Mekong River Commission Secretariat Environmental Program

(Final Draft)

A Review of Biological Assessment of Freshwater Ecosystems

A Collaborative Work By: Srum Lim Song Neou Bonheur

Uy Ching

Date of Submission: 02 January 2002

MRC, January 2002

2

Table of Contents 1. Introduction………………………………………………………………… 3 2. Purpose and Methodology………………………………………………… 4 2.1. Principles and Methods …………………………………………………… 4 2.2. Objectives and Methods of This Paper …..………………………………… 5 3. Institutional Arrangement For Biological Assessment ……………….…… 5 3.1. Ministry of Environment……………………………………………….……. 5 3.2. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries………………………..……. 6 3.2.1. Department of Fisheries ………………………………………………… 6 3.2.2. Department of Forestry ………………………………………………… 7 3.2.3. Department of Agronomy ……………………………………………… 7 3.3. Ministry of land Management, Urbanization and Construction………..…… 7 3.4. Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology……………………………… 7 3.5. Cambodian National Mekong Committee…………………………………… 8 3.6. Mekong River Commission Secretariat …………………………………….. 8 4. Biodiversity Status……………………………………………………..……. 8 4.1. Ecosystem Diversity………………………………………………………… 9 4.2. Species Diversity……………………………………………………………. 11 4.2.1 Flooded Forest…………………………………………………………… 11 4.2.2 Fish……………………………………………………………………… 12 4.2.3 Waterbirds……………………………………………………………… 13 4.2.4 Mammal ……………………………………………………………… 14 4.2.5 Reptiles………………………………………………………………… 14 4.2.6 Invertebrate ……………………………………………………………. 15 4.3. Genetic Diversity…………………………………………………………… 16 5. Biological Use………………………………………………………………. 16 5.1. Agriculture………………………………………………………………….. 16 5.2. Animal Husbandry………………………………………………………….. 17 5.3. Fishery………………………………………………………………………. 17 5.4. Forestry……………………………………………………………………… 17 5.5. Wildlife Hunting……………………………………………………………. 18 6. Threats………………………………………………………………………. 18 6.1. Overfishing………………………………………………………………….. 18 6.2. Degradation of Flooded Forest……………………………………………… 18 6.3. Bird and Egg Collection…………………………………………………….. 19 6.4. Harvesting of Snake and Turtles……………………………………………. 19 6.5. Habitat Fragmentation……………………………………………………… 19 6.6. Degradation of Watershed…………………………………………………… 19 6.7. Urbanization………………………………………………………………… 19 6.8. Water Development Project on the Mekong River System………………… 20 7. Biodiversity Conservation…………………………………………………… 20 8. Data Gap assessment………………………………………………………… 20 8.1. Research and Study ………………………………………………………… 20 8.2. Sampling Methods and Techniques ………………………………………… 22 9. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………. 22

3

Tables Table 1 Cambodian aquatic ecosystems…………………………………………....9 Table 2 Landuse of Tonle Sap watershed 1991…...……………………………….10 Table 3 Landuse of Tonle sap watershed 1997…………………………………….10 Table 4 Species diversity in Tonle Sap…………………………………………….16 Table 5 Data gap assessment……………………………………………………….21 Table 6 Major Biological Research and Studies …………………………… 24 Table 7 List of Literature and Reports for Biological Assessment…………. 28 Table 8 List of Cambodian Specialists and Experts Involved in BA……………...36

4

1. Introduction

Cambodia is situated in the Indochinese Peninsula adjacent to the gulf of Thailand with a land area of 181,035 km2. The territory is characterized by a central floodplain surrounded by Cardamom mountains in the southwest, Dangrek mountains in the north, and the coastal-marine ecosystem in the southwest. The climate is dominated by the monsoon season with rainfall varying from 1400mm in the central territory up to 3800mm in the mountain range. The Mekong River and the Tonle Sap Lake are the most important freshwater features of Cambodia central floodplains, which form a unique and complex ecological system containing rich natural resources base for Cambodian economy and its population. Cambodia is a constitutional monarchy with population of 11.4 million as of 1998 (UNFPA 1998). The Mekong River is the largest river in Southeast Asia and is one of the great rivers of the world. Beginning with its headwaters on the Tibetan Plateau of China, the Mekong River passes about 4,200 km through Yunnan province of China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and ends in the South Vietnam. It has a drainage basin covering an area of 795,000 km2 with annual debit of 475 billion m3 pouring to the South China Sea (John Hoskin 1995). Geographically, the Mekong Basin encompasses rich ecological system and diverse cultural assets and is home to 60 million people (ADB 2001). These all together constitute a complex regional freshwater biological resources, which are evolved for thousands year. Cambodian freshwater ecosystems are dominated by the Tonle Sap Lake, the Mekong river and Bassac river, and the central floodplain which are the vital lifeline of Cambodian population, as they provide lots of water, fertile land, extensive flooded vegetation and thousands of biological species. Tonle Sap Lake is the most productive lake in Southeast Asia in terms of fish, flooded forest, and wildlife. Although precise data is not available, annual fish production is estimated around 300-400 thousands tons or about 160 kg per ha (MRC, 2000). Rice farming is mainly concentrated in this area. The Lake is home to hundreds of waterfowls, a dozen of mammals, several dozen of reptiles, and a number of invertebrates. Nearly 200 plant species form diverse flooded vegetation such as floating herbs, grasses, shrub, and flooded forest. Many globally significant species including large waterbirds, turtles, snakes, mammals are found in the Tonle Sap Lake. All these represent important resources base for fishery, agriculture, hunting, firewood, transportation and water supply (Bonheur N. et al., 2001). The upper Mekong in the northeast region also harbors significant habitats and wildlife. Endangered mammals such as Dolphin and Water buffaloes are spotted. Some part of the upper Mekong such as Stoeng Treng is believed to contain spawning habitats for catfish species and others. The lower Mekong from Phnom Penh down to Vietnam is characterized by seasonal flooding which supports a variety of rice farming, especially recession rice.

5

The significance of freshwater biological resources is reflected by the scale of exploitation and benefits accruing to the country economy and Cambodian people. Their ecological functions and service of these aquatic ecosystems are fully known due to several reasons, including the lack of systematic and continuous surveys, deficient skills and expertise, uncoordinated research and development, poor data management and information sharing. Most of past works are devoted mainly to enforcement and management. The biological researches have just begun with the arrival of international NGOs such as WWF, WI, IUCN, WCS. MRCS also makes a significant contribution to the freshwater biological assessment in the Mekong Basin by focusing on fish ecology, land cover mapping, and hydrological modeling. These combined efforts have gradually improved our understanding of biological resources though much work need to be done.

2. Purpose and methodology 2.1 Principles and Methods There is no such strict definition on biological assessment. Even the Convention on Biological Diversity, one of the most significant environmental treaties ever developed, does not provide any clauses linking with scientific assessment of biological resources. The contracting parties are aware of the lack of information and knowledge regarding biological diversity (stated in the Preamble), but biological assessment has not been part of the Convention process. Actually, various aspects of biological assessment have been developed and practiced by many scientists and experts before CBD, which may vary from country to country. The first global biological assessment was initiated by UNEP in 1993 with the contributions of about 1,500 experts from all over the World. As a result the first extensive compilation of methods and knowledge for biological assessment was then published by UNEP in 1998 (Global Biological Assessment, UNEP 1998). Apparently, biological assessment is still a new phenomenon and is gradually improved. To capture the meaning of biological assessment it is essential to first understand what constitute biological diversity. Biological diversity usually refers to three elements: (1) the number of different ecosystems (communities of plants and animals and the environments that sustain them) and their relative frequencies in a country or in the world; (2) the number of species of animals and plants and their relative frequencies; and (3) the genetic variation within each species (Brown Weiss et al., International Environmental Law and Policy, 1998). According to UNEP, the objective of global biological assessment is “to assess the current state of knowledge, identify gaps in knowledge and critical scientific issues, and draws attention to those issues where scientists have reached a consensus of view and those where uncertainty has led to conflicting viewpoints and therefore a need for further research”. The assessment is a compendium of knowledge which can be drawn upon by decision-makers, officials, scientists and any others who are involved in the follow-up and implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (UNEP, 1998).

6

In general, biological assessment is the process of understanding of the status of biological diversity, the interactions between biodiversity and human society, and the techniques, resources and strategies by which biological resources may be conserved and used sustainably. Biodiversity research, inventory and monitoring are the most important activities for obtaining biological information, which is useful for basic scientific disciplines (biology, population, ecology) and applied sciences (biotechnology, soil science, agriculture, forestry, fishery, conservation and environmental science). The methodology and concept of biological assessment is largely elaborated by a UNEP publication “Global Biological Assessment”, which can be grouped into three main themes: The biological issues of biodiversity (characterization of biodiversity; magnitude and

distribution; generation, maintenance and loss of biodiversity; and biodiversity and ecosystem functioning)

Interactions of biodiversity with humans (biodiversity exploitation and human influences; and economic value of biodiversity) and

Strategies, techniques and resources for sustainable use and conservation (inventory and monitoring; resources base for biodiversity assessment; data and information management; biotechnology; and measures for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity)

2.2 Objective and Methods of This Paper The objective of this paper is to review the past and present research and monitoring activities in biological assessment of freshwater ecosystems in Cambodia, with particular attention to the present status of biodiversity, institutional arrangement, biodiversity exploitation, and some techniques and skills for biodiversity inventory and strategies for sustainable use and conservation. As information and skills are limited, this paper will address some parts of the overall concept of biological assessment as indicated above. For the review of the aquatic biological assessment, a sequence of activities is planned as follows: Compilation of existing reports, papers, and theses Analysis of institutional arrangement and relevant national experts A review of the papers, reports, and theses Analysis of biodiversity status, based on the review of papers and reports Data gap assessment

3. Institutional Arrangement for Biological Assessment

3.1. Ministry of Environment Established in 1993, the Ministry of Environment is given a broad mandate to protect, conserve and develop the environment and natural resources in a sustainable manner. Key provisions designating the mandate of the MoE are articulated within Environmental Law (Dec 1996, the Law on the Establishment of MoE (Jan 1996) and the Sub-decree on

7

the Organization and Functioning of MoE (Sept 1997). The Ministry has employed 600 staff at central and around 600 staff at provincial level. Its key areas of concerns are: Promote environmental quality and public health through pollution control Ensure rational and sustainable conservation, development, management and use of

natural resources Environmental Impact Assessment Promote public participation

The MoE has 6 technical departments, three of which relevant to freshwater wetland management are as follows:

Department of Nature Conservation and Protection is mainly responsible for the administration of protected areas and promote conservation of biodiversity. Its major focus is ecosystem management rather than species management. Two offices pertinent to wetland management are office for wetland, watershed and coastal zone and office for multiple use area and protected landscapes. Royal Decree on Protected areas is its major legal tool guiding its task. This department is also a focal point for a number of conventions such as RAMSAR Convention and Convention on Biological Diversity. The department is going to develop protected area law to have effective management of all protected areas.

Department of Pollution Control is responsible for control of pollution, including air, water, and wastes throughout the country. A number of sub-decrees under this department include sub-decree on pollution control (1999), sub-decree on solid waste management (1999) and sub-decree on air and noise disturbance control (2000).

Department for the Review of Environmental Impact Assessment is responsible for environmental impact assessment of all projects as tool to ensure long-term development with minimal environmental and social impact.

3.2. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery (MAFF) The Ministry of Agriculture is given a broad mandate for development and management of agricultural and natural resources. Its major mandate, functions and structure are provided under sub-decree on organization and functioning of Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery. The Ministry has employed about….staff. The key areas of concerns are: Agriculture, soil improvement and agronomy Livestock Production and Health Agro-industry Forestry and wildlife And fishery

Apparently, MAFF has major stake in the development and protection of wetlands in Cambodia. The MAFF consists of 12 technical departments, of which the following three ones are more relevant to biological assessment.

8

3.2.1. Department of Fishery This department is responsible for the management and development of fishery resources. The fishery law is the most important teeth for the Fishery Department. The law provides a framework for management, protection, conservation, utilization, exploitation and development of fisheries to ensure sustainability of fishery resources for the interest of society, economy and environment. In addition it has a number of sub-decrees governing the fishery domain. The fishery department is also responsible for the promotion of community fishery in the fishery domain. Besides the Fishery Department is a focal point for SITES Convention. According to the revised draft fishery law, fishery resources include freshwater and marine organisms, which comprise living and non-living aquatic animals and plants as well as mollusks, corals, amphibians, aquatic insects, aquatic reptiles, aquatic mammals, and waterbirds, which are born and live in the fishery domains. Fishery domain consist of freshwater and marine domains: Freshwater domain include rivers, tributaries, lakes, streams, affluents, creeks reservoirs, inundated forest areas, canals, ponds, deep water holes, tributaries, lakes and alike. The Department comprises of three sections: planning, marine fishery and inland fishery. 3.2.2. Department of Forestry The Forestry Department is responsible for management and development of forest, non-forest resources and wildlife in a sustainable manner. Forestry law is the crucial regulatory instrument providing a framework for management, harvesting, use, development and conservation of the forests in the Kingdom of Cambodia. Forest is divided into two categories: permanent forest reserve and private forest. Flooded forest and forest under protected areas are subject to management by separate laws. The new forestry law has yet to be adopted. Wildlife protection is also under the jurisdiction of the Forestry Department. 3.2.3. Department of Agronomy The Department of Agronomy has a mandate to manage, protect, and develop agriculture production and soils in a sustainable manner. Its main task is to develop policy, regulations, plan, and projects for the agricultural production, monitoring of crop production and technology, inventory and classification of soils. 3.3. Ministry of Land Management, Urbanization and Construction (MLUC) The MLUC is responsible for management and allocation of land for sustainable development throughout the country. Land Law is the most crucial legal tool for administration and monitoring the land allocation for all uses. Land use planning is partly pertinent to the wetland zoning and management, while specific management plan is developed by relevant agencies. Currently, land law is still being reviewed. 3.4. Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology The Ministry of Water Resources is designated to manage water resources in an efficient and sustainable manner. The mandate and structure of the Ministry are prescribed by Law on the Creation of the Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (June 1999) and the

9

Law on water resources management. Its key areas of concerns are the control of quantity and quality of water resources, water use by sectors and energy, but it does not have authority over its related resources such as fishery and wildlife. Law on Water Resources Management is its major provisions for carrying out its task, which is not yet adopted. The Ministry of Water Resources is based on three divisions: general inspection, directorate for administrative affairs, and directorate general for technical affairs. The technical directorate has several departments relevant to freshwater resources management, including Department of Water Resources Management and Conservation and Department of Irrigation and Drainage, and department of hydrology and meteorology. The latter department has a specific task to collect primary data on hydrology and meteorology which serve to define the extent of the freshwater ecosystem throughout the country. 3.5. Cambodia National Mekong Committee The major task of the Cambodia National Mekong Committee is to establish communication between line-ministries with Mekong riparian countries and to coordinate at the national level for the implementation of Mekong River Commission agreement, particularly related to basin development plan and rules for water utilization. The recent sub-decree on the Secretariat for Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve has expanded the coordination mandate of CNMC for sustainable management and conservation of the Tonle Sap Lake. In addition CNMC has three other units – water utilization unit, environmental program unit and basin development plan unit which may have connection with biological assessment of the freshwater ecosystems. The three programmes now begin initial implementation. CNMC is not directly involved in research or data collection, but it houses all information related to Mekong Basin environment. 3.6. Mekong River Commission Secretariat The Mekong River Commission Secretariat provides technical and administrative services to the Council and the Joint Committee of the Mekong River Commission. Its major programs include Mekong basin Development Plan, Water Utilization Programmes and Environmental Programmes, which aims to promote sustainable development of the Mekong River Basin. As information is one of its major tasks, MRCS has developed information management system to store and maintain all information, including environmental and biological resources of the aquatic ecosystem.

4. Biodiversity Status About 30% of Cambodia territory falls within wetland or in other words - freshwater ecosystems. Cambodian wetlands are believed to be rich in biological resources characterized by a diversity of freshwater ecosystems, habitats, species richness and abundance, and genetic diversity. The Mekong River and its tributaries, the Tonle Sap Lake and Tonle Sap river, and the agricultural floodplain constitute major Cambodian freshwater wetlands, which will be the main focal areas for this biological assessment. It is worth mentioning here that the assessment is based on the review of exiting literatures, reports, publications and ongoing research and monitoring which are usually limited,

10

under-researched and scattering. Most of researches have just begun and have been confined to small areas required by certain projects thus insufficient to substantiate a comprehensive assessment of biological resources. Nevertheless, a preliminary analysis and overview of these limited data of different sources can be the first and an important step towards full apprehension. 4.1. Ecosystem Diversity There is a general recognition of diversified freshwater ecosystems by biologists and environmentalists, but they differ over the concept and criteria for characterization of these ecosystems. Attempt was made for classification of Cambodian wetlands (Inventory and Management of Cambodian Wetlands, MRC), but for some reason such attempt does not reach the final stage. In the analysis of ecosystem diversity of Tonle Sap ecosystem, Bonheur has defined four inter-connected ecosystems: the open lake, the flooded forest, the grassland, and the agricultural farmland based on abiotic and biotic conditions of these systems (Biodiversity, Society, Environmental Governance of Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve, 2001). Based on vegetation cover, Rundel P. W. has divided forested ecosystems into three major ecosystems: lowland habitats, mountain habitats, and azonal habitats. According to Rundel, the latter habitats represent the wetland vegetation, including swamp forest and shrublands, hydromorcphic savannas, riverine forest, mangroves, and coastal strand vegetation. Jady Smith and Isabell O. listed other major ecosystems: agricultural ecosystem, wetland ecosystem, and coastal ecosystems. Rollet and Dy Phon called swamp forest as inundated forest. Different classification of forest cover was adopted by 1997 MRC mapping project, JICA, and IRIC/UNDP. For simplicity, if it is assumed that the riverine forest is part of the flooded forest system, four major ecosystems can be described: the permanent water body, the flooded forest, the grassland, and the agricultural floodplain. The three latter can however be divided into several distinct habitats according to plant communities such as gallery forest, shrub, rice, lots, and floating herbs…etc. Based on the Land Use 1997 (MRCS), the distribution of these wetland ecosystems can be summarized in table 1 below. Table 1: Cambodia aquatic ecosystems No Type Area, ha % of total land base 1 Inundated forest regrowth 20,819 0.11

2 Inundated forest 219,906 1.21 3 Inundated forest mosaic 94,582 0.52 Wood/shrubland inundated 348,971 1.92 4 Grassland 488,643 2.69 5 Agricultural land 3,901,869 21.49 6 Water 469,138 2.58 7 Wetland 83,340 0.46 8 Total 5,627,268 30.98 Source: land cover map 1996/97, Forestry Department. The permanent water bodies consist chiefly of Tonle Sap Lake, the Mekong river and its tributaries, and numerous swamps, ponds, and reservoirs scattering within the Mekong Basin. These water bodies ecosystems serve as important refuges for fish and other biological features such as waterbirds, otters, crocodiles, turtles…etc during the dry season, which help sustain the regeneration capacity of all aquatic lives especially fish.

11

Though reliable data is not available, the permanent water bodies can be estimated 5,500 km2 (Land Cover 1996/97 MRC) or 3% of the total land base, over half of which is from the Tonle Sap Lake. From the beginning of the flooding season, fishes start their migration from these refuges into flooded forest, grassland, and rice fields for reproduction. The permanent water body of the Tonle Sap Lake is estimated around 2,500 km2, which is connected with the Tonle Sap river. The permanent water bodies of Mekong rivers with deep pools and reservoirs such as of Stoeng Treng, Rattanakiri and Kratie play a substantial role in the preservation of fish species such as Pangasius and river dolphins during the low water level. Inventory of these permanent water bodies is vital for the apprehension of the freshwater ecology, thus help devising long-term sustainable aquatic management.

The flooded forest ecosystems form a critical part of the aquatic ecosystems, which are under researched compared to other kind of forests. A number of studies were made by Rollet (1972), Dy Phon (1970), A. McDonald (1996), Rundell P.W. (2001), which were based on very short term observation. McDonald classifies flooded forest into shrub, gallery forest and floating herbs, and tropical evergreen forest. Except mangrove, Rundell suggests three major types of azonal forest formations: swamp forest, riverine forest, and hydromorphic savannas (or veal). The extent of each ecosystem unit is difficult to be estimated as different classification system is adopted. MRC mapping unit produced the 1991 and 1997 land use maps with different classification. IRIC (Integrated Resource Information Center) has adopted different categories of vegetation cover. The Ministry of Public Works is currently making a land use map for infrastructure development, which also differs from other map making units. It appears that a standard of classification should be designed for the assessment of aquatic ecosystems or wetlands.

Table 2: Land Use of Tonle Sap watershed, 1991. No Aquatic ecosystem Area in ha Percentage of

catchment 1 Flooded evergreen forest 369,102 4.66 2 Mosaic of flooded forest and swamp veg. 159,353 2.01 3 Grassland susceptible to flooding 468,602 5.91 4 Swampy vegetation 36,502 0.46 5 Paddy fields 1,120,028 14.13 6 Paddy fields with palm trees 65,427 0.82 7 Open water 282,065 3.56 8 Total 2,501,079 31.55 Source: Choun Chan Rithy adapts from Land Use Reconnaissance Map, 1991, MRC. Table 3: Land Use of Tonle Sap Watershed, 1997 No Aquatic ecosystem Area in ha Percentage of

catchment 1 Inundated forest regrowth 21,544 0.27 2 Inundated forest 179,325 2.26 3 Inundated forest mosaic 88,794 1.12 4 Grassland 331,831 4.18 5 Wood/scrub inundated 244,687 3.08 6 Agriculture 1,578,706 19.89

12

7 Water 284,650 3.59 8 Wetland 3,444 0.04 9 Total 2,732,981 34.43 Source: Choun Chan Rithy adapts from Land Cover Map based on Landsat TM, 1996/97, MRC.

The Tonle Sap Lake harbors the most extensive flooded forest, grassland, and agricultural land, which are the primary producers for rich biodiversity. Table 1 &2 show some forms of freshwater ecosystems of Tonle Sap watershed based on Land Use Reconnaissance map, MRC, in 1991 and 1997. About 30 % of the Tonle Sap catchment is associated with aquatic resources. Rollet gave an estimation of the extent of Tonle Sap Lake ecosystem of 11900km2 which is divided into the following: open lake (2,770 km2), open river (270km2), herbs (2,520km2) and inundated forest (6340km2), but failed to mention about rice fields. The agricultural land supports four sorts of rice farming system: dry season rice, recession rice, rain-fed rice and floating rice. According to table 1, paddy fields are accounted for 1.18 million ha. Floating rice is mostly practiced in the provinces adjacent to the Tonle Sap Lake with the total area of 71725 ha (Dept of Planning and Statistics, MAFF, “Agricultural Statistics, 2001”). Besides several crops such as mung bean, corn, vegetable, lotus, and jute are also cultivated during the dry season. Agricultural farming system has both positive and negative impact on aquatic ecosystem. Floating rice for example can serve as habitats for fish spawning, waterbirds (bengal florican, storks, cranes, egrets) and invertebrate communities (mussel, insect, worms). But increased fertilizer and pesticide use may have effects on the soil water quality and biodiversity of the agricultural land, which may threaten the wetlands through agricultural run-off. Grassland is another special aquatic ecosystem with distinct functions. They serve as habitats for fish, snakes, waterbirds, and insects, and help to filter nutrient load. Little is known about the ecology and species distribution of inundated grassland. Until now literatures of grassland published by Jean Delvert (1959) and Rollet (1972) remain the best publication as no subsequent study has been conducted. Grassland is found mainly around the Tonle Sap floodplain and is estimated about 468,402 ha as of 1991 (MRC). This grassland is often subject to conversion to agricultural farming. 4.2. Species Diversity 4.2.1. Flooded forest The flooded forest variation and distribution is owing mainly to the water regime of the Tonle Sap Lake, characterized by a seasonal change of water level and flooded duration. Flooded forest can survive in water-saturated condition for about 6-8 month. Not much is known about biological character of the flooded forest as very few literatures are devoted to them. The poor understanding of flooded forest communities can be explained by the lack of expertise, continuing research and economic interest in the flooded forest (mainly for firewood and fishing gears). Rollet devoted his work mainly to upland forest, with very brief notification of several dozen of the flooded forest species. Dy Phon has an

13

extensive inventory of about 1000 plant species of Cambodia, describing biological type, habitat, distribution and uses (Dictionary of Plant Used in Cambodia, 2000). A number of graduated diplomas devoting to flooded forest were published by Men Sokha, Khin Veng, Chea Sovannara (1992), which list 82 flooded forest species. A brief inventory of plant communities in Tonle Sap Lake by A. McDonald added the list up to nearly 200 plant species, which are classified into gallery forest, shrubs, and evergreen forest. The shrub communities cover a large part of the inundated zone, accounts for about 60% of the flooded vegetation (Land use cover 1997, Forestry Department). They may be distributed as understory of the flooded forest or as in isolation. The shrub vegetation is described by B. Rollet and McDonald as the zone of the most diverse flora species. The common species are Barrintonia acutangula, Bridela cambodiana, Brownlowia paludosa, Capparis micratha, Cissus hexagularis, Combretum deciduum, Croton mekongensis, Croton crabas, Dalbergia pinnata, Gardema cambodiana, Gmelina asiatica, Phyllanthus emblica, Poppowia diospyrifolia, Stenocaulong kleinii, Terminala cambodiana, Vitex holoadenon. The liana species as co-dominant include Calamus sp. (Phdau Tuk), Combretum trifoliatum (Vor tras), Uncaria homomalla (Sang khor).

Locally called veal, the herbaceous vegetation can be divided into floating and submerged rooting aquatic plants, and are found largely around Tonle Sap lake. The main species are Sesbania javanica (Snao), Ipomoea aqatica (Tra Koun), Eichhornia crassipes (Kam Plaok), Ipomoea chrysioides (Vor Ta Euk), Nymphaea nouchalii (Pro Lit), Ludwigia adscendens (Kamping Pouy), Utricularia aurea (Saray), Bo Bos (unidentified sp.), Kamplong (Unidentified sp.), and Treng (Unidentified sp.), Sbov (Imperata Cylindrica), Kak (Unidentified). The formation of the herb communities is poorly studied. The rooting herbs occur mainly on the fringe of the lake at the maximum flooding, but some species such as Treng and Bobos grow in a small quantity along the shoreline as well. The exotic floating herb water hyacinth Eichornia crassipes (Pontederiaceae) is distributed rapidly, especially in slow moving water with high nutrient load. The water hyacinth is found in the small confined lakes and creeks inside the flooded forest of Tonle Sap Lake, which poses disturbance to navigation during the dry season. But its distribution is still manageable due to the high fluctuation of the water level of the Tonle Sap Lake. 4.2.2. Fish Fish biology and diversity are better understood and elaborated than any other biological unit, due probably to the high economic and cultural interest. Subsequent studies have been conducted by many researchers since the beginning of the 20 century. The most important literatures were published early by Chevey and Le Poulain (1940), Blache and Goosens (1954), Bardarch (1959), Fily and Aubenton (1964), Kottelat (1985), Mekong Secretariat (1992), and Rainboth (1996). Nevertheless there is still mystery and gap in the understanding of the fish ecology pertaining to their relationship with flooded forest, endemic species, migratory, spawning and feeding pattern, abiotic conditions and its

14

interaction with other biological units within the Tonle Sap Lake and the Mekong river system.

Of the total 1200 fish species identified in the regional Mekong waters, 500 fish species are likely found in the Cambodian Mekong (Rainboth, 1998). It is not yet fully known however about the number of fish species actually migrate between the Great Lake and the upper Mekong river. Kottelat (1985) recorded 215 fish species from the Tonle Sap Lake, while the list compiled from Rainboth (1996) identifies only 107 fish species. The Fishery Capture Project (MRC/DANIDA) estimated that around 60% of fish species migrate between the lake and the Mekong river (Nic van Zalinge, 2001).

With the long-standing support of MRC Secretariat, fish ecology is better known and new findings are discovered. MRCS has been working with the Fishery Department since 1996 to estimate the fish stock in Cambodian freshwater ecosystem by collection of primary fishery capture at landing sites throughout the country. The total fish production is estimated 300-400 thousand tons per year with monetary value of 200 million USD (MRCS). MRCS also supports several research programs on fish migration, aquaculture, fish spawning which gradually enhances the ecological understanding of fish species in the Mekong River. 70 fish species are of commercial value, of which 13 fish species (Channa micropeltes, Cyclocheilichthys enoplos, Pangasius hypophthalmus, Henicorhynchuc siamansis, Barbodes gonionotus, Hampala dispar, Cirrhinus microlepis, Osteochilus melanopleurus, Morulius chrysophekadion, Mystus nemurus, Mytus spp, Trichogaster microlepis, Channa marulius) are the most abundant, accounting for 82% per catch sample (Troeung Roth, 1999). A number of species, such as Mekong giant catfish (Pangasionodon gigas), giant barb (Catlocarpio siamensis), Seven-line barb (Probarbus jullieni) are now included in the conservation list.

4.2.3. Waterbirds The diversified freshwater habitats as listed above are normally home to many waterfowls. It is believed that around 500 bird species would occur in Cambodia, and the list may be underestimated given the high number found in neighboring country (Colin Pool). Among these birds, more than one hundred species is considered dependent on aquatic resources for breeding and feeding. Historically, there are very few researchers devoting to bird study. The most important ornithological literatures were subsequently produced by Jean Delacour (1927-28), Paul Englebach (1938-48), and William W. Thomas (1964). The earliest record on birds was made by Chu Takuan during his mission in late 12 century. Systematic research has only begun recently from 1992 with the arrival of several NGOs such as IUCN, FFI, WWF, and WCS, which brought about more publications and papers on bird ecology. A number of national experts have received training and basic skill for fieldwork and surveys. The Tonle Sap Lake is given more attention for research and field study than any other areas. The Tonle Sap Lake contains the largest number of waterfowls in comparison with other geographical areas, where about 150 waterfowls species are found (Frederic Goes

15

and Hong Chamnan, Colin Pool, 2000). More than a dozen bird species is considered globally threatened. Today with the support of WCS, regular fieldwork and observation has been carried out by TCU staff in conjunction with international experts. Participatory monitoring has been organized with the involvement of local villagers (Neou Bonheur, 2001). The Mekong river is yet to be more researched, however the recent field studies by MRC project team confirmed the presence of many waterbird species, including endangered species such as sarus crane and adjutant (Inventory of Cambodian Wetlands, MRC 2000). Much work needs to be done to have a better understanding of the waterfowls ecology, particularly concerning migration pattern, population dynamic, species distribution and threats. In Tonle Sap Lake, most frequent method being used is the point counts and transect (walking and boat) organized during the high season of waterbird concentration (December-May) in a combination with aerial survey (low altitude flying plane) and photograph. 4.2.4. Mammal No systematic survey has ever been conducted on the mammal species diversity, distribution and abundance in the aquatic environment. Early records of mammals species were published by Mouhot (1860), Delacour (1940), Engelbach (1952), Wharton (1957). With the arrival of FFI, WWF, and WCS, substantial systematic researches have been regularly conducted and new findings emerge. A number of recent literatures on mammals are edited by Barney Long&Steven R. Swan (2000, 2001), Walston&Davidson&Men Soriun (2001), Sunhean&Colin Pool (2000), and Jenny C. Daltry & Frank Momberg (2000). In relation to aquatic animals, the Tonle Sap Lake perhaps is more covered by numerous studies due to its famous attraction and easy access. In addition, poor understanding of mammals is due to the lack of skilled staff, funds and appropriate facilities. A list of mammals found in the Tonle Sap Lake can provide clear evidence of surviving mammal population, including global-threatened hairy-nosed otter (Lutra sumatrana), Smooth otter, near-threatened oriental small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea), common palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), Leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), slow loris (Nycticebus coucang), asiatic jackal (Canis aureus), berdmore’s squirrel (Menetes berdmorei), variable squirrel (Callosciurus finlaysonii), wild pig (Sus scrofa), near threatened Fishing cat (prionailurus viverrinus), near-threatened long tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis), near-threatened silvered langur (Semnopithecus cristatus), large flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus), greater long-tongued fruit bat (Macroglossus sobrinus), (Sun Hean, Long Kheng, Joe Walston). They are likely found as well on the upper Mekong, like in Stoeng Treng and Rattanakiri provinces, though more research must be conducted. It is also likely that water buffalo may survive in the Northeast Mekong River (WWF). 4.2.5. Reptiles The herpetology study has begun recently in the Tonle Sap Lake by European Commission project and carried on by TCU staff with the support of WCS. Much more studies are necessary for better understanding of species diversity, abundance and distribution, habitats and harvest. At present, there are probably 23 snake species (including 10 watersnake species), 8 turtles, 1 crocodile species, 1 Tokay gecko (Gecko

16

gecko), 6 lizard species, 1 Indo-chinese water dragon (Physignathus cocincinus) and 2 skink species identified within the flooded forest of the Tonle Sap Lake (Nicolai Doroshenko, Long Kheng, 1998).

The Tonle Sap Lake is again home to abundant water snakes. At least 5 water snake species of colubrid subfamily Homolopsinae (Enhydris enhydris, Cerberus rynchops, enhidris bocourti, Homalopsis buccata and Erpeton tentaculatum) are common, of which Enhydris enhydris is the most abundant species accounted for 80% in the market sample (Bryan L. Stuart et al, 1999). The density of these 5 water snake species in Prek Toal, Boeng Chhmar, and Stoeng Sen (core areas of Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve) is 50-100/ha, 20-30/ha, 20-30/ha respectively, except Enhydris enhydris which is abundant in all the places. Most of water snakes are highly concentrated in Prek Toal core area of Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve. King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), asiatic cobra (Naja naja), rock python (Python molurus) and reticulated python are rare as they are also targeted for commercial trade. In 1999, it was estimated that around 7000 –14,000 kg of snakes per week were brought to Chong Kneas port mainly as food for crocodile farming.

In Tonle Sap Lake, 8 turtle species are found, of which 3 species (Malayemys subtrijuga, Hieremys annandalii and Cuora amboinensis) are very common (Long Kheng, Oct 2000). The most abundant species is Malayemys, which accounts for 88% of the catch sample. Their population is on the steady decline. Now a large number of crocodiles are in captivity for commercial purpose. The surplus products of turtles and water snakes are also exported to China and Vietnam. 4.2.6. Invertebrate Invertebrates are very poorly studied, and most reports are available on the Tonle Sap Lake. It is observed high abundance of invertebrate species in Tonle Sap Lake. A recent inventory has identified 2 prawn species, 4 crabs, 17 gastropods and 10 bivalves (Lim Vuthy, 1995). Lim Vuthy conducted three-month study by interview and random collection of invertebrate species in Kampong Chanang and Prey Veng province (in the harvesting areas, markets, and transportation). The main objective of his study was an inventory of all species likely found in the aquatic ecosystems and identification of biological characteristics of each species, which is probably the first elaboration of invertebrates in Cambodia. More study however is needed to assess the species diversity, distribution and population dynamics in the whole Cambodian aquatic environment. In the Tonle Sap Lake, field observations indicate large concentration of mussels and bivalves in Boeng Chhmar, O Tasom (Stoeng Sen estuary), and Prek Toal (Stoeng Sangke estuary), while Gastropoda such as Allocinma longicornis is abundant within the flooded forest and grass. The mollusk communities are considered as biological filters of nutrients and organic matter, thus contributing to water quality enhancement. The comprehensive study of mollusks would help to understand their ecological role in the lake ecosystem. At least two species of crustacean are reportedly harvested for trade (Macrobrachium rosenbergii,

17

Macrobrachium lanchesteri). These species are harvested using Tra Som (a bunch of tree branch) or lop (bamboo trap). The exotic African tree snail Achatina fulica and the South American Golden Apple snail Pomacea sp. have been recorded in the lake area. Table 4: Species diversity in Tonle Sap Lake

No Biological unit Number of known Species in Tonle Sap Lake

Number of Com-mon species in Tonle Sap

Number of Endemic Species

Number of Endan-gered Species

Number of all species per 10,000 Km2*

Number of all species in the country*

1 Flooded Forest 190 8 unknown - - 2 Fish 500 70 - 4 - 1,200 3 Waterbird 104 89 - 15 165 500+ 4 Reptile 46 12 1 32 82 5 Mammal 14 8 - 6 47 123 6 Invertebrate 31 7 Insects 106** 7 Total 991 Source: Neou Bonheur, (Biodiversity, Society, Environmental Governance in Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve, 2001) ** Source: Ruth O’Connor, 2001

4.3. Genetic Diversity

Cambodia is short of expertise in genetic research and genetic conservation. There is no coordinated mechanism for preservation and protection of genetic diversity in Cambodia. The only agency known for genetic collection and conservation is the Department of Agronomy. With the assistance of IRRI (International Rice Research Institute and now renamed to Cambodia Agricultural Research and Development Institute) this department has collected over 1200 rice variety from several provinces (13). These rice traits and passports are kept in rice germplasm cataloque with assigned codes, which readily available for breeding.

5. Biological Use Although the data is not readily available for economic evaluation, the value of freshwater biological resources is believed to be substantial based on the present benefits reflected in economic activities and livelihoods of Cambodian population. The major economic activities relevant to biodiversity use in the aquatic freshwater ecosystems include agriculture, fishing, aquaculture, wildlife hunting, and forest cutting. 5.1. Agriculture Rice cultivation is the common economic activity and important source of food for large rural population. It is estimated that over 80% of rural people are engaged in rice production. There are four rice farming systems: rain fed rice, dry season rice, floating rice, and upland rice (Chamkar). The latter is not associated with the freshwater ecosystems. Based on the 2001 agricultural statistics, the total rain-fed rice fields and dry season rice fields is accounted for 3,212,269ha and 259,847ha respectively (Agricultural Statistics, 2000/2001). In Tonle Sap Lake region, rice field is accounted for 282,000 ha, of which 100,000 constitutes floating rice with monetary value of 66.08 million USD

18

(MRCS, 1999). The total paddy rice production is 4,026,092t with the surplus production of 91,185 t. The monetary value would be around 300 million USD based on market price (300 riel/kg). There are several crops grown in the seasonal inundated areas such as maize, sweet potato, mung bean, peanut, sugar cane, tobacco, jute, lotus, spinach and vegetables. Although data is not available to quantify the areas of each crop cultivated in inundated areas, the total area of these crops can be estimated around 260,000 ha, including dry season areas (Agricultural Statistics, 2001). 5.2. Animal Husbandry Cows and buffaloes are the common domesticated animals that are kept for draughty and meat productions. The total number of cows and buffaloes is estimated 3,686,271, half of which are draught animals (Agricultural statistics, 2001). 5.3. Fishery Fishery constitutes the most important gradient as source of protein for Cambodian diet. Freshwater fishing methods are classified into three fishing categories: family fishing, middle scale fishing and industrial fishing. More than one million people are involved in fishery exploitation (MRC). The total production remains uncertain as statistics of fishery department differs from that of MRC statistics. The Capture Fishery Project (MRC) has estimated total inland fish production about 400 thousand tons, which is 5 times more than the figure given by the Fishery Department (85,600 ton as of 2000). The total fish income is mainly derived from fishing lots and is accounted for 7,437,374,000 riel (1,882,879 USD), not including family and middle scale fishing. The MRCS however has estimated around 200 million USD. As the fishing lots reduced for community fishery, the fishery income may decrease significantly. Fish is processed in the form of dry fish, smoked fish, fermented fish, salted fish and fish sauce for long term use. The production of processed fish is estimated 13,239 t as of 2000. Aquaculture contributes significantly to the total fish production, which is practiced in the lakes, rivers, ponds, and rice fields. Major cultured fish species are Pangasius, Channa Micropelte, Tylapia, black catfish and Carps. The total cultured fish is 14,431t or about 15 % of the total inland fish production, not including rice field fish farming. Crocodile farming (Crocodilus siamensis) is also widely practiced with the total number of 26,299 in captivity. Turtles, eels and snake are too farmed in a small quantity. 5.4. Forestry The flooded forest normally has low quality for timber production. They are mostly exploited for firewood, fishing gears, and small constructions. Forest clearing for agriculture is also observed. Between 1993 and 1997, in Siem Reap alone about 2,000 ha of flooded forest is cleared (Forestry Department, 1999). Non wood products from

19

flooded forest include spinach, rattan, and medicinal materials. Little is known about the scale of exploitation of flooded forest. Rollet estimated around 166,000 m3 of firewood being cut annually from the flooded forest in 1970. The exploitation of inundated forest resulted in a reduction of forest cover from 4.03 % to about 2.44%, a loss of 42599 ha (Forestry Department, 1999) during 4 year period. In some provinces such as Takeo, the flooded forest is 80% eliminated. 5.5. Wildlife hunting Wildlife hunting has been traditionally practiced to subsist family needs. Almost all wildlife is targeted for capture. In the Tonle Sap Lake for example, in 1996 alone about 20,000 chicks and eggs were collected. The extent of wildlife hunting in the Cambodian aquatic ecosystems is poorly understood, as there is no systematic record of catch like fishery. It is believed that wildlife is in high demand from China and Vietnam. Snakes, monkeys, turtles, and crocodiles are reportedly exported for meat and medicinal purpose.

6. Threats 6.1. Overfishing It is recognized that fish stock decreasing based on the fact that the size of fish being caught is decreasing, indicating that the stock of fish in general is not able to regenerate. Another strong indicator of over-fishing is the drastic decrease in the proportion of catches made up by particular species of fish and the disappearance of several species. There is considerable debate as to the main cause of the over-fishing, however it seems likely that it is the combined result of fishing activities both within the fishing lots as well as in the public areas. There has been a significant increase in the human population since the cessation of hostilities rendered the public areas safely accessible. At the same time, the market demand for fish is expanding, which has provided further incentives for over-fishing in the commercial fishing lots and public areas. The entry of Cambodia into ASEAN is likely to increase pressure on the fish stocks as a whole. The new policy on community fishery may take time to be functional thus it would aggravate the situation. 6.2. Degradation of Flooded Forest The largest threats to the flooded forests are the clearing of forests to make way for agricultural land, collection of firewood, and collection of wood for fish traps. Historically, the flooded area was subject to extensive agricultural conversion during mid-20 century due to high market value of rice. Under the agrarian policy of the Khmer Rouge regime a large part of flooded forest had been converted to slash and burn agriculture. Since the 1979 liberation, flooded forest has been exploited for fuel, cleared for agriculture, and human settlement as law is slowly put into practice. Based on this fact, one may suggest that most of the present flooded forest is secondary. The physiognomy of the forest probably also changes accordingly. As the dense shrubs are succeeded rapidly after clearing, the chance for tall trees to grow in such condition is very marginal. The infestation of weed like water hyacinth and Mimosa pigra may be also associated with the accelerated deforestation and increased contaminated nutrients.

20

6.3. Bird and Egg Collection This tends to be most widely practiced, as it provides an important source of income for the poorest villagers. The collection process involves clearing pathways through the flooded forest in order to reach nesting sites, thus damaging the forest itself as well. While there is growing recognition that certain species of waterfowl are endangered by this practice, there is a long tradition of eating waterfowl, which are viewed as “cleaner” than domestic alternatives such as ducks. Efforts to convince the local population to protect waterfowl are hindered by the combination of comparatively high market prices for these birds and the extreme poverty in the rural areas. 6.4. Harvesting of Snakes and Turtles There is a strong market demand in China for snake meat and in Vietnam for both Turtles and Snakes. In addition, due to the rising market price of fish, snakes are being caught for domestic crocodile feed in increasing numbers. 6.5. Habitat Fragmentation The increase of human settlement, agricultural expansion, and infrastructure development are only a few examples that we observe today. The Tonle Sap lake, for example, is now surrounded by an agricultural belt, national road with increased population, which cut the ecosystem into isolated pieces. Natural corridors for animal migration, except waterbirds, between the lake and upland forest is now fully eliminated. Many elephants, tigers, wild pigs, and wild buffaloes have no access to the lake any more. The division of the lake area into fishing lots also offers opportunity for ecosystem fragmentation because of intensive fishing and human disturbance. For instance, the fishing method like “Dai” is believed to disturb fish migration between the Tonle Sap Lake and the Mekong River. 6.6. Degradation of Watershed The main threat to the watershed has been in the form of logging in the uplands surrounding the lake. While logging is now being increasingly monitored and controlled, it is still a matter of real concern, particularly with regards to the quality of forest management, land development and agricultural expansion which would result in wildlife habitat loss and increased erosion. The future growing water use for irrigation and electricity in the Mekong would lead to the change of water regime of aquatic ecosystems. 6.7. Urbanization With the increase of population, urban expansion, together with intensive agricultural development, waste discharge will increase which would have effects on all the aquatic systems, such as rivers and reservoirs adjacent to the cities. Agricultural run-off with high persistent organic pollutants would result in degradation of biological features such as fish. Other consequences of such nutrient richness are the eutrofication and weed

21

infestation. As the flooded forest decreases, the effects of nutrients on aquatic ecosystems would be increased. As observed water hyacinth and Mimosa pigra are rapidly expanding. 6.8. Water Development Projects on the Mekong River System The Mekong River is a resource base for water development such as hydro dams, irrigation, and domestic water supply. As population is growing, the consumption needs are on the increase. A large number of hydroelectric dams and irrigation projects are planned on the Mekong River System, though the likelihood of finding funding for such projects is now doubtful. Nevertheless, dams on Mekong tributaries will almost certainly go ahead, which are bound to have further impact on the seasonal flooding cycle. Particular concern is that dams will obstruct the migration of fish in the Mekong river.

7. Biodiversity Conservation Historically, Cambodia has had good attitude towards biodiversity conservation. Cambodia was the first country to establish protected areas, when Angkor compound was designated in 1925 as national park. By 1969 Cambodia national parks had been increased to about 2.2 million ha, which were disrupted by political unrest. Only until 1993, biodiversity conservation was seriously engaged again when a new institution – the Ministry of Environment was set up. Since then, law and regulations have been enacted and policy and strategy have been formulated. Immediately after the formation of MoE, a Royal Decree on the Creation of Protected Areas was signed by the King in 1993. The Royal Decree has designated 23 protected areas classifying into 4 categories: national parks, wildlife sanctuary, protected landscape, and multiple uses area, covering about 3 million ha. Tonle Sap Lake was designated as multiple use area. Subsequently, Cambodia has acceded to several international conventions such as RAMSAR conventions (1996), Biosphere Reserve nomination (1997), Biodiversity Convention (1996), and Climate Change Convention, which allow Cambodia to fulfill its commitment to biodiversity conservation at national and international level. A significant progress towards aquatic biodiversity conservation is the establishment of the Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve, which was legally adopted this early year. Several RAMSAR sites such as Stoeng Treng and Boeng Chmar are ratified. Besides, three documents prepared for biodiversity conservation are national environmental action plan, draft wetland action plan, and draft biodiversity strategy and action plan. With the arrival of several NGOs such as IUCN, WI, WWF, FFI, and WCs the biodiversity conservation is further consolidated. In addition, fishery, forestry, and land are under the process of reform. Fishery sector undergoes a major change, where more fishing ground is allocated for community fishery. It is early to assess the success of this policy as much work still need to be done.

8. Data Gap and Technique Assessment 8.1 Research and Study

22

Cambodia in general, has limited capacity in terms of expertise, staff, and networks for biological assessment. The research and development are not well coordinated among responsible agencies and are often carried out by international assistance. Many research programs are hampered by insecurity, poor network, and financial mismatch. Systematic research and monitoring activities have just begun slowly since the establishment of the new government in 1993. Based on table 5, it appears that fish ecology and hydrology have better understanding than any thematic data related to biological issues. Even though, gaps still exist with regards to fish spawning and migration, fish habitats, species and ecosystem diversity, natural stock and rate of exploitation. Extensive study supported by fishery programs of MRCS has been conducted since 1995 without disruption, which gradually improves the understanding of fish ecology. Table 5: Data gap assessment

Location Research and Monitoring

Status of program

Data Management

Key agencies No Biological Unit

Upp

er M

ekon

g

Tonl

e Sa

p La

ke

Low

Mek

ong

Inve

ntor

y/Ta

xono

my

Cen

sus

Ma p

ping

/mig

ratio

n

Soci

o-ec

onom

ics

Freq

uenc

y of

stud

y

Leve

l of s

ucce

ss

Pro g

ram

stat

us

Dig

ital/C

ompu

teriz

ed

Text

In

tern

e t

Libr

ary

MA

FF

MoE

MW

M

MR

CS

Physical Conditions

Hydrology x x x x 3 2 3 x x x x x Water quality - x 1 1 - x x x x x Soil x x x 1 2 1 x x Geomorphology - x - 1 1 1 Flora Lacustrine Flooded

forest - x - x x x x 2 2 1 x x x x x x

Riverine Flooded forest

x x x x x x 1 1 1 - x x x

Inundated grassland - x - x x x - 1 2 1 x x x x x Floating herbs x - - - - 1 1 1 - x x x x Wetland x x x x x 1 1 1 x x x x x Open water body x x x - x x - 1 2 3 x x x x x x Agricultural plant x x x x x x x 3 3 3 x x x x x Fauna Fish x x x x x x x 3 3 3 x x x x x x Birds x x x x x x 3 3 3 x x x x x Mammals x x x - x - 2 2 2 x x x x x Amphibian x x - - - 1 1 1 - x x x x Reptiles x x x x x 1 2 3 x x x Invertebrates x x x x x 1 1 1 x x x Insect - - - x 1 1 1 x x Note: X: available, - : not available Frequency of study: 1(less than one year or disrupted), 2 (3-5 year), 3 (continuous)

23

Level of success: 1 (low), 2 (medium), 3 (high) Program status: 1 (stopped), 2 (planned), 3 (ongoing) Waterbird ecology is also subject to frequent studies by relevant departments such as WPO and MOE in collaboration with international NGOs (WCS, WWF, FFI). Among the three geographical aquatic systems, the Tonle Sap Lake is frequently covered by many projects, including the Biosphere Reserve programme (Technical Coordination Unit for the Tonle Sap and UNESCO), Participatory Natural Resources Management (FAO), Wetland International, WCS, MRCS Fishery Capture project, and Tonle Sap Hydrological Modeling (MRCS/Finland). Mapping of aquatic ecosystems is also well done by several agencies, including FAO/UNESCO, MRCS, JICA, GTZ, and IRIC/UNDP, but there is a lack of consensus over the classification system, which result in different data interpretation. Ground truthing has often been limited to check the validity of the extent of vegetation types. 8.2 Sampling Methods and Techniques The sampling methods and data analysis vary from project to project depending on the objective of the study or survey. In most cases the common sampling methods are the method of interviews, transects and point counts with random collection of samples and often have short-term planning. Time series sampling is available only for hydrological monitoring (hydrograph, volume, debit, discharge, water quality), while other biological monitoring activities either have just only begun or target only small project areas. As a result, most of research papers and reports provide only preliminary assessment, and often state the needs for more researches and field surveys (see table 6). Nevertheless these can be considered as an initial step of success. A research standard with time series sampling should be planned for better elaboration of all aspects of the biological assessment.

9. Conclusion The freshwater ecosystems in Cambodia are diverse and productive, which provide rich resources base for the country economy and local livelihoods. Geographically, Cambodian aquatic ecosystems consist of Tonle Sap Lake and its surrounding floodplains, the upper Northeast Mekong, and the Lower Mekong down from Chaktomuk and the surrounding floodplains, where the majority of population is settled. Based on the vegetation characteristic, four major types of aquatic systems can be found: permanent water bodies, flooded forest, inundated grassland, and agricultural plants. The assessment of aquatic biological resources is vested with several agencies, mainly with the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery, the Ministry of Environment, the Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology, Cambodia National Mekong Committee, and Mekong River Commission Secretariat. There exists some overlapping responsibility and unclear institutional arrangement. Coordination and cooperation between these agencies are necessitated to enhance the quality of the biological assessment and to help devise better biodiversity management strategy. Besides, there is a general recognition of limited capacity and resources to have a proper and sustainable biological research and

24

monitoring. As a result most of research activities are carried out through technical assistance with specific agenda. There is a compelling needs for better institutional arrangement for biological assessment through joint commitment, training, and coordination. The MRCS should play a major role in bridging all specialists and experts so that information and programmes can be shared effectively. Among thematic aspects of biodiversity, fish, birds, and agricultural plants are covered by many projects. There is still gap in the understanding of other resources such as invertebrates, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, insects and their ecological habitats. The classification systems of these aquatic ecosystems needs to be standardized so that a biological assessment can be efficiently conducted. More researches and developments should be planned and coordinated among these key agencies as mentioned above.

25

Table 6: Major Biological Researches and Studies Biological Unit

Type of Program Sampling method Sample site Number of sampling occasions or period

Number of samples

Data analysis Success

Plant Community of the Tonle Sap Floodplain. Andrew McDonald, 1996

Field Inventory with the collection of botanical specimens

Chnok Tru, Soeng Sen, Peam Bang, Moat Kla, Prek Toal and Bak Prea

One full month in April 1996

98 specimens

Identification of plant species and distribution in comparison with Royal Forestry Herbarium Thailand

190 flooded forest species were identified

Biomass Assessment, J. Malleux, 1997

Measurement of biomass of bush and shrub according to diameter (0.1-5, 5-10, > 10cm)

An area of 2,660 ha in Sotr Nikium District

37 sampling plots of 50x50m and sub plots of 20x10m

Total biomass of flooded forest

The sampling area is already degraded, which may not be true for biomass assessment of the Lake

Land cover map of Tonle Sap flooded forest, FAO, UNESCO

Photo-interpretation of flooded vegetation based on 1993 aerial photo of 1:25000 scale

Tonle Sap Lake floodplain between the national road 5 and 6

Assessment of land use and vegetation of Tonle Sap Lake

Good but some portion was not complete

Flooded Vegetation

Land cover map, 1993 and 1997, Forestry Department/GTZ/MRCS

Interpretation of LANDSAT TM 1993/1997 imagery of 1:250000 scale

Whole Cambodia 1993 and 1997 LANDSAT TM

Assessment of land use change

Good for land use change assessment

Fish Socio-economic assessment (MRC/DANIDA)

Meetings, interview and personal observation

Fishing districts in Siem Reap, Battambang, Pursat, Kampong Chhnang, Kampong Thom, Kampong Cham and Kandal

Between mid 1995 and early 1996

5117 households from 7 provinces

Socio-economic indicators and catch estimation by Access, Excel and SPSS statistical package

Good

26

Fishery capture assessment (MRC/DANIDA)

Stratified random sampling, frame survey, counts of fish catch at major fish landing sites

12 provinces 1997-98 Catch per gear, fish composition Analyzed by ARTFISH (FAO)

Catch information from fishing lot still depend on the report of the fishery station which is untrue.

Fishery migration (MRC/DANIDA)

Daily counts and observation of fish catch

7 landing sites: Stung Treng town, Kratie town, Kampong Cham, Kampong Loung, Saang, Neak Loeng, Dai fisning in Tonle Sap River

October 1998 – Sept 1999

Daily record for one year

93 fish recorded and catch per effort statistics

Good, but it is difficult to verify whether catch in different land sites is from the same group of fish

Fish taxonomy (Rainboth)

Compilation of existing literatures

? ? Fish Taxonomy 500 fish is listed with biological characteristics

Fish

Aquaculture (AIT) Takeo Reptiles Reptiles and Small

Wildlife at Tonle Sap Lake. Nicolai Doroshenko and Long Kheng

Interview and field study with collection of reptile specimens

Prek Toal and Boeng Chhmar and Stoeng Sen in the Tonle Sap Lake

18 days of field visit in Nov-Dec 1998

Identification of reptile species and population estimation in the Core areas of TSBR

The first herpetological study in Tonle Sap Lake

Harvest of Watersnakes in the Great Lake

Observation and field visits during wet season

3 sites: Chong Kneas, Psa Krom and Prek Toal village

9 days between 21 Aug to 9 Dec

9 samples Snake harvest Minimum estimation, more survey needed

Biological surveys in Northeast Mondulkiri Cambodia, FFI 2000

Direct observation, sign based method, photo trapping, and interview

Mondulkiri 21 days in April 2000

16 voucher specimens of amphibian

Species identification

Good but more researches needed

Cardamom Mountains, Biodiversity surveys, FFI 2000

Visual search, aural search, live trapping, calling and interview

Mount Samkos and Tmar bang district

7 weeks in Jan-March day and night walking

19 specimens preserved

Reptile species inventory

Good

27

Waterbird counting and identification in Tonle Sap Lake, Frederic Goes and Hong Chamnan,

Transect and point count

Prek Toal and Boeng Chhmar of TSBR

Intensive survey during dry season

1 week per month since 1998

Population, species inventory

Good

Bengal Florican Field observation Veal Anh Chan, Krous Krom, Trapeng Rum Peak and Boeng Prabel Kampong Thom province

40 days or 3-4 days per month between Feb and Aug

40 samples

Population, habitat and distribution

Distribution and habitat OK but population is not defined

Sarus crane conservation

Field observation and counting

One visit per month in 1998, 1999, and 2000

27 visits Species identification, Population

Good

Waterbirds

Biological surveys in Northeast Mondulkiri Cambodia, FFI 2000

Direct observation, sign based method, photo trapping, and interview

Mondulkiri 21 days in April 2000

Bird species identification

good

Crustacees et Molluscques, Lim Vuthy, 1995.

Interview and collection of Crustacees and mollusk species

Kampong Chhnang and Prey Veng

3 months in Aug-Oct 1995

Not detailed

Species inventory

Good but primarily based on surveys by Thai Tran Bai, Tran Van Cu, 1986

Aquatic macro-invertebrates of Cambodia, Ruth O’Connor

Compilation of two surveys by Nguyen Xuan Tan, Nguoyen Van Hao and O’Connor

Low land rivers, Banteay mean Chey, Siem Reap and Cardamom mountain

3 years by Ngueyen and

Not detailed in Nguyen

Species inventory of invertebrates

More research needed in different aquatic environment

Cardamom Mountains, Biodiversity surveys, FFI 2000

Visual encounter survey with collection of species

Mount Samkos and Tmar Bang district in central Cardamom

5 week in each sites Jan-Feb 2000

40 Voucher specimens

Amphibians species inventory

Good but more species are likely found

Inverte-brates and amphibians

Cardamom Mountains, Biodiversity surveys, FFI 2000

Water sampling and collection of fish and macro-invertebrates

Veal Veng district 19-20 April Not detailed

Fish and macro-invertebrate inventory

Very short sampling period

28

Agriculture Rice Germplasm Catalog of Cambodia

Collection of rice varieties and evaluation of germplasm

13 provinces 1990-1991 Germplasm conservation

1270 rice varieties are preserved in Cambodia and duplicates are stored as well in International Germplasm Center in Los Banos, Phillipines

29

Table 7 : List of Literatures and Reports for Biological Assessment (incomplete) No Title Author Date Topics Brief Description 1 Travels in Siam, Cambodia, and Laos

1858-60 Henry Mouhot 1860 Culture, Tonle

Sap, wildlife Brief notification of Khmer Kingdom, society, nature and wilderness.

2 The Customs of Cambodia Chu Ta-Kuan 1290 Culture, religion, agriculture, biodiversity

Brief notification of Chu Ta-Kuan about Cambodian livelihood, traditions, environment at Angkor during 13 century

3 Le Paysan du Cambodge Jean Delvert 1961 Culture, economy, vegetation, administration

Extensive study of economy, culture, livelihood, ethnic diversity of the rural people in year 50, mostly within the Tonle Sap floodplain, notification of vegetation characteristic of Tonle Sap floodplain

4 Biology and Conservation of Cetaceans in Asia

Randall R. Reeves, Brian D. Smith and Toshio Kasuya, IUCN

2000 Asian River Dolphin

Assessment of river dolphin habitats, population, species distribution, human threats, and also provision of research methodology and survey design. Location: India, Yangtze River, Mekong River, Bangladesh, Peru. 153 pages. Source: WI

5 Assessment and Management of Alien Species that Threaten Ecosystems, Habitats, and Species

Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity

2001 Non native animal and aquatic organism

Description of methodology for assessment of nonnative animals and plants such as cane toad, Mimosa pigra, and fish, and preventive and mitigation measures. 133 pages. Source: WI

6 Global Biodiversity Outlook, draft Convention on Biological Diversity

March, 2001

Biodiversity Status and trends of global biodiversity, endangered species of all ecosystems, including freshwater ecosystems. 207 pages. Source: WI

7 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan

Ministry of Environment, FAO/UNDP/GEF

2001 Biodiversity Description of biodiversity status, identified threats, and possible actions.

8 Grand Lac Du Cambodge J.P. Carbonnel, J. Guiscafre

1962-63 Sedimentology and Hydrology

The first detail study of hydrology and sedimentation of Tonle Sap Lake and its catchment, water balance, description of geological and vegetation characteristics of Tonle sap catchment

9 Preliminary study of Sedimentation in Lake Tonle Sap, Cambodia

Shinji TSUKAWAKI, Masafumi OKAWARA, Kim Leang LAO

1994 Sedimentation Study of the sediments and notification of ancient fauna composition of Tonle Sap Lake

10 Bengal Florican Houbaropsis Frederic Goes, Hong May Bird Description of survey method, assessment of habitat,

30

No Title Author Date Topics Brief Description bengalensis Conservation in Kampong Thom Province, Cambodia

Chamnan, Peter Davidson, Colin Pool

2001 population distribution, and threats to bengal floricans in Kampong Thom. 59 pages. Source: TCU.

11 Conservation activities at Ang Trapeang Thmor Sarus Crane Conservation Area

Hong Chamnan and Frederic Goes

June 2001

Bird Description of waterbird monitoring and conservation measures in Ang Trapeang Thmor Reservoir, Banteay Mean Chey province. 171 pages. Source: TCU

12 Hydrological Study of the Tonle Sap Great Lake

Tes Sopharith May 1997

Hydrology Creation of digital elevation model for the great lake’s floodplain and flood duration

13 Dictionary of Plants Used in Cambodia

DY PHON PAULINE 2000 Plants taxonomy List of more than 1000 plant species in Cambodia with taxonomy, biological characteristics, and use value. 915 pages. Source: TCU

14 La Vegetation du Cambodge B. Rollet Sept 1972

Forest Listing the forest species and distribution pattern throughout Cambodia, including flooded vegetation around Tonle Sap Lake. Source: TCU.

15 Plant Communities of The Tonle Sap Floodplain

J. Andrew McDonald, Pech Bunnat, Phauk Virak.

30/04/96

Flooded forest of Tonle Sap Lake

Description of vegetation type and plant inventory, distribution pattern and succession of plants, brief notification of biodiversity, floristic checklist of Tonle Sap floodplain flora. 89 pages, Source: TCU

16 Sustainable Forest Management, interim report

ADB, Fraser Thomas, GFA-AGRAR, ANZDEC

Dec, 1999

Forest Concession

Overview of the current land forest management by Forestry Department, particularly related to forest concession. Source: TCU.

17 Cardamom Mountains, Biodiversity survey 2000.

Jenny C. Daltry & Frank Momberg, FFI.

2000 Biodiversity Preliminary assessment of biodiversity status of Cardamom mountains, description of survey methods, species population, habitats, threats, and conservation actions. 252 pages. Source: UNESCO

18 Inventory and Management of Cambodia Wetlands Project

MRC/DANIDA, MoE, MAFF

Feb. 2000

Wetland biodiversity

Inventory and classification of Cambodian wetlands in Stoeng Treng province. 50 pages.

19 Inventory and Management of Cambodia Wetlands Project

MRC/DANIDA, MoE, MAFF

April 2001

Wetland biodiversity

Inventory and classification of Cambodian wetlands in Kratie province. 65 pages.

20 Surveys of Large Waterbirds in Cambodia

John Par et all. IUCN 1996 Waterbird Preliminary study of waterbirds in Prek Toal and Boeng Chhmar areas. Source: TCU.

21 Report of waterbird observation and data collection

Hong Chamnan, TCU/UNESCO

2000 Waterbirds Report of waterbird observation and counting in the core areas of Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve

22 Waterbird Counting and Survey at Prek Toal and Boeng Chhmar core areas of Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve

Frederic Goes, Hong Chamnan, Long Kheng, Meas Rithy

May-July 1998

Waterbird of Tonle Sap Lake

Identification of waterbird species, nesting habitats, population dynamics and distribution, and threats within Tonle Sap Lake.

31

No Title Author Date Topics Brief Description 23 The Birds of Cambodia (in Khmer

language)

Sun Hean, Colin Pool et all

1998 Bird Guide book for identification of all birds, their biological characteristics and international significance for the whole country.

24 Tonle Sap Survey – Year 2000 Status of Breeding Colonies of Large Waterbirds, draft

Hong Chamnan, TCU and Frederic Goes, WCS

2000 Bird Identification and counting on waterbird species three core areas of TSBR

25 Massive Harvest of Homalopsine Watersnakes in Tonle Sap Great Lake, Cambodia. (draft)

Bryan L. Stuart, Jady Smith, Kate Davy, Prom Din

1999 Watersnake Survey on the catch level of watersnake for crocodile farming

26 Wildlife survey Nicolai Doroshenko, Long Kheng, Meas Rithy

1999 Reptile Inventory of reptiles and mammal species in Prek Toal and Boeng Chhmar core areas, quantitative assessment of water snake population.

27 Investigation into the Status of Crocodiles and Turtles in Vietnam and Cambodia

Steven G. Platt June 1999

Reptile Brief notification of possible presence of turtle and crocodile species in Cambodia by market survey.

28 Report on Crocodile and Turtle Status in Prey Chas, Prek Toal and Ang Trapeang Thmar, draft

Long Kheng Oct, 2000

Reptile Extensive interview with local people on crocodile and turtle harvest and investigate their habitat

29 Asian Turtle Trade. Proceedings of a Workshop on Conservation and Trade of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises in Asia.

WCS, TRAFFIC, WWF, and others

Aug, 2000

Turtles Overview of the trade on turtles and reptiles with China, list of turtle species Southeast Asia, provide recommendations for conservation

30 Grand lac – Tonle Sap Fishery Technologies

F. d’Aubenton, M. Filly

1962-63 Fishery Technique

Extensive research on the fishery technologies, catch, fish composition by gears.

31 Report on Cambodian Fisheries Dr. John E. Bardach 1960-70 Fishery Highlight the fish diversity in Cambodia, migration and spawning pattern, description of fishing technique and problems, and recommendations for fishery enhancement

32 Fishes of the Cambodian Mekong Walter J. Rainboth, MRC, FAO, DANIDA

1996 Fish taxonomy Listing of 500 fish species, their biological characteristic and ecology of the Mekong and Tonle Sap in Cambodia

33 Fishing Dependent People in Freshwater Fisheries of Cambodia

Socio-economic unit, MRC

1996 Household socio-economic survey

Methodology for socio-economic survey of household around Tonle Sap Lake

32

34 Where There Is Water, There is Fish?

Fisheries issues in the Lower Mekong Basin from a Cambodian perspective

Nicolaas van Zalinge, Nao Thouk, Touch Seang Tana

June 1998

Fishery management

Assessment of fish stock and catch by fishing categories, analysis of common and private property in fisheries, and compatibility of UNESCO’s Biosphere Reserve and fishery management.

35 Present Status of Cambodia’s Freshwater Capture Fisheries and Management Implications

Fishery Department, MRC

19-21 Jan 1999

Fishery management in the Tonle Sap and Mekong

Study of fishery capture technique, assessment of constraints and difficulty for fisheries management, and data collection on fishery capture.

36 Management Aspects of Cambodia’s Freshwater Capture Fishery

Fishery department, MRC/DANIDA

2000 Fishery Annual assessment and survey capture, migration pattern and management issues for inland fishery in Cambodia. 170 pages. Source: Fishery Department.

37 Taken for Granted: Conflicts over Cambodia’s Freshwater Resources

Peter Degen, Frank Van Acker, Nic van Zalinge, Nao Thouk

June 2000

Fishery management

Analysis of the present Cambodia society and conflicts in fishery management, and suggest co-management regime as solution.

38 Report of the Rapid Rural Appraisal of four villages in Sotr Nikum district

FAO, MAFF Sept 1995

Socio-economics Assessment of socio-economic needs of communes bordering Tonle Sap Lake

39 Regional Workshop on Strategies for the Sustainable Management of Tonle Sap’s Natural Resources

Jorge Malleur, FAO April 1998

Physical and Biological conditions

Description of physical, biological, and land use in the Tonle Sap floodplain of Siem Reap province

40 General Population Census of Cambodia 1998

National Institute of Statistics

July 1999

Socio-economics and population

Extensive survey of demography, population distribution, migration, education, economic activities, religion of Cambodia

41 Natural Resources Management in the Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve in Battambang province

Wayne Gum, SPEC 3 Aug, 1998

Socio-economics, Fishery, Environmental threats, environmental governance

Survey of natural resources conditions, socio-economics, fishery management issues, and recommendations for management plan of Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve

42 Project Proposals for Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve

Neou Bonheur, TCU Sept 1998

Community issues, environmental governance, and environmental awareness

Analysis of the major problems related to sustainable development of Tonle Sap Lake, and formulation of project proposals for addressing the identified issues and concerns

33

43 Final Report of Paper Presentation of Workshop entitled “options for the development of Tonle Sap Region”

CNMC, MRC/UNDP April 1998

Development option

Compilation of papers on fishery, agriculture, biosphere reserve, eco-tourism, GDP and foreign investment, irrigation, and electricity in Tonle Sap region

44 Sectoral Studies in Tonle Sap Lake CNMC, Nedeco 1999 Natural resources

Overview of natural resources and environmental conditions of Tonle Sap Lake and recommendations for addressing the problems

45 Final Draft Inception Report of the project “Protection and Management of Critical Wetlands in the Lower Mekong

ADB March 2000

Overview of the environment of Tonle Sap

Overview of the initial project activities in the Tonle Sap region and identification of problems and support studies

46 ASEAN State of the Environment Report 2000

ASEAN Secretariat 2000 Environment and resource use

Assessment of biodiversity and aquatic ecosystems within ASEAN countries, including Mekong River basin.

47 Agricultural statistics 1999-2000 MAFF, 1999-2000

Agriculture Description of annual cultivated land by crop, and livestocks, fishery, aquaculture, and forestry annual production and fertilizer uses by province in Cambodia. 95 pages. Source: TCU

48 Agricultural statistics 2000-2001 MAFF 2000-2001

Agriculture Description of annual cultivated land by crop, and livestocks, fishery, aquaculture, and forestry annual production and fertilizer uses by province in Cambodia. 103 pages. Source: TCU.

49 The Impacts of Introduction and Stocking of Exotic Species in the Mekong Basin and Policies for their Control

Robin L. Welcomme, Chavalit Vidthayanon, MRC

2000 Exotic fish, aquaculture

A review of potential impact of exotic fish species in the Mekong Basin, identification of further studies, and recommendation of policy and tsrategy to address the impact. 69 pages (fishery dept.)

50 Cambodia: a National Biodiversity Prospectus. Particular emphasis on terrestrial Ecosystems.

David Aswell, MoE AusAid/ UNDP/IUCN

1997 Biodiversity A review of biodiversity, major landscapes and ecosystems in Cambodia, enabling the planning process for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. 96 pages, Fishery dept.

51 Review of NGO’s experience in small scale aquaculture development in Cambodia

MRC-READ June 1999

Aquaculture A review of experiences of NGO such as PADEK, SCALE, AIT, PRASAC,CARERE, APHEDA… in promoting aquaculture and training. 13 pages Fishery dept.

52 Extension Strategy for Small scale Aquaculture Development in Lower

Kaing Khim, Keo Sovannary, Thay

Dec. 1999

Aquaculture Report of an project activities of MRC-READ in capacity building of farmers in aquaculture. 29 pages,

34

Mekong delta Provinces Cambodia Somony, Dr. Zsigmond Jeney, MRC-READ

fishery dept.

53 Summary Report of Workshop on Small-Scale Freshwater Aquaculture Development in Cambodia

MRC-READ 1998 Aquaculture A compilation of experiences of NGOs such as SCALE, APHEDA… in aquaculture development, a record of statistics about rice and aquaculture in rice field of Takeo and Prey Veng province. 96 pages, Fishery dept.

54 READ 1999 Baseline Survey Report Kandal, Prey Veng and Takeo province

Sununtar Setboonsarng, Sem Viryak, Khaing Khim, Keo Sovannary, Thay Somony. Editor: Don Griffiths.

2001 Socio-economics for aquaculture

A report of socio-economic study of 150 pond household from three provinces in March-April 1999. RRA was employed with interview. 57 pages, Fishery dept.

55 The MRC Programme for Fisheries Management and Development Cooperation, Annual report.

MRCS 1999-2000

Regional Fishery A plan of regional fishery programmes of MRC, focusing on fish spawning and migration; fishery capture; reservoir fishery; aquaculture development, and capacity building.

56 Cambodia’s Biodiversity Status Report

Jady Smith, UNDP/FAO/MOE

2001 Biodiversity A compilation of best publications and reports on ecosystems, wildlife, species diversity, threats, and conservation

57 Management of Reservoir Fisheries in the Mekong Basin II. Ist Regional Training Course on Co-management in Inland Fisheries.

V. Cowling June 2001

Fishery co-management

A methodology for the development of fishery co-management through participatory approaches.

58 Annual Research Report Cambodia IRRI 1999 Agricultural research

A compilation of researches on agriculture in Cambodia, concerning pest and rat control, fertilizer uses, socio-economic surveys and economic analysis of farming systems, irrigated farming, germplasm conservation. 177 pages, Dept. Agron.

59 Response of rain-fed low land rice to phosphorus fertilizer application in Cambodia. ACIAR Proceeding No 77

P.F.White and Seng Vang

1997 Rain-fed rice farming

A study of poor responsiveness of rain-fed rice to phosphorus fertilizer due to low cation exchange capacity (CEC), organic cabon © total nitrogen, and available P levels. 6 pages, Dept of Agron.

60 Pest Management of Rice Farmers in Asia

K.L. Heong and M.M. Escalada

1997 Rice A compilation of study on pest management across Asian countries. Cambodia paper “Pest management practices of lowland rice farmers in Cambodia” is written by G.Cjahn, P. Sophea, K.Bunnarith, and P.Chanthy

35

61 Inundated Forest in Takeo Province, student diploma.

Khin Veng 1992 Flooded forest Inventory of flooded forest species (82) in Takeo Province and description of biological characteristic of 52 flooded forest species, including their use value. 116 pages, Royal Agric. Univ (RAU).

62 Inundated Forest in Pursat Province, Student diploma.

Men Sokha 1992 Flooded forest Inventory of flooded forest species (75) in Pursat Province and description of biological characteristic of 47 flooded forest species, including their use value. 120 pages, RAU.

63 Inundated Forest in Kratie Province, Student diploma.

Chea Vannaren 1992 Flooded forest Inventory of flooded forest species (82) in Pursat Province and description of biological characteristic of 48 flooded forest species, including their use value. 120 pages, RAU.

64 Water Pollution in Tonle Sap Region, Case Study in Chnok Tru (Kampong Chnang) and Phat Sanday (Kampong Thom), student diploma.

Sok Esararith 1995 Environmental pollution

Research methodology for collection and analysis of soil and water samples (pH, N, Hardness and organic content), socio-economic study of waste disposal and economic activities through questionnaires. Pages, RAU

65 Inundate Forest in Kampong Cham and Kratie, student diploma.

Ly La 1991 Flooded forest Inventory of flooded forest species (27) in Kampong Cham and Kratie Province and description of biological characteristic of 27 flooded forest species, including their use value. 96 pages, RAU.

66 The Evolution Status of Population and Distribution of Waterbirds at Prek Toal, Battambang province.

Kuoch Kuntheavoreak 1998 Waterbird A study of waterbird species and population, socio-economic analysis of local population, and identification of threats to the birds. 49 pages, RAU.

67 Final Report: National Water Sector Profile, Water Policy and Strategy Framework

M. McDonald et al BCEOM

June 2001

Water resource A profile of national water sector addressing institutional mechanism, water demand by sector, policy and strategy for water resources management in Cambodia, and a draft water law. Min. of Water Res.

68 Status of the Tiger and its Conservation in Cambodia, Master Thesis.

Sun Hean 2000 Tiger An ecological study of tiger habitats and its distribution in Cambodia using GIS. 114 pages Forestry Dept (FD).

69 Cambodian Primates, Surveys in the Cardamom Mountains and Northeast Mondulkiri province.

Barney Long & Steven R. Swan, FFI

2000 Primates An inventory of primates in Cardamom mountain and Mondulkiri province and identification of threats and evaluation of conservation status. Field study and interview are employed. 34 pages, FD.

70 Biological Survey in Northeast Mondulkiri, Cambodia.

Barney Long & Steven R. Swan, Kry Masphal,

2000 Mammal, bird, reptile and

An inventory and assessment of mammal, bird, reptile, and amphibian in Mondulkiri province and human

36

FFI amphibian disturbance. Direct observation, interview, and photo-trapping are used to identify species. 85 pages, FD.

71 Mekong Watershed Classification, the WSC Map Users Guide.

MRCS, CDE, Switzerland

1997 Watershed Methodology for watershed classification in the Mekong Basin, using the digital terrain model (DTM) and WSC equation. 77 pages FD.

72 Contribution to the Study on Erosion in the Tonle Sap Lake. Student diploma.

Phouk Virak, Cheang Chean, Hem Saravuth, Kum Thoeun, Oeu Kim Heng, Keo Omalis

1995 Forest, Water, and Sediment

An assessment of soil erosion and sediment occurring in the Tonle Sap watershed by inventory of forest type, the soil structure, socio-economic conditions, and measurment of sediment in the rivers flowing to theLake. 173 pages, FD.

73 A Wildlife Survey in Southern Mondulkiri province, Cambodia.

Joe Walston, Pete Davidson, Men Soryun, WCS

March 2001

Wildlife An inventory of wildlife in Mondulkiri and identification of threats and conservation needs. 79 pages, FD.

74 Third Technical Symposium on Mekong Fisheries, Symposium Proceedings

MRC 2000 Fishery A compilation of research papers on fishery in the Lower Mekong basin.

75 Market Survey in Sotr Nikum district FAO, MAFF Sept. 1995

Socio-economics Assessment of socio-economic needs of communes bordering Tonle Sap Lake.

76 Complete Guide to Pest Control George W.Ware 1988 Pest Theory and methodology for study and control of pest in farming system.

77 Global Biodiversity Assessment UNEP, 1998 Methodology for Biodiversity assessment

Extensive methods and practices in biodiversity assessment. 1140 pages, MoE.

37

Table 8: List of Cambodian Specialists and Experts Involved in Biodiversity Assessment of Aquatic Ecosystems No. Name Institution Background

Education Experience Present

Responsibilities 1 Nao Thuok

DOF Msc., Rural

Development & Management

Over 20 yrs Director of DOF

2 Sam Neou DOF MSc., Fishery Over 20 yrs Deputy Director DOF 3 Ing Try DOF MSc on Marine

Bilogy 9 yrs Deputy Director DOF

4 Eng Cheasan DOF MSc., Fishery Over 10 yrs Deputy Director DOF 5 Touch Seang Tana DOF MSc., Fishery 20 yrs Advisor to OBSES 6 Srun Lim Song DOF MSc., Fishery Over 10 yrs Chief of Aquaculture

Bureau 7 Uy Ching DOF BSc., Fishery 5 yrs Project Assistant on

Biodiversity 8 Deap Loeung DOF BSc., Fishery 9 yrs Coordinator

management of freshwater capture fish

9 Lieng Sopha DOF MSc., Fishery 8 yrs Fisheries Officer 10 So Nam DOF MSc., Fishery 7 yrs Vice chief of Fisheries

domain and Extension 11 Kim Sour DOF MSc., Fishery 7 yrs Fisheries Officer 12 Ly Vuthy DOF MSc., Socio-

Economic 10 yrs Chief of Community

Fisheries 13 Hap Navy DOF MSc., Socio-

Economic Over 10 yrs Fisheries Officer

14 Ouch Peou DOF BSc. Fishery Over 10 yrs Coordinator of Fisheries Assessment

15 Hav Viseth DOF MSc., Aquaculture 8 yrs National Project Director of AIT-aquaculture, DoF

16 Thay Somony DOF MSc., Fishery 7 yrs Vice Chief of Aquaculture Bureau

17 Sam Chin Ho DOF MSc., Fishery Over 10 yrs Fisheries Officer 18 Mong Leng DOF MSc., Socio-

economic 9 yrs Vice Chief of Planning

and Accounting Bureau 19 Ty Sokhun DFW BSc., Forestry Over 10 yrs Director Of Forestry 20 Sun Hean DFW MSc., Forestry Over 10 yrs Forestry Officer 21 Chheang Dany DFW MSc., Forestry 10 yrs Forestry Officer 22 Lic Vuthy DFW MSc., Forestry 10 yrs Forestry Officer 24 Sen Sovann DAHP MSc., Veterinary Over 10 yrs Deputy Director of

DAHP 25 Soun Sothoeun DAHP PhD., Veterinary Over 10 yrs Deputy Director of

DAHP 26 Lim Chanty DAHP BSc. Veterinary 13 yrs DAHP Officer 27 Sin Por DAHP BSc. Veterinary 9 yrs Production Officer 28 Nut Sakhan DAALI MSc. Agronomy Over 10 yrs Director of DAALI 29 Pen Vuth DAALI PhD., Agronomy Over 10 yrs Deputy Director of

DAALI 30 Hean Vanhan DAALI PhD., Agronomy Over 10 yrs Chief of Plant Protection

38

31 Buntuo Simona DAALI BSc., 11 yrs Agronomy Office 32 Soun Serey DAALI BSc., 12 yrs Vice Chief of Plant

Protection Phytosanitary Inspection office

33 Lorn Socheata DAALI BSc., Agronomy 4 yrs Chief of Seed Production Program Sub- Component (APIP)

34 Phang Cheng DAALI BSc., Agronomy Technical staff of Pesticide analysis of Plant Protection service Sub-Component

35 Men Saron CARDI PhD., Agronomy Over 10 yrs Director of CARDI 36 Long Kheng MoE BSc., Turtle

Biodiversity 6 yrs Environmental Officer

37 Lay Khim MoE MSc., Biology 6 yrs Chief of Protection Zone Office

38 Meas Sophal MoE BSc., Hydrology Over 10 yrs Deputy Director of Natural Res. Protection

39 Kol Vatna MoE BSc., Forestry 9 yrs Deputy Director of Natural Res. Protection

40 Chea Sina MoE MSc., Water Quality

6 yrs Deputy Director of Waste Management

41 Net Neat MoE MSc., Environment 5 yrs Environmental Officer 42 Van Momineath MoE MSc., Environment Over 10 yrs Coastal Zone Project

Coordinator 43 Neou Bonheur MoE Ph.D., Environment 7 yrs Deputy director (MoE)

and Deputy permanent secretary of the Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve Secretariat (CNMC)

44 Meng Monyreak MoE BSc., 5 yrs Environmental Officer 45 Ken Sereiratha MoE BSc., Environment 5 yrs Environmental Officer 46 Kim Nong MoE BSc., 9 yrs Project Coordinator Acronyms: DOF - Department of Fisheris DFW - Department of Forestry and Wilflife DAALI - Department of Agronomy and Agriculture Land Improvement DAHP - Departemnet of Animal Health and Production CARDI - Cambodian Agriculture Research and Development Institute APIP - Agriculture Productivity Improvement Project OBSES (French)- Economic, Social, Culture Observation Unit