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INTRODUCTION Malcolm Walker Chairman of the Royal Meteorological Society s Chairman of the Royal Meteorological Society s Special Interest Group for the History of Meteorology and Physical Oceanography

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INTRODUCTION

Malcolm WalkerChairman of the Royal Meteorological Society’sChairman of the Royal Meteorological Society s 

Special Interest Group for theHistory of Meteorology and Physical Oceanographyy f gy y g p y

1663 – Robert Hooke read before the Royal Society a1663 – Robert Hooke read before the Royal Society a seven‐page paper entitled ‘A method for making a history of the weather’ in which he set out preciselyhistory of the weather , in which he set out precisely what should be included in a weather observation and how, using standard instruments, observations shouldhow, using standard instruments, observations should be made. He stated that he wished “there were divers in several parts of the world, but especially in distant parts p , p y pof this kingdom, that would undertake this work, and that such would agree upon a common way somewhat after this manner, that as neer as could be, the same method and words might be made use of”.[Paper reproduced in The History of the Royal Society, by Thomas Sprat, 1667, pp.173‐179]

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• 1723 – JAMES JURIN (the Royal Society’s Secretary)( y y y)attempted to build upon the lead given by Hooke. He published (in Latin), in the Philosophical p ( ), pTransactions of the Royal Society, ‘An invitation for making meteorological observations’. g g[Phil.Trans.R.Soc., 32, 422‐427]

• 1728 – an American ISAAC GREENWOOD in reply1728  an American, ISAAC GREENWOOD, in reply to Jurin’s appeal, urged the Royal Society to extract information about winds and weather from theinformation about winds and weather from the logbooks of ships and encourage mariners to observe the weather systematically – arguing thatobserve the weather systematically  arguing that there would be benefits for both meteorology and marine navigation [Phil Trans R Soc 35 390‐402]marine navigation. [Phil.Trans.R.Soc., 35, 390 402]

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• Problem: observations made by seafarers are not• Problem: observations made by seafarers are not made at fixed locations.G d d h d f b l i d• Greenwood suggested a method of tabulating data by using squares of latitude and longitude.

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• Such squares became known as ‘MARSDEN• Such squares became known as MARSDEN SQUARES’, after William Marsden, Secretary of th B iti h Ad i lt f 1804 t 1807the British Admiralty from 1804 to 1807.

• First used early in the nineteenth century for showing on a chart the distribution of meteorological data over the oceans …g

• … and used in the first systematic attempt to collect and analyse the meteorologicalcollect and analyse the meteorological observations of seafarers …

d b l d h f• … made in 1831, by Captain Alexander Becher of the British Hydrographic Office.

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Wemust not forget to mention:We must not forget to mention:• WILLIAM DAMPIER (1651‐1715), who compiled his Di f Wi d B S Tid dDiscourse of Winds, Breezes, Storms, Tides and Currents, published in 1699. This book remained the 

d d k i l fstandard work on marine meteorology for more than a century. In the book, Dampier encouraged 

f t k t l i l b tiseafarers to make meteorological observations systematically.

• Among those who did were THE MASTER MARINERS OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY, but there is no evidence Dampier was in any way responsible for them doing so.

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Thus, the idea of making meteorological observations systematically at sea was well established by the nineteenth century …established by the nineteenth century …

… but it took an American naval officer by the name of Matthew Fontaine Maury to bring y gabout an internationally adopted scheme for uniform weather observations at seauniform weather observations at sea.

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• Who was Maury?• Who was Maury?• What did he achieve?• Why has he not been long forgotten?• What was his legacy?• What was his legacy?• Where are we now in studies of marine climate change and variability?

• These are questions to be addressed todayThese are questions to be addressed today.• Let us begin by looking at the life and work of Maury, first thanking Chris Folland for putting together today’s meeting.g y g

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MATTHEW  FONTAINE  MAURYP thfi d f thPathfinder  of  the  sea

Malcolm WalkerChairman of the Royal Meteorological Society’sChairman of the Royal Meteorological Society s 

Special Interest Group for theHistory of Meteorology and Physical Oceanographyy f gy y g p y

• Matthew Fontaine Mauryborn 14 January 1806bo Ja ua y 806near Fredericksburg, Spotsylvania County, Virginiag– Fourth son of Richard (a farmer) and Diana Maury– Grandfather (Revd James Maury) a schoolmaster– Matthew named after his great‐grandparents:MatthewMaury and his wife Mary Anne Fontaine, h b th ff i f H t h h d fl dwho were both offspring of Huguenots who had fled 

France in 1685.

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• 1810: Family settled near Franklin, TennesseeTennessee.

• Attended local elementary schools and th f 1818 24 H th A dthen, from 1818‐24, Harpeth Academy, where he excelled academically, especially in mathematicsin mathematics.

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• 1824: AGED 18, JOINED THE US NAVY• 1825: Appointed Midshipman aboard the1825: Appointed Midshipman aboard the frigate Brandywine and sailed to England, France and the Mediterranean (transportingFrance and the Mediterranean (transporting the Marquis de Lafayette to Le Havre).

• 1826 30: Circumnavigation in Brandywine and• 1826‐30: Circumnavigation in Brandywine and the sloop of war Vincennes.1831 34 S d i th S th P ifi ff S th• 1831‐34: Served in the South Pacific off South America, first as Master of the sloop of war Falmouth and then as First Lieutenant aboardFalmouth and then as First Lieutenant aboard frigates Dolphin and Potomac.

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• 15 July 1834: Married and settled in Fredericksburg. Nine children.g

• 1834‐39: US Navy "cursed by peace". Maury on half‐pay.Maury on half pay. Wrote a book and numerous articles.

• Summer 1839: Assigned to the brig Consort• Summer 1839: Assigned to the brig Consortfor a surveying voyage, but as the ship was in dry dock and he was concerned with thedry dock and he was concerned with the health of his parents in Tennessee he took leave (late August) to visit themleave (late August) to visit them.

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• 17 October 1839 near Somerset Ohio on his17 October 1839, near Somerset, Ohio, on his way to New York to join Consort, badly injured when stagecoach overturned. Right legwhen stagecoach overturned. Right leg broken above and below the knee when he hit the ground. Leg set so badly it had to behit the ground. Leg set so badly it had to be broken again and reset.

• Maury's sea‐going career was over (for the• Maury s sea‐going career was over (for the time being).

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• On his voyages in the 1820s, Maury had shown himself a keen student of navigation, mathematicshimself a keen student of navigation, mathematics and trigonometry and soon become dissatisfied with the standard work on navigation, New American 

l b h l d hPractical Navigator by Nathaniel Bowditch.• In an examination (1831), he solved a problem of l i i b f h i l ilunar navigation by means of spherical trigonometry. His answer was correct but the examiners did not understand his solution so marked him down!understand his solution so marked him down! Promotion delayed by two years.

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• Aboard Falmouth (early 1830s), Maury kept a log of the voyage meticulously of windsa log of the voyage meticulously – of winds, weather, tides, currents, stars, etc. Every 24 hours he recorded the distanceEvery 24 hours, he recorded the distance covered by the vessel and checked charts continually for errorscontinually for errors.

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• In October 1831, in the Drake Passage, he gturned his mind to solutions for rounding Cape Horn.

• Found by observation (of wind and pressure) that areas of low pressure were often centredthat areas of low pressure were often centred south of Cape Horn and deduced that sailing farther to the south to catch winds from an easterly point would make rounding the Horn west‐bound easier.

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• Published a paper ‘On the navigation of Cape Horn’ in the American Journal of Science and Artsfin 1834 (Vol.26, pp.54‐63). Also published (pp.63‐65) an article on an instrument for making certain 

t ti i ti l t (‘Pl fcomputations in nautical astronomy (‘Plan of an instrument for finding the true lunar distance’).

• Published in 1836 A New Theoretical and• Published, in 1836, A New Theoretical and Practical Treatise on Navigation (Philadelphia).

• Bowditch was impressed and recommended that• Bowditch was impressed and recommended that Maury's book should replace his own as the standard work for US Navy midshipmen, whichstandard work for US Navy midshipmen, which it did.

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• By 1839, Maury had made a number of significant y y gcontributions to practical navigation and applied ocean science.

• According to his daughter, his experience as sailing master on the Falmouth (in the early 1830s) convinced him of the need for wind and1830s) convinced him of the need for wind and current charts. Wishing to make a quick voyage, he searched for information about the winds andhe searched for information about the winds and currents he might encounter and the best path for his vessel but found little known on the bsubject.

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• In the late 1830s and whilst recuperating from• In the late 1830s and whilst recuperating from the stagecoach accident, he wrote a series of 

i l i d h i di larticles in newspapers and other periodicals concerned mainly with Navy shortcomings, particularly officer training.

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• 1 July 1842: Recalled to duty as Superintendent of the US Navy's Depot ofSuperintendent of the US Navy s Depot of Charts and Instruments, the authorities maybe hoping this would be a suitablemaybe hoping this would be a suitable backwater for a troublesome young lieutenant.lieutenant.

• Initially occupied principally in astronomical workwork.

• Soon, however, turned his attention to the d th t hsea and the atmosphere.

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• Discovered on the shelves of the depot an ever‐growing collection of ships' logs that went back to the early days of the US Navy.

• His predecessor had tried unsuccessfully to sell them as scrap paper!p p p

• Every day, each vessel's position was recorded in the log, along with specific observations ofin the log, along with specific observations of the weather, winds and currents encountered en route.en route.

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• Maury and his staff (which by 1844 numbered• Maury and his staff (which by 1844 numbered 14) extracted observations from the logs and collated them by area along the main routescollated them by area along the main routes of US ships.

• They compiled information about the• They compiled information about the weather, winds and currents systematically for all seasons the intended beneficiariesfor all seasons, the intended beneficiaries being mariners aboard US Navy and American merchant shipsmerchant ships.

• 1847: First sheet of Maury'sWind and C t Ch t bli h d b d ti lCurrent Charts published, based entirely on material from the log books of ships.

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• Maury prepared special charts and forms on which• Maury prepared special charts and forms on which mariners were asked to record observations.

• These were used first on Navy vessels and later on• These were used first on Navy vessels and later on American merchant ships.

• 1851:Maury published Explanations and sailing• 1851: Maury published Explanations and sailing directions to accompany the wind and current charts (C.Alexander, 351 pages).( , p g )

• Meanwhile … in 1844, Maury had published two papers on the Gulf Stream: ‘Remarks on the Gulf p pStream and currents of the sea’ (Amer. J. Sci. Arts., Vol.47, pp.161‐181) and ‘Paper on the Gulf Stream d t f th ’ (S th Litand currents of the sea’ (Southern Literary 

Messenger, Vol.10, pp.393‐409).

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• The first edition of Maury's classic work was bli h d i hi b i h h i lpublished in 1855, this being The Physical 

Geography of the Sea (later The Physical Geography of the Sea and its Meteorology)Geography of the Sea and its Meteorology).

• This book contained chaptershi h i t d t i lwhich incorporated material

he had already published onthe Gulf Stream along withthe Gulf Stream, along with other material he had published – on the tradepublished  on the trade winds, the general circulation of the atmosphere and the  Maurypgeological agency of the winds.

• It also contained diagrams …

Maury1855

t a so co ta ed d ag a s …Maury 2015 24

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CCapeHenry

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• 1849: Maury given a research vessel, the Taney, which made a scientific cruise to the Canaries, but h h d h dl blthe ship and its equipment were hardly serviceable.

• Early 1850s: Maury given another research vessel, h D l hi hi h h i d i h hthe Dolphin, which he equipped with thermometers, water samplers and many miles of sounding twine.1851 53 D l hi d th i i th Atl ti• 1851‐53: Dolphinmade three cruises in the Atlantic. Maury and his men recovered sea‐bed samples and recognized and explored the Mid‐Atlantic Ridgerecognized and explored the Mid Atlantic Ridge, which he called the Dolphin Rise.

• Atlantic Telegraph Company interested in Maury'sAtlantic Telegraph Company interested in Maury sfindings and maps.

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• Maury's work led to safer and faster voyages• Maury's work led to safer and faster voyages than hitherto.

• By taking advantage of prevailing winds and currents, the duration of a voyage fromcurrents, the duration of a voyage from Australia to Britain could be reduced from four to three monthsfour to three months.

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• However, Maury was not satisfied with these contributions to practical navigation. He p gwanted to establish an international system.

• He achieved his ambition• He achieved his ambition …• … an international conference was organized

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• To cut a rather long story short (for details seeTo cut a rather long story short (for details, see History of the Meteorological Office, by Malcolm Walker (CUP 2012 pp 19‐21)Walker (CUP, 2012, pp.19 21) …

• The British proposed in 1851 that the US should collaborate with them in setting up a worldwidecollaborate with them in setting up a worldwide network of meteorological stations on land.Thi l d M b hi b• This proposal was passed to Maury by his boss.

• Maury proposed a conference, the object being to reach agreement on standard procedures on meteorological observing practices on both land and sea.

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• 10 December 1851 Maury was authorized• 10 December 1851 … Maury was authorized to organize such a conference.

• The Royal Society of London opposed the inclusion of land meteorology …inclusion of land meteorology …

• … because it was felt that the achievement of if b i i i huniform observing practices in the many 

countries where meteorological observations were already made would be difficult.

• Achieving uniformity in marine observingAchieving uniformity in marine observing practices would be a different matter.

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• In June 1853 the Americans issued invitations to a• In June 1853, the Americans issued invitations to a conference in Brussels and it duly took place there from 23 August to 8 September 1853from 23 August to 8 September 1853.

• In the event, there were two British delegates: H J d F d i k Willi B h ThHenry James and Frederick William Beechey. They were instructed to commit no money!

• Ten nations represented … Belgium, Denmark, France, Great Britain, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Russia, Sweden and the United States.

• A code of observational practice at sea was agreed; p gand the observational scheme has not altered greatly to this day.g y y

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• As a direct outcome of the conference the• As a direct outcome of the conference, the British Meteorological Office was formed (on 1 August 1854), as the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade.

• Captain Robert FitzRoy RN placed in charge.Hi d ’ i ll d• His department’s remit was to collect, reduce and analyse meteorological observations from seafarers, i.e. to build upon and extend the work pioneered by Maury and to implement p y y pthe resolutions of the Brussels Conference.

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• Thus, the purpose of FitzRoy’s departmentThus, the purpose of FitzRoy s department was to reduce voyage times and improve the safety and comfort of seafarers.y

• FitzRoy extracted and modified data from Maury's publications for presentation in aMaury s publications for presentation in a graphical form which he considered simpler and more readily understood by seafarersand more readily understood by seafarers than Maury's.

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• FitzRoy supplied instruments instructions andFitzRoy supplied instruments, instructions and registers to the commanders of Royal Navy ships and the masters of British merchantmen …

• … and the mariners who cooperated received not only instruments, instructions and registers but also copies of Maury's charts and sailing directions …

• … generously made available gratis by the American government.

• By 1 April 1863, FitzRoy's department had received 1 100 i f ' Wi d d C Ch17,100 copies of Maury'sWind and Current Chartsand 10,150 of them had been issued to mariners.Al 800 i f M ' S ili Di ti h d• Also – 800 copies of Maury's Sailing Directions had been received and 730 issued.

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• Maury joined the Confederacy in 1861 and then y j yrepresented them for several years in Europe.

• After the American Civil War, lived in ,Mexico until, in 1868, Confederates were pardoned by the US President.

• 1868: appointed Professor of Physicsand Meteorology at the Virginia Milit I tit t L i t Vi i iMilitary Institute, Lexington, Virginia.

• In the autumn of 1872, fell ill at Fredericksburg during a lecture tourFredericksburg during a lecture tour (speaking to farmers on the subject of agricultural meteorology).of agricultural meteorology).

• Returned home and died at Lexington on 1 February 1873.g y

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MAURY: THE VERDICT OF HISTORYMAURY: THE VERDICT OF HISTORY• Promoted Great Circle sailing and deserves due 

iti f th i t ti l i tirecognition for other services to practical navigation.• Made significant contributions to marine science …• … the instigation of uniform weather observations at sea according to a plan that was not outmoded until radio communication made it possible for shipsuntil radio communication made it possible for ships to participate in regular synoptic observations;

• the construction of the first maps of the surface• … the construction of the first maps of the surface temperature and the bathymetry of the Atlantic Ocean;;

• … the collection of samples of sediment from the bottom of the deep sea.p

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• Maury was not a scientistMaury was not a scientist.• He attempted physical explanations …• … brought a lively imagination and unlimited self… brought a lively imagination and unlimited self confidence but only the most superficial knowledge of physical science;

• … hastily‐formulated and poorly‐grounded hypotheses;

d di ft f t ti li ti• … made grandiose, often fantastic, generalizations;• … very religious (like FitzRoy) and resorted to the Bible for justification of his ideas when all else failedBible for justification of his ideas when all else failed.

• BUT – one big plus – The Physical Geography of the Sea inspired, inter alia, William Ferrel, one of theSea inspired, inter alia, William Ferrel, one of the 19th century giants of theoretical meteorology and oceanography.

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MATTHEWFONTAINE MAURYMAURY

Pathfinder of the Sea

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