colour of the fruit is light cadmium with a blush of jasper red. Fruit quality is medium and keeping quality is good. It is an early variety.

18. Vanraj : It is a highly prized variety of Vadodra district of Gujarat and fetches good returns. Fruit is medium in size, ovate oblong in shape and colour is deep chrome with a blush of jasper red on the shoulders. Fruit quality and keeing quality good. It is a mid season variety.

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19. Zardalu : This variety is indigenous to Murshidabad in West Bengal. Fruit size is medium, oblong to obliquely oblong and golden yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good. Keeping quality is medium.

Hybrid Varieties

1. Amarapali : This hybrid is from a cross of Dashehari x Neelum. It is dwarf, regular bearing and late maturing variety. The variety is suitable for high density planting as about 1600 plants may be planted in a hectare. It yields on an average 16 tonnes / hectare.

2. Mallika : It is from a cross of Neelum x Dashehari. Its fruit is large in size, oblong elliptical and in shape cadmium yellow in colour. Fruit and keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety.

3. Arka Aruna : It is a hybrid between Baganpalli and Alphonso. It is dwarf regular bearing, precocious. Fruits are large having attractive skin colour with red blush free from spongy tissue.

4. Arka Puneet : It is a hybrid between Alphonso and Banganpalli. It regular and prolific bearer. Fruits are medium sized having attractive skin colour with red blush and free from spongy tissue.

5. Arka Anmol : This hybrid is from a cron of Alphonso and Janardhan Pasand. It is regular bearer and good yielder. Fruits are medium sized having uniform yellow peel colour, excellent keeping quality and free from spongy tissue.

6. Arka Neelkiran : It is a hybrid between Alphonso and Neelum. It is , regular bearering late season variety with medium sized fruits having attractive red blush free from spongy tissue.

7. Ratna : This hybrid is from a cross of Neelum x Alphonso. Tree vigorous, precautions, fruits are medium sized, attractive in colour and free from spongy tissue.

8. Sindhu : It is from a cross of Ratna x Alphonso. It is regular bearer, fruits medium sized, free from spongy tissue with high pulp to stone ratio and very thin and small stone.

9. Au Rumani : It is from a cross of Rumani x Mulgoa. It is precocious, heavy and regular bearing with large fruits having yellow cadmium skin colour.

10. Manjeera : This hybrid is from a cross of Rumani x Neelum. It is dwarf, regular and prolific bearer with firm and fibre less flesh.

11. Other hybrid varieties released are Alfazali, Sundar Langra, Sabri, Jawahar, Neelphonso, Neeleshan, Neeleshwari and PKM2.

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Appendix III

Peak Mango Marketing Seasons for Various countries

Countries Peak mango marketing season

Brazil Year round

Burkina Faso March-July

Columbia Year round

Costa Rica March-September

Gambia May-July

Guatemala March-July

Guinea May-August

Ecuador November-February

Egypt August-October

India April-June

Indonesia May-August

Israel July-December

Cote d Ivories March-July

Jamaica May-October

Kenya Year round

Madagascar November-December

Mali March-July

Mexico April-December

Nicaragua April-July

Pakistan June-August

Peru September-May

Puerto Rico March-November

Senegal May-July

South Africa January-May

Spain September-December

Sudan June-August

Swaziland January-March

USA June-October

Venezuela Year round

Zambia January-March

Zimbabwe November-April

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Appendix-IV Major Country-wise Mangoes Exported from India -2003-2006 (in MT)

Country 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06*

Algeria 38.40 0.00 17.00

Bahrain 635.65 803.69 197.84

Bangladesh 23797.13 32503.22 2698.67

Belgium 105.88 31.45 8.53

Brunel 12.75 9.88 1.04

Canada 116.80 28.19 29.07

China 41.86 1.09 0.18

Finland 21.00 0.04 0.00

France 245.05 41.19 12.31

Germany 101.14 82.55 1.27

Hong Kong 79.11 38.50 14.11

Iran 71.20 17.00 0.00

Jordan 22.91 88.00 0.00

DRepublic of Korea 19.01 0.00 0.00

Republic of Korea 16.00 0.30 11.72

Kuwait 438.30 267.96 35.03

Malaysia 294.23 185.00 52.37

Maldives 12.49 4.32 3.53

Myanmar 5.00 0.00 0.00

Nepal 2930.11 3400.94 301.63

Netherlands 855.94 532.00 0.21

Norway 9.70 117.88 0.26

Oman 556.73 143.40 59.60

Philippines 37.00 0.00 0.00

Portugal 81.00 41.15 0.00

Qatar 232.23 160.29 16.66

Russia 1930.80 0.03 0.00

Saudi Arabia 3845.72 2300.53 390.58

Singapore 238.84 159.63 77.46

South Africa 14.54 0.40 2.47

Sudan 251.00 105.00 0.00

Switzerland 76.91 39.70 4.86

Thailand 0.58 5.44 0.00

U.A.E 21056.16 9480.93 5219.40

UK 1511.63 1202.36 205.55

Yemen Republic 80.30 205.25 0.00

Japan 51.60 - -

Reunion 34.00 - -

Bhutan 28.00 - -

U.S.A. 632.61 - -

Other Countries$ 16.9 142.99 12.35 $ include Sweden, Taiwan, Swaziland, Italy, Austria, Congo P Rep, Denmark, Greece and others. Note : * : April - September 2005, Source: Lok Sabha Unstarred Question No.188, dated on 01.03.2005, & Lok Sabha Starred Question No.562, dated on 23.05.2006.

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REPORTS PUBLISHED UNDER THE EVALUATION STUDY SERIES OF

NATIONAL BANK FOR AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

A. Reports Published by the Head Office of NABARD

Series No. Title of Evaluation Report Year of

Publication

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. *Minor Irrigation Scheme-Construction of New Wells and Installation

of Pumpsets thereon in Sholapur District of Maharashtra 1977 2. *Minor Irrigation Scheme – Installation of Shaloow Tubewells

in Karnal District of Haryana 1977 3. *Bhadra Land Development Project – Scheme for Reclamation

and Development of Land, Karnataka 1977 4. *Land Development under Nagarjuna Sagar Project, Miryalguda

Taluka, Andhra Pradesh 1977 5. *Dairy Development Scheme in Jagadhri Block of Ambala District, Haryana 1978 6. *Dairy Development Scheme in Moga of Faridkot District 1978 7. *Poultry Development Scheme in Mulkanoor, Karimnagar, AP 1979 8. *Mechanised Fishing Boats in South Kanara District, Karnataka 1979 9. *Development of Acid Lime Gardens in Nellore District, AP 1981 10. *Groundwater Irrigation in Kota District, Rajasthan 1982 11. *Minor Irrigation in Bhojpur District, Bihar 1982 12. Development of Grape Cultivation in Bijapur District, Karnataka 1982 13. River Lift Irrigation Scheme in Pune District, Maharashtra 1982 14. Dairy Development Scheme in Western Uttar Pradesh 1982 15. *River Lift Irrigation Scheme in Kolhapur District, Maharashtra 1982 16. *Sheep Rearing in Nalgonda District, Andhra Pradesh 1982 17. Development of Coffee Plantation in Lower Palnis Area, Madurai District, Tamil Nadu 1983 18. *Public Tubewells and River Lifts in Orissa 1984 19. *Power Tillers in Hooghly District, West Bengal 1985 20. Commercial Poultry in Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh 1986 21. Dugwell Irrigation in Palghat District, Kerala 1986 22. Tractors in North Bihar 1986 23. Dairy Development Schemes in Darjeeling District, West Bengal 1987 24. Tractors Schemes in Varanasi, Ghazipur and Jaunpur Districts, Eastern Uttar Pradesh 1987 25. Tractors and Power Tillers in Tamil Nadu 1987 26. Minor Irrigation in Muzaffarnagar District, Uttar Pradesh 1987 27. Dairy Development in Quilon District, Kerala 1987 28. Dugwell Irrigation in Dhenkanal District, Orissa 1988 29. Bamboo and Shallow Tubewells in Purnia District, Bihar 1988 30. Dugwell Irrigation Development in Nasik District, Maharashtra 1988

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31. Calf Rearing in North Arcot, Salem and Coimbatore District, TN 1988 32. Minor Irrigation in Allahabad District, Uttar Pradesh 1988 33. Coconut Development in Quilon District, Kerala 1988 34. Minor Irrigation in Purulia District, West Bengal 1988 35. Sprinkler Irrigation in Semi-arid Areas of Rajasthan 1989 36. Dugwell Irrigation in Amravati District, Maharashtra 1989 37. Marine Fisheries in Coastal Gujarat and Maharashtra 1989 38. Shallow Tubewells under Massive National Programme I 1990 39. Financing of Apple Orchards in Hill Districts, Uttar Pradesh 1991 40. Work Animals & Animal Driven Carts in Meerut District,UP 1991 41. Inland Fishery in Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh 1991 42. Bio-gas Plants in Nainital and Rampur Districts, Uttar Pradesh 1991 43. Impact of Non-farm Sector Investments 1994 44. Lift Irrigation Schemes in Maharashtra 1995 45. Mendhwan Watershed Project under Indo-German Watershed

Development Programme (IGWDP) – Maharashtra State 1999 46. Self Help Groups in Tamil Nadu 2000 47. Micro Finance for Rural People – An Impact Evaluation Study 2000 48. Rural Non-farm Investments – An Impact Study 2002 49. SHG - Bank Linkage Programme for Rural Poor in India

- An impact Assessment 2002 50. Cold Storage units financed under Capital Investment Subsidy

Scheme – An Impact Assessment 2003 51 Infrastructure for Agriculture & Rural Development – Impact

Assessment of Investments in Rural Roads & Bridges under RIDF2004

* Reports are out of Stock B. Reports Published by Regional Offices of NABARD

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Series No. Title of Evaluation Report Year of ublication

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Gujarat

1. Poultry Development Scheme in Gujarat 1988 2. Dairy Development Scheme in Mehsana District, Gujarat 1989 3. Lift Irrigation Scheme of Ukai Left Bank Main Canal – Gujarat 1991 4. Financing of Tractors in Mehsana and Rajkot Districts, Gujarat 1992 5. Investments Financed under IRDP in Valsad District, Gujarat 1994 6. Market Yard in Jetpur, Rajkot District, Gujarat 2003 7. Marine Fisheries in Junagarh District 2003 8. Buffalo Financing in Sabarkanta 2004 Karnataka

1. Development of Grape Gardens in Bangalore & Kolar Districts 1989 2. Borewell Financing in Chitradurga and Kolar Districts 1990 3. Development of Coffee Gardens in Karnataka State 1992 4. Sericulture Development in Karnataka – Farm Investments 1993

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5. Lift Irrigation Schemes in Belgaum District, Karnataka 2000 6. Poultry (Broiler) Development in Bangalore (Rural) and

Bangalore (Urban) Districts, Karnataka 2001 7. Drip Irrigation Programme in Chitradurga District of Karnataka 2002 8. Dairy Development in Kolar and Shimoga Districts of Karnataka 2003 9. Sericulture in Kolar and Tumkur Districts of Karnataka 2003 10. Fuelwood Development Project in Karnataka 2003 11 Participatory Irrigation Management Institutions in Karnataka 2004 12 Gherkins-AEZ, Karnataka- A Commodity-Specific Study 2005 13 Comparative Cost Models for SHGs in Karnataka 2007

Madhya Pradesh

1. Dugwell and Shallow Tubewell Irrigation in Narsinghpur 1988 2. Tractor Financing in Raisen and Vidisha Districts, 1989 3. Commercial Layer Poultry Development in Indore District, MP 1992 4. IRDP in Sagar District, Madhya Pradesh 1994 5. Rural Non-Farm Sector in Ujjain District 2005

Orissa

1. Betelvine Gardens in Puri District, Orissa 1989 2. Tractors in Sambalpur District, Orissa 1989 3. Dairy Development Scheme in Cuttak and Ganjam Districts 1992 4. Brackish Water Prawn Culture in Puri District, Orissa 1994 5. Minor Irrigation in Sambalpur District, Orissa 1997 6. Shallow Tubewells in Undivided Cuttak & Puri Districts Orissa 2000 7. District Rural Industries Project and PLI Training Programme 2002 8. Group Financing Under Farm Mechanisation in Orissa 2003 9. Investments under RIDF in Rural Bridges 2004 10. SHG Bank Linkage Programme in RBK Region in Orissa 2005 11. Commodity Specific Study-Cashew Nuts in Orissa 2006 Punjab & Haryana

1. Poultry Farming in Punjab 1987 2. Dairy Development Schemes in Karnal and Rohtak Districts 1987 3. Tractors in Haryana 1994 4. Grape Gardens in Hissar District, Haryana 1998 5. Inland Fisheries in Patiala and Bhatinda Districts, Punjab 2000 6. Viability of Tractors in Punjab 2001 7. Non-farm Sector in Ludhiana and Sangrur Districts of Punjab 2001 8. Water Conveyance System in Rewari & Mahendragarh Districts 2001 9. Cold Storages in Jalandhar, Ludhiana and Patiala Districts 2001 10. Dairy Financing in Kurukshetra and Kaithal Districts 2002 11. Self Help Groups in Karnal, Gurgaon and Bhiwani District 2002 12. Poultry (Layers) in Sangrur and Gurdaspur Districts in Punjab 2003 13. Financing of Tubewells in Bhatinda, Hoshiarpur & Ropar 2003 14. Agro and Food Processing units in Haryana 2003 15. Roads in Mukatsar District in Punjab 2003

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16. Financing of Dairy (Buffaloes) in Patiala & Sangrur Districts 2004 17. Tractor Financing in Kaithal & Faridabad Districts 2005 18. Impact Assessment of RIDF Investments in Haryana 2006 Tamil Nadu

1. Poultry Development in Salem District, Tamil Nadu 1988 2. Dugwell Irrigation in Pudukkottai & North Arcot District 1989 3. Tea Gardens in Nilgiris District, Tamil Nadu 1990 4. Minor Irrigation Investmentsunder Massive Assistance Programme

in South Arcot, Tiruchirappalli Districts, Tamil Nadu 1991 5. Jasmine Investments in Salem and Madurai Districts 1992 6. Mini Dairy Investments in Coimbatore & Periyar Districts, TN 1994 7. Marine Fisheries in Tamil Nadu 1998 8. Sericulture in Tamil Nadu 1999 9. IRDP in Tamil Nadu 2000 10. Modern Rice Mills in Tamil Nadu 2001 11. Coconut Development in Coimbatore District of Tamil Nadu 2002 12. Minor Irrigation Credit Programme in Ramnad and Trichy 2002 13. District Rural Industries Project in Tirunelveli District 2003 14. Cold Storages in Tamil Nadu 2003 15. Combine Harvesters in Tiruvallur & Salem Districts 2005 16. Comparative Cost Models for SHGs in Tamil Nadu 2006

Assam

1. Private Shallow Tubewells and Lift Points in Assam 1989 2. Inland Fishery in West Tripura District, Tripura 1992 3. IRDP in Nagaon District (Assam) 2000 4. Farm Mechanisation (Power Tillers) in Sibsagar District, Assam 2000

Andhra Pradesh

1. Public Tubewells in Khammam District, Andhra Pradesh 1988 2. Development of Grape Gardens in Rangareddy District, AP 1989 3. Dugwell Irrigation in Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh 1989 4. Mango Orchards in Krishna and Khammam Districts, AP 1991 5. On-Farm Development Works under Nagarjunasagar Project

Command in Khammam and Krishna Districts, Andhra Pradesh 1995 6. Inland Fishery in West Gogdavari District, Andhra Pradesh 1996 7. Dairy Development in Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh 1999 8. Poultry Layer Investment, Andhra Pradesh 2000 9. Food (Mango) Processing in Visakhapatnam and Chittoor 2001 10. Sheep Rearing in Mahbubnagar and West Godawari Districts 2002 11. An Ex-Post Evaluation Study on Sericulture Investments in AP 2002 12. Rural Non-Farm Sector in Andhra Pradesh 2005 13. Commodity-Specific Study-Grape 2004 14. Commodity-Specific Study – Cotton 2005 15. Microfinance for Microenterprises-Impact Evaluation of SHGs 2006 16. Mango in Andhra Pradesh: A Commodity Specific Study 2007

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Rajasthan

1 Minor Irrigation Structures in Udaipur District, Rajasthan 1988 2. Tractors in Alwar District, Rajasthan 1991 3. Market Yard in Kekri – Ajmer District, Rajasthan 1991 4. Borewell in Jodhpur District, Rajasthan 1993 5. IRDP in Alwar District, Rajasthan 1995 6. Poultry in Ajmer District, Rajasthan 1995 7. Sprinkler Irrigation Schemes in Barmer District, Rajasthan 1997 8. Dairy Scheme in Bharatpur District 1999 9. Water Management Schemes in Jaipur District 2001 10. Minor Irrigation Schemes in Bikaner District of Rajasthan 2001 11. Orange Cultivation Schemes in Jhalawar District of Rajasthan 2002 12. RNFS Investments in Bhilwara District of Rajasthan 2006 13. Poultry Layers in Ajmer District of Rajasthan 2006 14. A Comparative Study for Cost Models for SHGs 2007

Jammu & Kashmir

1. IRDP in Baramullah District , Jammu & Kashmir 1992 2. Tractors in Jammu District, Jammu & Kashmir 1995 West Bengal

1. Inland Fisheries Scheme in Nadia District, West Bengal 1987 2. Betelvine Gardens in Midnapore District, West Bengal 1989 3. Bullocks and Bullock Carts in Malda District, West Bengal 1991 4. Poultry Farming (Broiler) in Medinipur District, West Bengal 1999 5. Minor Irrigation Schemes in Birbhum District, West Bengal 2000 6. Floriculture in Midnapore District of West Bengal 200 27. Modern Rice Mills & Mustard Oil ‘Ghani’ Mills in Bankura 2003 8. Special Component Plan & Tribal Sub-Plan -Impact Assessment 2004 9. Rural Roads under RIDF in West Bengal 2005 10. Land Development Sector in West Bengal 2005 11. Rural Godowns in West Bengal 2006

Uttar Pradesh

1. Minor Irrigation Scheme in Jhansi District, Uttar Pradesh 1988 2. Tractors in Western Uttar Pradesh 1992 3. Inland Fishery in Azamgarh and Deoria Districts, Uttar Pradesh 1994 4. NFS in Moradabad District, Uttar Pradesh 1995 5. Saghan Mini Dairy Project in Allahabad District, Uttar Pradesh 1997 6. Mushroom Cultivation in Dehradun District, Uttar Pradesh 1997 7. Grape in Muzaffarnagar District, Uttar Pradesh 1998 8. Minor Irrigation in Raebareli District, Uttar Pradesh 1998 9. Poultry (Broilers) Farming in Uttar Pradesh 2005 10. Impact Assessment of Investments under RIDF 2006

Bihar

1. Shallow Tubewells in Darbhanga, Madhubani & Samastipur 1988

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2. Deep Tubewells in Bihar 1989 3. Dairy Development Scheme in Begusarai and Singhbhum 1989 4. Minor Irrigation Schemes in Samastipur District, Bihar 1996 5. IRDP in Ranchi District in Bihar 1997 6. Cold Storages in Bihar 2004 7. Million Shallow TubeWells Programme in Bihar 2005 Maharashtra

1. Lift Irrigation Schemes in Ahmednagar District, Maharashtra 1988 2. Well Irrigation in Aurangabad District, Maharashtra 1991 3. Poultry Development in Pune District, Maharashtra 1991 4. Grape Gardens in Nasik District, Maharashtra 1993 5. Land Development in Command Area of Kukkadi Project 1995 6. IRDP in Yavatmal District 1998 7. Farm Mechanisation in Ahmednagar District of Maharashtra 1999 8. Post Harvest Centres (Pre-Cooling, etc.) for export of Grapes 2001 9. Rice Mills in Maharashtra 2002 10. Cold Storages in Maharashtra 2004 Himachal Pradesh

1. Dairy Development in Mandi District, Himachal Pradesh 1997 2. Apple Cultivation in Himachal Pradesh 2004 3. Rural Roads and Bridges under RIDF in Himachal Pradesh 2006

Kerala

1. Betelvine Gardens in Trivandrum District, Kerala 1988 2. Broiler Poultry Development in Ernakulam District, Kerala 1990 3. Development of Rubber Plantation in Kattayam District, Kerala 1991 4. Fisheries Development in Kollam District, Kearla 1992 5. Farm Mechanisation in Palghat and Ernakulam Districts, Kerala 1995 6. Rural Non-Farm Sector in Malappuram & Kozhikode Districts 1998 7. Sprinkler Irrigation in Kasargod District of Kerala 2002 8. Dairy Development in Kollam District of Kerala 2002 9. Minor Irrigation in Kasaragod and Kannur Districts of Kerala 2003 10. Rural Non-Farm Sector in Kollam & Alapuzza Districts 2004 11. SHGs in Wayanad District 2004 Copies of the study reports can be obtained from the Chief General Manager, Department of Economic Analysis and Research (DEAR), National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development, C-24, ‘G’ Block, Bandra-Kurla Complex, Bandra (East), Mumbai–400 051.

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