Title Okinawa's Mixed Race People: Third Spaces and TripartiteColonialism

Author(s) Welty, Lily Anne Yumi

Citation 移民研究 = Immigration Studies(7): 85-96

Issue Date 2011-03

URL http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12000/22609

Rights

Okinawa'sMixedRacePeople:ThirdSpacesandTYipartiteColonialism（LilyAnneYUmiWEITY）

Ｏｋｉｎａｗａ，sMixedRacePeople：ThirdSpacesandTripartiteColonialism

ＬｉｌｙＡｎｎｅＹＵｍｉＷＥＬｒＹ

llntroduction

Ⅱ、NotesonTerminology

m・IdentityFormationinJapan

Ⅳ、TripartiteColonialism

V・OkinawaMultiraciality

Ⅵ、Multiracialidentity

Ⅶ．ＢｌｏｏｄａｎｄＲａｃｅ

Ⅷ、Conclusion

ＫｅｙＷｏｒｄｓ：mixedrace,colonization,Okinawa,hapa,post-warJapan

LIntroduction

ThispaperanalyzestheattributesofOkinawaasaspacewheremixedraceandcolonialismplaya

roledistinctfrommainlandJapan・Ｔｈｅｐｕｒｐｏｓｅｉｓｔｏｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｒａｃｅａｎｄｍｕltiracialityinahistorical

contextinpost-warJapan，ｐｒｉｍａｒｉｌｙｉｎｔｈｅｌ９５０ｓａｎｄｌ９６０ｓ・ThereasonfbrfbcusingonOkinawais

twofbld：thefirstbecauseofOkinawa，sstatusasarepeatedlycolonizedsｐａｃｅｂｙＪａｐａｎｉｎｌ８７９，ａｎｄ

ｌａｔｅｒｂｙｔｈｅＵＳｆｒｏｍｌ９４５－ｌ９７２；ａｎｄｓｅｃｏｎｄｌｙｏｎｔｈｅｂａｓｉｓａｓａｒｅｇｉｏｎofmanymixedracebirths.'）

MydiscussionexaminesidentityfbｒｍａｔｉｏｎｉｎＪａｐａｎｉｎｔｈｅｃｏｎｔｅｘｔｏｆｍｕltiracialityinOkinawaasa

tripartitecolonizedspace,Okinawaasacolonizedregion,andbloodandcultureluseexamplesofrace，

Japanesecolonialism,andtheOkinawanexperiencetoillustratetherangeofperceivedJapanesenessin

Japan，Theseexamplesprovidemodelstofacilitatetheunderstandingofidentityfbrmationofmixed

racepopulationsinOkinawaandmainlandJapanlseektoexposetheinconsistenciesofthepureblood

ideologyofwhatconstitutesJapaneseness,inordertodecipherhowJapanesenessiscreated,perceived，

ascribed,ornotgrantedinmixedracepeople・

Thisstudyofmultiracialpeopleiｎｔｈｅｌ９５０ｓａｎｄｌ９６０ｓｈａｓｍｅａｎｉｎｇｆｂｒｏｕrpresentday

understandingvis-a-vistheissuesoftransnationaladoption,warorphans,race,andmultiracialidentity・

NumerousmultiracialchildrenwerｅｂｏｒｎｉｎｔｈｅａｆｔｅｒｍａｔｈｏｆＷｏｒｌｄＷａｒｌｌｉｎＪａｐａｎａｎｄＯｋｉｎａｗａ,the

KoreanWar,andtheVietnamWar､2）Ｍａｎｙｏｆｔｈesechildrenwereeasytorecognizebypeopleintheir

countriesbecauseoftheirmixcdracephenotypeJhesephysicalcharacteristicswentbeyondabenign

labelofinheritedgeneticstoastigmaofillegitimacy・Multiracialpeopleembodiedcolonialpower

relationsbetweentheU・ＳａｎｄＪａｐａｎＴｈｅｐｈｅｎotypeofmultiracialpeoplemadethempolitically

markedbodies-colonizedbodiesamongacolonizedpopulation3）

‐８５‐

｢移民研究」第７号2011.3

ⅡＮｏｔｅｓｏｎｈｒｍｉｎｏｌｏｇｙ

ｌｕｓｅｔｈｅｔｅｒｍｓｒaceandethnicityinthisessayandtreatthemassocialconstructs・Racereferstothe

constructionofgroupsbasedonsharedgeneticsandgenotypicquantificationreflectedbyphenotype4）

Thisconstmctioncreatessocialsignificancebygroupingpeoplewhosebiologicalcharacteristicsare

preｓｅｎｔｉｎｓｏｍｅｇｒｏｕｐｓｍｏｒｅｔｈａｎｉｎothers、Ethnicityreferstowhatisusuallyconsideredtobea

subgroupofracethatincludesasharedhistory，culture，religion，geographicoriginand

language-thosecharacteristicsthatcanbetakenwithapersontoadifferentregionNationalityrefers

toanationalcultureorpoliticalaffiliationThetermmonoracialdistinguishesthosewhoareidentified

asnotbeinｇｏｆｍｉｘｅｄｒａｃｅ,whereasmultiracialandbiracialrefertopeoplewhoareidentifiedashaving

sociallyandgeneticallymixedracialancestrylusemixedraceａndmultiracialinterchangeablytorefer

topeopleofmultiracialdescent5）AlltranslationsofJapanesewillbemyownunlessotherwise

noted

Ⅲ．ＩｄｅｎｔｉｔｙＦｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎｉｎＪａｐａｎ

Ｉｎｏｒｄｅrtoexaminepost-warmultiracialityinOkinawaandmainlandJapan，adiscussiononracial

fbrmationisnecessary・BecausethepopulationunderstudyisbothAmericanandJapanese，Iuse

studiesonracialfbrmationinｔｈｅＵ・SandinJapanasacontextfbrthestudiesaboutmixedracepeople

intheU・SandinJapan・Moststudiesoncomparativeraceandethnicityemphasizetheiroriginsusinga

modelbasedonmonoracialfbrmationintheUS､6）Someoftheseracialtheoriesapplytothemixed

racepopulationunderexaminationinmystudybecauseoftheirpartialAmericanbackgroundHowever，

multiracialpeopledonotseamlesslyfitintotheoriesdesignedfbrmonoracialracefbrmationlargue

thatacriticalanalysisofmultiracialpeoplerequirestheuseoftheorieｓａｎｄstudiesofmixedrace

populations､7）Studyingmultiracialityreflectsｈｏｗｗｅｈａｖｅｃｏｍｅｔｏｕｎｄerstandrace・Iemploythe

definitionofraceasasocialconstruct・Hapahistory,ormixedracehistoryillustratesthisconstruction

becausemultiracialpeopledonotfitintotheexistingracialcategories・Theyquestiontheessenceof

racialgroupsbecausetheysimultaneouslybelongtomultipleracialgroups,butdonotbelongwhollyto

anyone・Humanmigrationandracialmixingfacilitatedthemixingofpeople，creating“thirdspaces，，

whereculturalandlinguisticfragmentsoftwomajoritygroupscombinetofbrmahybridcommunity8）

Inthisarticlelfbcusonidentityfbrmationpertaminｇｔｏｒａｃｅａｎｄｂｌｏｏｄ，andtheidentityfbrmationof

multiracialsinJapan・Mydiscussionbeginswiththeconceptoftripartitecolonialism，Okinawan

multiraciality,multiracialidentity,bloodandrace，andlaterexploresexamplesthatarenotrelatedto

differencesinblooｄｂｕｔｈａｖｅｔｏｄｏｗｉｔｈｃｕｌｔｕralandlinguisticambiguitysuchasmultiracialthird

spaces．

Ⅳ、TripartiteColonialism

MultiracialpeopleinOkinawapossessahistorythatislayeredwithcolonizationonthreelevels・

LeoChingstatedinBecoming“Japanese,，，ColonialTaiwanandthePoliticsofIdentityFormationthe

Taiwanesehaveatripleidentity,local(Taiwan),national(China),ａｎｄcolonial(Japan)，）Multiracial

‐８６‐

Okinawa，sMixedRacePeople:ThirdSpacesandTripartiteColonialism（LnyAnneYUmiWEmY）

peopleinOkinawawereinfluencedbyatripartitecolonizationaswell：Japan,ｔｈｅＵＳ，andasamixed

racepersonwithinacolonizedbodyinOkinawa・MultiracialpeopleinOkinawawereanunsettling

reminderoftheever-presentU・SoccupationoftheislandslongafterthereturnofOkinawatoJapanin

l９７２ForOkinawans，thewarcouldneverbefbrgottenAlongsideOkinawans，multiracialpeople

existedasvisibleremindersofJapan，sdefeatthathadbecomeprovisionallyincorporatedinto

Okinawansociety・MultiracialOkinawansdidnotfItintotheavailableracialcategoriesbecausethey

wereneitherproperJapanese，norproperOkinawansTheyoccupiedathirdspacethatcouldbedeflned

eitheronorofTofthemilitarybases・Ｔｈｅｉｒｂｌｏｏｄｗａｓａｓｉｇｎｏｆａｓｔｉｇｍａｔｈａtrevealedvisiblefeatures

equatedasnon-Japanese・

ThefirstperiodofcolonizationbeganwiththeJapanesetakeoveroftheRybkyMslandsinl879,IC）

ColonizationefTbrtsgaveOkinawanspartialbutnotequalaccessasJapaneseOkinawansfaced

institutionaldiscriminationwithregardtoemploymentonthemainlandIl）Ｔｈｅdistinctionsbetween

JapaneseandOkinawanswereevenapparentmNikkeicommunitiesoverseasbecausetheyfbrmed

separatesocialandoccupationalcircleslnPeru，theNikkeimaintainedacommunityseparationalong

thelinesofNaichijinandUb"j"α"c肌12)TheslightculturalandphysicaldiffbrencesoftheOkinawans

asseenbythemainlandJapanesesystematicaUydividedtheJapanesealongstrictraciallineseven

outsideofJapan

ThenextperiodofcolonizationoccurredfbUowingWorldWarlI,whenJapansacrificedOkinawaat

thｅＢａｔｔｌｅｏｆＯｋｉｎａｗａａｎｄａｓｐａｒｔｏｆｉｔｓwartimelosses，grantingtheUSaccesstoOkinawa,sstrategic

militarylocationl3）ItisthoughtthattheJapanese“militaryprotectedtheinterestsoftheJapanese

stateattheexpenseofOkinawancivilians・'''4）TheUSmilitaryoccupiedlargeareaｓｕｎtill972when

theyreturnedtheislaｎｄｓｂａｃｋｔｏＪａｐａｎＤｕｒｉｎｇｔｈｅｔｉｍｅｏｆＵ.Ｓ・Occupation，asecondcolonization

occurredontheislands、ThepresenceoftheUSmilitaryserveｄａｓａｒｅｍinderofOkinawa，s

subordinatepositionintheirowncountry

Thethirdpartofthetripartitecolonizationisthecolonizedbodyofmultiracialpeople・Manyof

thesechildrenwereeasytorecognizebypeopleintheircountriesbecauseoftheirmixedrace

phenotypeThesephysicalcharacteristicswe､tbeyondabenignlabelofinheritedgeneticstoastigma

ofillegitimacy・MultiracialpeopleembodiedcolonialpowerrelationsbetweentheUSandJapanand

Okinawa,withJapanandOkinawaoccupyingthesubservientroleThephenotypeofmultiracialpeople

madethempoliticallymarkedbodies，ｉｎherentlycolonizedpeople,andfbreign．

Ｖ・OkinawaMultiraciality

InOkinawa，duringthepostwarperiod，manymultiracialOkinawanswerecharacterizedasnot

possessingacompletesenseofOkinawanidentityandwerenotconsideredfUllyethnicOkinawanl5）

ManymultiracialOkinawansoperatedinasocialsystemdefinedprimariｌｙｂｙｏｔｈersTheydidnot

possesstheautonomyofselfLidentiflcationasexpressedbyEdwardSaidI6）Theiridentitywasfbrmed

notbyanegotiationbetweenperceptionsoftｈｅ“Self，ａｎｄ“Other,，，butprimarilybythe``Other.”This

resultedinasignificantgroupofmixedracepeoplelargelydefinedbymonoracialJapaneseMixed

‐８７‐

｢移民研究」第７号2011.3

raceOkinawanswerenotonlymarginalizedbecauseoftheirracialorigｉｎｓｂｕｔａｌｓｏｃａｓｔａｓａｓｙｍｂｏｌｉｃ

ｒｅｍｉｎｄｅｒｏｆＯｋｉｎａｗａ,ｓsubordinatepositionwithintheUScolonialrelationshipMarikaSuzukiwhose

researchattheAmerasianSchoolinOkinawareHectstheexperiencesofmultiracialpeopleinthelate

l990sandearly2000sstated：

MostofthemultiracialpeopleinOkｉｎａｗａｈａｖｅａｎＯｋｉｎａｗａｎｍｏｔｈｅｒａｎｄａｎＡｍｅｒｉｃａｎｆａｔｈｅｒ

ｗｈｏｓｅｒｖｅｓｉｎｔｈｅＵＳ・military・BecauseoftheambivalentstatusOkinawaexperiencedwhen

OkinawawasｃａｕｇｈｔｂｅｔｗｅｅｎＪａｐａｎａｎｄｔｈｅＵＳ，thestereotypesofAmerasianstendtoconnote

negativeimages、ThusAmerasiansinOkinawahavegenerallyexperiencedgreaterhardshipsthan

multiracialpeopleinmainlandJapan［Japanese］ｐｅｏｐｌｅｔｅｎｄｔｏｃｏｎｎｅｃｔｔｈｅｉｍａｇｅｏｆｓex

entertainmentwithAmerasians，ａｎｉｍａｇｅｆＵｒｔｈｅｒｆＵｅｌｅｄｂｙｔｈｅｈｉｇｈｄivorceratesandhighnumber

ofsinglemothersamongAmerasianparents・'7）

Ⅵ．Multiracialidentity

lnadditiontｏｔｈｅｆａｃｔｏｒｓｏｆｔｈｅ“Self，ａｎｄ“Other，，inHuencingidentityfbrmation，thephysical

spaceofthesurroundingenvironmentcontributedaswelLTeresaWilliams-Le6n,sfindingsinthe

l980srevealedthatmultiracialpeoplelivingonthemilitarybasesinmainlanｄＪａｐａｎｗｅｒｅａｂｌｅｔｏ

ｃｒｅａｔｅｗｈａｔｓｈｅｄescribedasa“thirdspace'''8）Thisinvisibleandcommunalspaceoccupiedbythe

bilingualandbiculturalmultiracialspromotedasharedbelongingtoamultiracialsubcultureuniqueto

thedependantsofAmericanmilitarypersonneLThisthirdspaceavailabletomultiracialswhohad

accesstothebasesfimctionedasanentityinitselffbrprovidingprotectiveisolationfromthedominant

JapanesesocietylnOkinawa,theboundariesofthethirdspacewerefbrmedinwayssimilartothosein

、ainlandJapanMixedracepeoplewhoｈａｄａｃｃｅｓｓｔｏｔｈｅｍｉｌｉｔａｒｙｂａｓｅｓｏｒＥnglishlanguageeducation

beneHtedsociallybecausetheyhadprotectiveisolationbutalsobecausetheyhadaccesstospaces

wherespeakingEnglishprovidedthemwithupwardmobilitylnshort，beingbilingualwas

advantageousinOkinawawherethedivisionofpeoplehappenedphysicallybecauseofthefencesof

thebases，andraciallybecauseoftherealityoftripartitecolonialismlnordertounderstandthelarger

picturebeyondspaceandlanguage，ｉｔｉｓｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｔｏｅｘａｍｉｎｅｏｆｔｈｅｒｏｌeofgovemmentsinshaping

multiracialidentity

MultiracialpeoplewerenotgrantedcitizenshipbytheJapanesegovernmentuntill985because

JapanesecitizenshipwasonlygrantｅｄｉｆｔｈｅｆａｔｈｅｒｏｆｔｈｅｃｈｉｌｄｗａｓJapanese.'，）Inaddition，theUS

govemmentdidnotrecognizemultiracialAmericanJapaneseasUS、citizensbecausemanyhad

absenteefathersandbecausetheirbirthsweｒｅｎｏｔｒｅｃｏｒｄｅｄｗｉｔｈｔｈｅＵＳ・ｅmbassiesinJapanOnthe

Japaneseside，manypeoplewerenotlegallyrecordedinthefamilyregistryeventhoughtheyhadbeen

raisedbytheirbiologicalfamiliesorhadbeenunofficiallyadoptedintofamilies，ａｎｄｗｅｒｅｌｅｆｔａｓ

`statelesspersons，havingnonationality,nobenefitsofcitizenship，ｏｒａｓｉｎｔｈｅｃａｓｅｏｆＫｅｉｋｏＫｏｓｅｋｉ，

norecordofexistence2o）

Publicpolicyfbreducation，employment，immigration，ａｎｄcitizenshipcanoverrideracial

－８８‐

Okinawa'sMixedRacePeople:ThirdSpacesandTYipartiteColonialism（LilyAnneYUmiWEITY）

inadequaciesassociatedwithperceivedracialdifferences、ForthecaseoftheOkinawans，colonization

wasnotmotivatedbyaninterestinculturalexchangebutratherfbrpoliticalandeconomicgainThese

reasonsallowedtheJapanesetobrieflyignoretheirracialprejudicesandtheracialdifferencesofthe

OkinawansFormixedracepeople,Japanesecitizenshipwasnotgrantednorwasanylegislationpassed

totryandresolvetheissuesofstatelessnessuntilmuchlater・Thisdenialofnationalitymthetwentieth

centurybythegovernmentisrootedinthedefinitionsofJapanesenessasexplainedinJapan，sblood

ideology．

Ⅶ、BloodandRace

FindingsbyCullenHayashida，fbllowedbyJenniferRobertson，sresearchonbloodandeugenics，

buildsuponasimilartrajectorythatequatesraceandbloodduringthepre-warperiodThestudyof

eugenicsproliferatedintandemwiththerediscoveryinl900oftheresearchｂｙＧｒｅｇｏｒＭｅndelonthe

studiesofgeneticsandinheritance・Thepseudo-scientificexplanationsofracialfbrmationandracial

categoriesarose，whichclaimedtoexplainhumanracesandplacedvalueondesirablehumantraits､21）

ＡｒｏｕｎｄｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅｉｎＪａｐａｎ，duringthel920s，researchbyJapanesescientistsexplainedracial

differencesbetweenJapaneseandKoreans､22）Shortlythereafter,researchbyFurukawaTakejiusedthe

racialtypestodevelopatheorythatlinkedrace,bloodtype,andtemperament23）Raceandbloodtype

wereusedtomaintainracialcategoriesthatexistedbefbretheresearchprovidedanydefInitive

correlationslnotherwords,pseudo-scientificdatathatsupportedtheracializedideologyreinfOrcedthe

pre-existingracializedcategoriesFuruhata,sresearchonbloodandraccvalidatedtheprevailingracial

distinctions・Buildinguponthatresearch，theoriesonbloｏｄｔｙｐｅｓａｎｄｔｅｍｐｅｒａｍｅｎｔｓｃａｍｅｔｏｒｅinfbrce

theconceptsofnationalcharacter,andwhatisknowntoexemplifyJapaneseness、Bloodideology

reinfbrcedthe“uniquenessoftheJapanesepeopleasaraceandcultureThesourceofthisuniqueness

andsuperiorityisintheblood､''24）HayashidaunveiledthedevelopmentoftheJapanesesocial

hierarchiesusingbloodideologyandracialfOrmation

EugenicsasaneldgainedgreaterattentionashumanpopulationsbegantoscientificaUyunderstand

pattemsofinheritancetowardtheendofthenineteenthcenturylntentionalselectionfbrdesiredtraits

complicatedJapanesenotionsofbloodandraceAsstatedbyRobertson，“minzokusignifiedthe

conflationofphenotype，geography，culture，spirit，historyandnationhood・''25）Sharedblood

constitutedtheJapaneseraceDefinedmoreconcretely,``bloodremainsasanorganizingmetaphorfOr

profbundlysignificant,fundamentalandperduringassumptionsaboutJapanesenessandotherness；itis

invokedasadeterlniningagentofkinship，mentalite，nationalidentity，andculturaluniqueness・''26）

CleardistinctionsbasedonbloodideologyofwhatcharacteristicswereequatedwithJapanese，and

whatcharacteristicswereequatedwithraciaUymixedpeopleenteredthepublicdiscoursenearthe

beginningoftheMeijiperiodWithinthisdiscussiononbloodandeugenics，JenniferRobertson

identifiedtwopositionsinrelationtoeugenicsinJapan,ｔｈｅｍixed-bloodandthepureblood

Asearlyasl884TakahashiYOshio，aKeioUniversitygraduateandjournalist,articulatedthe

mixed-bloodpositionencouragingracialmixinginthedebatesonracialmixingTakahashiadvocated

-89‐

｢移民研究」第７号2011.3

fbrmixed-bloodmarriagesandthemixingofJapanesestockwithWhitestoproducehybridoffSpring

thatwould“createataller,heavier,ａｎｄstronger［more］superiorJapaneserace，therebymakingit

possiblefbrtheJapanesetocompetesuccessfilllywithEuropeansandAmericanininternational

affairs・''27）ClearlythesocialanxietiesofJapanesemodernityarereflectedinthetheoryofeugenic

bloodmixing、AlthoughTakahashisawfUmremultiracialpeopleaspossessingahybridvigor，

opponentsofhisrecommendationviewedmiscegenationasinitiatinghybridweaknessanddilution

KatOHiroyuki，aveteranpoliticiancriticalofthemixed-bloodposition，endorsedthepureblood

position・Thepurebloodpositionarticulatedmaintainingseparationsanddistinctions・Heemphasized

thatifbloodmixingoccurred，thebloodpuritywouldbediluted,therebydestroyingtheJapaneserace

becausetherewouldbenocertai、socialbasisofimprovementlnotherwords，possessingpureblood

wouldimprovｅｔｈｅｒａｃｅｏｖｅｒａＵ，whereasmixedbloodwouldcontaminateitbymakingitlessvaluable・

Althoughthepurebloodpositionprevailed，bothweredebatedmeugenicsliteratureuntill945，ａndin

otherincarnationsfbllowingｔｈｅｗａｒ・Themainconclusionofthepurebloodpositionwasthatblood

mixingwouldconstituteanewrace，incapableofbeingpureJapaneseandunabletoadequately

embracetheculture，spirit，ａｎｄnationalidentityofJapanesenessRobertsonaddedbystatingthatthe

purebloodpositionwas“anchoredinacenturies-oldconstructionofradicalothemesstransposedintoa

newvocabulary''２８）Inotherwords,distinctionsofrace,caste,class,andethnicitywerenoworganized

aroundmodernterminologyDefinedbybloodideologyandreinfbrcedbypseudo-science，Japanese

racialpuritycouldbedistinguishedbycomparisontothepollutedbloodandtherefbrecharacterof

mixed-racepeople

TakingtheconceptofbloodpuritywithJapaneｓｅｎｅｓｓａｎｄａｐｐｌｙｉｎｇｉｔｔｏｔｈｅｃａｓｅｏｆmixedrace

peopleandtoNikkeibecomesproblematicfbrtworeasons：bloodandcitizenshipTheNikkeiand

mixedracepeoplebothpossessJapanesebloodTheirinclusionintoJapanesesocietywasconditional

andpartiaLAccordingtothetheoriesonbloodandreinfbrcedbyJapanesepolicy,Japanesenessislost

overtime，lostwhenoverseas,andlostwhendilutedwithnon-Japaneseblood

Ⅷ．Conclusion

MultiracialOkinawansdisruptthefbrmationofanationalJapaneseidentitybecausetheydonot

satisfytherequirementsofJapanesebloodideologyconstructionaspreviouslydiscussedOkinawawas

aspacecolonizedbyJapanpreciselybecauseitwaslabeledasoutsideofmainlandJapanFollowing

thewar,mainlandJapansacrificedOkinawatotheUS，andanotherlayerofcolonization，orperhaps

imperialism,blanketedOkinawaofficiallyunti11972,ｙｅｔｔｈｅＵ・Smilitaryisstillpresentinsubstantial

numbers､２９）MultiracialOkinawansmanifestathirdaspectofcolonialismbecausetheyarerecipients

ofapowerrelationshipwhereanotherbody,namelyOkinawansocietydefinedbymonoracials，exerts

controLTheyareascribedanidentitybyOkinawansocietythatisnotJapanese，notOkinawan，nor

AmericanTheysymbolizeahumanby-productofapowerrelationshipinwhichtheyhadnocontrol・I

arguethatthepositionmultiraciａｌＯｋｉｎａｗａｎｓｏｃｃｕｐｙｉｎＯｋｉｎａｗａｉｓａｎexampleofamorecomplex

fbrmoftripartitecolonialism・Observingthediversewaysinwhichmonoracialgroupsaretreatedas

‐９０－

Okinawa，sMixedRacePeople:ThirdSpacesandTripartiteColonialism（LilyAnneYUmiWEmY）

JapaneseornottreatedasJapaneseallowsfbragreaterunderstandingoftheprocessofidentity

fbrmationofmultiracialJapanesegroupsonthemainlandandonOkinawa．

Notes

l）NoaccuratebirthratesofmixedracepeopleimmediatelyfbllowingWorldWarIIexist、

However,higherbirthratesofmixedbloodchildrenwererecordedinmostportcitiesand

areaswhereU・Smilitarybasesexistedthaninregionswheretherewaslittlecontact､Ｔｈｅ

ｅｘａｃｔｎｕｍｂｅｒｓｏｆｍｉｘｅｄｒａｃｅbirthratesisunknown，however，ｉｔｉｓｅｓｔｉｍａｔｅｄｔｈａｔｔｈｅｒｅ

ｗｅｒｅｓｏｍｅwherebetween5000-20,O00births、ForfUrtherinfbrmationseeKanzaki

Kiyoshi，“Shirotokuro:nichibeikonketslljinochousahoukoku,,白と黒一日米混血児

の調査報告（WhiteandBlack：US-JapaneseMultiracials，AnlnvestigativeReport）

FuLjinkoron:３９(3),1953:128-139andRobertFish，“TheHeiressandtheLoveChildren：

SawadaMikiandtheElizabethSaundersHomefbrMixed-BloodOrphansinPostwar

Japan,，（PhDDissertation,DepartmentofHistory・Manoa,UniversityofHawai1i､2002)．

2）FormultiracialbabiesorphanedinJapanafterWorldWarlIseeElizabethHemphilLThe

LeastofThese:MikiSawadaandherChildren(NewYork:WeatherhilL1980),afterthe

KoreanWarseeJi-YeonYUh，BeyondtheShadowofCamptown：KoreanMilitaryBrides

inAmerica(ＮｅｗＹｏｒｋ:NewYOrkUniversityPress,2002）39-40,andaftertheVietnam

WarseeKieu-LinhCarolineValverde，RaciallyMixedPeopleinAmerica，ｅｄＭａｒｉａＰＰ・

Root(Newbury:SagePublications,1992）１44-162.

3）IemploythedeflnitionofcolonialismwherebyapowerfUlbodyexertsfUllorpartial

controloveranotherbodycreatingan“other,，fbrpurposesofselfLidentiflcation、

4)TeresaKWilliams-Le6nandCynthiaLNakashima，“ReconfIguringRace,Rearticulating

Ethnicity，，ｉｎＴｈｅＳｕｍｏｆＯｕｒＰarts：MixedHeritageAsianAmericans，eds・TeresaK・

Williams-Le6nandCynthiaLNakashima(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,2001)，

９．

５)KipFulbeck,PartAsian,100％Ｈapa,(SanFrancisco:ChronicleBooks,2006).Asstatedby

Fulbeck,ｈａｐａｒｅｆｅｒｓｔｏｔｈｅＨａｗａｉ，ianslangterm``hapahaoleorhalfwhite，，meaning,“of

mixedraceheritagewithpartialrootsinAsianand/orPacificIslanderancestry.，，Ｉｎｔｈｅ

ｌ９５０ｓｔｈｅｔｅｒｍｈａｐａｒｅｆｂｒｒｅｄｔothechildrenofWhitesandHawai，iansandtheinbetween

castecreateｄｆｆｏｍｔｈeintermarryingofWhitesandHawaiiians・USmainlandAsian

AmericanshavebroadenedthetermtomeanmixedraceofAsiandescent,notlimitingthe

definitiontohalfWhiteThismoveofnon-Hawai，iansusingaHawai,iantermis

controversialbecausesｏｍｅＨａｗａｉ，iansbelievetheirwordisbeinguseｄｗｉｔhouttheir

permissionandtheoriginalmeaninghaschanged

6）SeeMichaelOmiandHowardWinant,RacialFormationintheUnitedStates:Fromthe

l960stothel990s2ndEdition.(NewYork:Routledge,1994)．

7）StudiesonmixedraceJapaneseinclude:NathanStrong，“PatternsofSociallnteraction

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｢移民研究」第７号2011.3

andPsychologicalAccommodationAmongJapan,skonketsuLjiPopulation”（PhD

Dissertation，UniversityofCalifbrniaatBerkeley，DepartmentofPsychology，1978)．

StrongsworkpioneeredthestudiesofmultiracialpeopleofJapanesedescentltexamines

JapaneseandAmerican（bothWhiteandBlack）peopleinJapanandtheirsocial

relationships；ChristineCatherinelijimaHall,“TheEthnicIdentityofRaciallyMixed

People:AStudyofB1ack-Japanese”（PhDDissertation,UniversityofCalifbrniaatLos

Angeles,DepartmentofPsychology,1980).HallstudiedthirtymultiracialBlack-Japanese

intheLosAngelesareaandthepsychologicalaspectsoftheirselfesteemrefUting

previousliteraturethatcontendedtheyhadmentalandpsychologicalproblems；George

Kitahara-Kich，“Eurasians：Ethnic/RacialldentityDevelopmentofBiracial

Japanese/WhiteAdults”(PhD・Dissertation,Wrightlnstitute,DepartmentofPsychology，

1982),Kitahara-KichstudiedmultiracialJapaneseAmericansintheSanFranciscoarea，

anddevelopedanidentitydevelopmentmodel;MichaelCThornton,“ASocialHistoryof

aMultiethnicldentity：TheCaseofBlack-JapaneseAmericans”（PhDDissertation，

UniversityofMichigan,DepartmentofSociology,1983),ThorntonstudiedthirteenBlack

JapaneseinterracialcouplesinKansas，WashingtonＤＣ，Michigan，andMassachusetts，

andhowtheinterracialfamilyshapedtheidentityoftheirmultiracialchildren；Stephen

Murphy-Shigematsu,“TheVOicesofAmerasians：Ethnicity,IdentityandEmpowermentin

lnterracialJapaneseAmericans”（EdD､Dissertation,HarvardUniversity,Departmentof

Education,1986)Murphy-ShigematsustudiedAmerasianidentityofmultiracialJapanese

AmericanslivingintheMidwestandnortheasternUS；TeresaK・Williams-Le6n，

“InternationalAmerasians：ThirdCultureAfToasianandEurasianAmericansinJapan，,

（MAThesis,UniversityofCalifbrniaatLosAngeles,DepartmentofAsianAmerican

Studies，1989),WilliamsstudiedbilingualmultiracialJapaneseAmericans（bothWhite

andBlack)whogrewupwiththeirnuclearfamiliesonthemilitarybasesinJapan

8）Williams-Le6n,International,２．

９）ＬｅｏＴ､SChing,Becoming“Japanese,，：ColonialTniwanandthePoliticsofIdentity

Formation,(Berkeley:UniversityofCalifbrniaPress,2001)．

10）GeorgeHKerr,Okinawa:TheHistoryofanlslandPeoplerevisededition(Boston:Tuttle

Publishing,2000)381-397.

11）AlanS・Christy,(1993）“TheMakingofImperialSubjectsinOkinawa,',Positionsl:３，６１７．

１２）StevenMasamiRopp，“TheNikkeiNegotiationofMinority/MajorityDynamicsinPerｕ

ａｎｄｔｈｅＵＳ.，，inNewWOrlds,ＮｅｗLives：GlobalizationandPeopleofJapaneseDescent

intheAmericasandfi･ｏｍＬａｔｉｎＡｍｅｒｉｃａｉｎＪａｐａｎｅｄＬａｎｅＲｙｏHirabayashi，Akemi

Kikumura-Yano,andJamesHirabayashi.(PaloAlto:StanfbrdUniversityPress,2002)．

13）ＪｏｈｎＷＤｏｗｅｒ,EmbracingDefeat:JapanintheWakeofWorldWarTWo(ＮｅｗＹｏｒｋ：

WWNortonandCompany,1999)．

‐９２‐

Okinawa，sMixedRacePeople:ThirdSpacesandTTipartiteColonialism（LilyAnneYUmiWEmvY）

14）JuliaYOnetani，“Future‘Assets,，butatWhatPrice？TheOkinawalnitiativeDebate,，,

inIslandsofDiscontent:OkinawanResponsestoJapaneseandAmericanPower.（New

York:RowmanandLittlefieldPublishers,2003)257.

15)ByronFija,interviewbyLilyAnneYUmiWelty,August13,2009.Haebarukyan,Okinawa，

Japan;NaomiNoiri，“TWoWOrlds:TheAmerasianandtheOkinawan，，SocialProcesses

lnHawai,ｉＶＯｌｕｍｅ４２，2007,211-230.

16）EdwardSaid,Orientalism,(NewYOrkVintage,1978)．

17)MarikaSuzuki，“EmpoweringMinorityYOuthinJapan:TheChallengeoftheAmerAsian

SchoolinOkinawa.，，MAThesisStanfbrdUniversity,December2003，１０．

１８）TeresaWilliams-Le6n,InternationalAmerasians,77.

19)AyumiTakenaka，“PeruvianandJapanese-PeruvianmigrantsinJapan,,,ｉｎＧｌｏbalJapan：

TheExperienceofJapan，sNewlmmigrantandOverseasCommunities．（NewYork：

RoutledgeCurzon,2003);SeeKeikoKozeki，小関桂子，NihoUjinKeiko:Arukonketsu

shdjonoshuki,日本人桂子；ある混血少女の手記,(JapaneseKeiko:TheMemoirsofa

MultiracialGirl)(TMyo:BunkaHOs6Shuppanbu,[東京］文化放送出版部,1967）

20）KeikoKozeki,NihonjinKeiko,79-87,byunofficiallmeanwithoutfbrmalpaperwork，

ａｎｄnotfromafbrmaladoptionagency；RobertaLevanbach，“Bi-racialchildrenin

Okinawa． ，，ChristianCentury，Novemberl97Z，ｖｏＬ８９，ｎｏ、４１，１１５６．Formore

infbrmationonpost-warstatelessmultiracialpeopleseeKieu-LinhCarolineValverde，

“FromDusttoGold：ＴｈｅVietnameseAmerasianExperience,，inRaciallyMixed，ｅｄ

ＭａｒｉａＰＰ・Root，146-147．FollowingtheVietnamWar，multiracialchildrenandtheir

mothersinVietnamenduredintensesocialhumiliationandCommunistpersecution

AlthoughmanymultiracialVietnameseAmericaｎｓｗｅｒｅａｌｌｏｗｅｄｔｏｃｏｍｅｔｏｔｈｅＵｎｉｔｅｄ

StatesafterthepassageoftheAmerａｓｉａｎＡｃｔｏｆｌ９８２，provingpaternitywasdifficultin

VietnambecausemanyofthedocumentsweredestroyedTheAmerasianActｏｆｌ９８２ｗａｓ

ｔｈｅｆｉｒｓｔｐｉｅｃｅｏｆｌｅｇｉｓｌationthatdealtwiththeissueofchildrenfatheredbyAmerican

citizensinKorea，Vietnam，Laos，CambodiaorThailandThisgavepermissionfbronly

themixedracechildrentoimmigrateandnottheirAsianｍｏｔｈｅｒｓｔｏｉｍｍｉｇｒａｔｅｔｏｔｈｅＵＳ

Ｃｈｉｌｄreninitiallyhadtoprovetheirfather，sidentitybutlateracceptableproofincluded

“birthcertificates，marriagelicenses，orlettersfromandphotosofthefather.,，Proofwas

difflculttoobtainasmanydocumentsweredestroyedtoprotectthefamiliesfrom

Communistpersecution(150-151).Ironically,Japanwasexcludedfromthislegislation

21）PaulSpickard,AlmostAllAliens：Immigration,Race，andColonialisminAmerican

Historyandldentity.(NewYOrkRoutledge,2007),262-263.

22）CullenTadaoHayashida，‘`Identity,RaceandtheBloodldeologyofJapan.，，（ＰｈＤ、

Dissertation，UniversityofWashington，DepartmentofSociology，1976)，146-147．

HayashidacitestheresearchersKiriharaandHaku(1923),andFuruhataandKishi(1926）

23）Hayashida,Identity,147．

‐９３‐

｢移民研究」第７号2011.3

24）Hayashida,Identity,175.

25）JenniferRobertson，“Biopower：B1ood，Kinship，andEugenicMarriage,，，inA

CompaniontotheAnthropologyofJapanJenniferRobertson，ｅｄ．（Malden：Blackwell

Publishing,2005),333.Minzokucanbetranslatedintoarace,ａpeople,oranation

26）Robertson,Biopower,329.

27）CitedinRobertson,Biopower,335.

28）Robertson,Biopower,336.

29）LauraHeinandMarkSelden，“Culture,Power,andldentityinContemporalyOkinawa，，,

inlslandsofDiscontent:OkinawanResponsestoJapaneseandAmericanPower.（New

York:RowmanandLittlefieldPublishers),５.AlthoughOkinawaislessthanonepercent

ofJapan，slandmass,ithousesseventy-fivepercentoftheUSbasesandmilitaryinJapan

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Shuppanbu，［東京］文化放送出版部．

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HeritageAsianAmericansPhiladelphia,TbmpleUniversityPress．

Acknowledgements

ThisresearchwasmadepossiblethroughaFulbrightFellowshipthroughthelnstituteof

lnternationalEducationinJapanｆｒｏｍ2008-2009.

（LilyAnneYUmiWELTY・PhDCandidate,DepartmentofHistory；FulbrightGraduateResearch

Fellow；UniversityofCalifbrniaSantaBarbara；Dissertationadviser,PaulSpickard,ＰｈＤ．・

History）

－９５‐

｢移民研究」第７号2011.3

沖縄における多人種の人々

-第三の空間と３つの次元のコロニアリズム－

リリー。アン･優美ウェルティ

キーワード：多人種，植民地化，沖縄，ハーフ，戦後日本

－９６‐