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The Role of Geosynthetics in Slope
Stability
Hamed Niroumand1
, Khairul Anuar Kassim1
, Amin Ghafooripour2
,
RamliNazir
1
1Department of geotechnical engineering, Faculty of civil
engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, E-mail: [email protected] of
Structural Engineering & Vibrations, School of the Built
Environment, Heriot Watt University, Dubai, UAE
ABSTRACTGeosyntheticsare fibrous materials made of elements such
as individuals fibers, filaments, yarns,
tapes, etc. that are long, small in cross section and strong in
tension. It must be sufficiently durable
to last a reasonable length of time in the hostile environment.
Use of geotextile in civil engineering
structures are rapidly expanding in terms of volume, types of
products and range of applications.
The largest area of application of these materials in Civil
Engineering is Geotechnical Engineering.Based on a few laboratory
work and numerical analysis, few investigators reported
geosynthetics in
slope reinforcement, a review of related last works shows that
not much research has been done to
define performance of geosynthetics in slopes, a problem that is
often encountered in field. The
paper observed the performance of geosynthetics in slope
reinforcement.
KEYWORDS: Geosynthetics, Slope, Geotextile, Soil
Reinforcement
INTRODUCTION
Geotextile are fibrous materials, which made of elements such as
individual fibers, filaments,yarns, tapes, etc. that are long,
small in cross section and strong in tension. One of important
characteristics of geotextile is flexibility. Flexibility is
useful both for good contact conditions and foravoiding stress
concentration in the fibers. Besides, hydraulic functions of
geotextile due to its fibrous
nature allows geotextile to have a high void ratio (high
permeability) and at a same time, a small
filtration diameter. The tensile strength of the geotextile is
also important. From scientific research, it
appears that to obtain the highest tensile resistance from a
material, the best way is to use it in the formof fibers, which
have a high degree of molecular orientation. Therefore, basically
the concept of
geotextile is strongly related to fibers. The importance of the
fiber concept is the strong reason for
using the word geotextile, because the word textile implies the
concept of fiber.
History of Geotextile
Development of the geotextile revolution will be discussed in
this chapter. Forms of geotextilehave existed for almost thousands
of years. The first application of soil reinforcement or ground
improvement techniques was adopted by Babylonians to construct
Ziggurats more than three thousandyears ago. One famous Ziggurat,
Tower of Babel, collapsed perhaps because it was not reinforced.
The
Tower of Babel was constructed by foreign laborers. According to
the writer of the Bible, it was all too
easy to blame the failure on them since they could not defend
themselves because of language barrier.
http://www.ejge.com/Index.htm
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Probably, the writer may have vested interest in finding a
scapegoat since that monk writer and the
consulting engineer were one and the same trade. (as some modern
consulting engineers would agree.)
The Chinese have used wood, bamboo and straw to strengthen soil
for thousands of years. Theimportance of soil reinforcement in
ancient China is demonstrated by the fact that the Chinese
symbol
for Civil Engineering simply means earth and wood. At that time,
portions of the Great Wall of
China was constructed using the soil reinforcement concept. The
concept of soil reinforcement methodwas brought to Japan and the
use of natural materials for stabilization purposes continued to
this
decade. The Romans used reed, wood and animal hides for soil
reinforcement during the Middle Ages.
The Dutch, below of the low land and in their age old battle
with the sea, made extensive use ofwillow fascines to reinforce
dikes and to protect themselves against wave action. Construction
of dams
to shorten the coastline was carried out and this action is
still on going till this century, culminating
with Delta Project. In 1926, the South Carolina Department of
Highways used special types of vehiclesto lay down the rolls of
cotton fabrics in the construction of roads. It was only during
last two decades
that these materials made of synthetic polymers have been
increasingly adopted ranging widely from
construction of roads over poor subsoil to reinforcement of
slope for stabilization.
Classification of Slopes
Hill site development is often related to landslide, and safety
of building at the hill site is often atopic of discussion among
government officers in local authorities, engineers and public.
This matter
has become increasingly serious. With the recent awareness of
risks involved in hill site development,a more proper and
systematic control and precaution is taking shape through the
private and public
sectors. According to the Institute Engineering of Malaysia
(IEM), slope for hill site development can
be classified into 3 classes and the necessary requirements and
characteristics are as follows:
(a) Class 1 (Low Risk)
Application of existing Legislation Procedures can still go
on.
(b) Class 2 (Medium risk)
It is mandatory for professional engineer to submit geotechnical
report to the relevant
local authority. The professional engineer must posses relevant
expertise and experience in
analysis, design and supervision of construction of slopes,
retaining structures and
foundation on hill site.
(c) Class 3 (High Risk)
Besides submission of geotechnical report, the developer shall
engage an Accredited
Checker (AC) in the consulting team. With reference to the
original proposal by the
workforce, AC shall have at least 10 years working experience at
hill site and have
published at least five technical papers on geotechnical works
in local or international
conferences, seminars or journals.
The general risk of classification is actually based on the
geometry of the slopes, for instance the
height and angle. There are other factors that contribute to the
stability of slopes, for instancegeological features, engineering
properties of soil/rock, groundwater level, etc. However, for
the
simplicity of implementation by non-technical personnel in our
local authorities, simple geometry hasbeen selected as the basis of
risk classification.
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Figure 1:Geometry of Slope (after IEM, 2000)
Table 1:Classification of Risk of Landslide on Hill-Site
Development (after IEM, 2000)
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Comparisons between Biodegradable and
Non-biodegradableGeotextile
For the past few years, geotextile has played a major and
significant role in geo-environmentalengineering applications.
Woven and non-woven geotextile are widely used in applications such
as soil
stabilization, turf reinforcement, erosion control, separation,
filtration and drainage. Geotextile can be
classified into two types, biodegradable and non-biodegradable
geotextile. Biodegradable geotextileare made of natural fibers, for
example penduculata fiber, or Raffia Vinifera, was obtained by
drying
raffia palm fronds in the sun and then beating the raffia fronds
with a piece of wood to create the fibre.
Non-biodegradable geotextile are made of synthetic materials,
for example polyesters andpolypropylene. Because of the advances in
technology, non-biodegradable geotextile are preferred
compared to biodegradable geotextile. The use of naturally
occurring fibre products for similar
applications has not received significant consideration despite
their potential. Only limited amount of
scientific literature research has been published with regard to
the use of biodegradable geotextile as apractical solution to
geo-environmental engineering problems. Experiment was conducted to
compare
the effectiveness of biodegradable (penduculata) and
non-biodegradable (polypropylene) geotextile in
geo-environmental engineering problems. The experiment consists
of a rainfall simulation apparatus,
used on slopes (protected or unprotected) that were inclined at
different angles to the horizontal. Fromthe experiment, penduculata
geotextile shows high water absorbency characteristics which
can
influence the initial run-off velocity values at the beginning
of a rainfall event. On the other hand, the
polypropylene geotextile shows zero water absorbency
characteristic. Because of this, lower run-offvelocities were
measured for natural fiber geotextile which is likely due to the
higher water absorbency
values. However, in terms of better slope protection, the
polypropylene geotextile was more effective(lower cover factor
values) compared to penduculata geotextile although the run-off
velocity measured
for polyprolene geotextile at slope was high. The performance
difference may be attributed to
differences in Percentage Open Area (POA) values between
polyprolene and penduculata geotextile.
Despite of this, natural fiber geotextile has potential and has
a role in geotechnical engineering. Thepotential use was shown in
the Manchester, United Kingdom, airport rail link construction
project
(Ellis 1993) where a naturally occurring biodegradable erosion
and soil stabilization mat was
successfully installed.
Basic Concept and Function of Geotextile
A geotextile can perform several functions. The need for
identifying and describing geotextile
functions appeared when geotextile began to be used in a variety
of applications. Before design can
take its place, it is very important to identify the functions
required of the geotextile in the consideredapplication. A
geotextile function is a specialized action of the geotextile which
is required to achieve a
design purpose and results from a unique combination of
geotextile properties.
Generally, geotextiles has six main functions:
a) The Drainage Function or Fluid Transmission. The geotextile
is placed in contact with a materialof low permeability through
which water is seeping slowly, its fuction is to gather water
and
conveys it, within its own plane towards an outlet. In order to
function as a drain, a geotextile
must exhibit transmissivity. The flow of water into the plane of
a geotextile is governed byDarcys formula:
where Q = rate of flow (m3/s)
L = length of the cross section of geotextile perpendicular to
the flow direction (m)
kp= coefficient of permeability of the geotextile in its plane
(m/s)
Hg= thickness of the geotextile (m)
H kL g p=
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h = hydraulic head loss (m)
L = length of geotextile parallel to the flow direction (m)
b.)
Filtration. A geotextile acts as a filter when it allows liquid
to pass normal to its own plane, whilepreventing most soil
particles from being carried away by the liquid current. There are
three cases
to be considered: filter for particles suspended in a liquid,
filter for removing water from agranular soil and filter associated
with armor.Filter for particles suspended in a liquid: the
geotextile is placed across a flow of liquid carrying fines
particles in suspension; the function of
the geotextile is to stop the fine particles while allowing
water to go through it. Filter forremoving water from granular
soil: the geotextile is placed between the soil, from which water
is
removed (by drainage or pumping), and the open material
(aggregate, perforated pipe, porous
plastic mat) the function of which is to collect and convey the
water; the function of the geotextile
is to prevent movement of soil particles while allowing the
water to go thorugh it. Filterassociated with armor: the geotextile
is placed between the soil which has to be protected from the
wave action and the coarse material which constitutes the armor;
the function of the geotextile is tominimize movement and loss of
soil particles while allowing the water to go through it. The
difference between the case of water removal and the case of
armor is related to the flow: in the
case of water removal, the flow of water is in one direction and
partially steady; in the case ofarmor exposed to waves, the
direction of flow alternates and the flow is unsteady and
dynamic.
c.) Separation. A geotextile is placed between two materials
which have a tendency to mix when theyare squeezed together under
the applied loads; the function of the geotextile is to separate
these
materials. A separator must retain the soil particles and must
have sufficient strength to withstand
the stresses induced by the applied loads. Consequently,
designing a geotextile separator involves
retention analysis and strength analysis.
d.)
Protection. A geotextile protects a material when it alleviates
or distributes stresses and strains
transmitted to the protected material. There are two cases to be
considered: surface protection andinterface protection.
Surface Protection: A geotextile, placed on the soil prevents
its surface from being damaged bysuch actions as weather, light
traffic, etc.Interface Protection: A geotextile, placed between two
materials, prevents one of the materials
from being damaged by concentrated stresses applied by the other
materials.
e.) Tension Membrane. A geotextile function as a tensioned
membrane when it is placed between twomaterials having different
pressures, and its tension balances the pressure difference between
the
two materials, thus strengthening the structure.
f.) Tensile member. A geotextile acts as a tensile member when
it provides tensile modulus and
strength to a soil with which it is interacting through
interface shear strength, for instance theinterlocking, friction,
cohesion and adhesion.
Geotextile as Slope Protection
Landslides in the residual soils or weathered rocks in Malaysia
are generally rain induced. These
slopes when dry or partially saturated, they are normally stable
at inclinations exceeding the effective
angle of internal friction, of the soil. When the soil is
partially saturated, the negative pore water
pressures impart to the soil as an effective stress which is
higher than the corresponding total stress.The shear strength of
the soil is thereby increased, enabling the slopes to remain in
stable condition
even though when the inclination exceeds the effective friction
angle, of the soil. After heavy
rainfall, the soil will become saturated because of the
infiltration of the rainwater into the ground. The
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original negative pore water pressure existed in the soil are
therefore eliminated or drastically reduced,
causing a large reduction in the effective stress and the shear
strength. The slope will become unstable
and eventually fail. Geotextile has been used successfully in
numerous occasions to stabilized steepslope in residual soil and
weathered rock. Geotextile was used as tensile reinforcement and
filter to
stabilized slopes or embankments. The geotextile are usually
placed in horizontal layers within the
slope. It is placed along the slope cutting across potential
sliding surfaces in the soil. The geotextilewill reduce the pore
water pressure within the slopes during the rainy season, thereby
increased the
shear strength. The geotextile also acts as a filter which
prevents the migration of soil or sometimes
called the internal erosion within the slope. Last but not
least, the geotextile reinforces the soil alongpotential sliding
zones or planes. All these will increase the stability of the
slope.
Factors Attributing Towards Selection of Geotextile
There are many factors attributing towards the selection of
geotextile in geotechnical engineering.
The first fundamental reason is that there is need for
membrane-like materials because geotechnicalstructures are built
with granular materials; the integrity of layers of granular soils
can be disrupted by
erosion, settlements and earthquakes while a geotextile layer
remains continuous. Besides, geotextile
are bi-dimensional and flexible materials and is well-suited to
geotechnical structures subjected to
different movements. Geotextile are also useful, either as
interface between layers or as a liner or aprotection at the
surface of the mass geotechnical structures. In addition to the
factors mentioned
above, geotextile have been successful because manufacturers
have aggressively developed andmarketed them and because
contractors, designers and owners have elected to use them.
Reasons
attributing to the selection of geotextile application in
geotechnical engineering by contractors,
designers and owners are discussed below.
a) Contractors: Contractors have adopted geotextile very rapidly
because it brings instant benefits tothem. For example, easier
installation of geotextile compared to granular fill will
reduced
construction time. Using geotextile in road construction is
recommended because geotextile are
less weather dependent and truck are less likely to get bogged
down when a geotextile is used.Geotextile can reduce the amount of
earthwork as geotextile drains and filters are less bulky than
their granular counterparts. The cost of earthwork is reduced if
geotextile reinforcement permits
the usage of lower quality fill materials, which are less
expensive. Besides earthwork,transportation costs can be reduced by
replacing granular fills with geotextile. It will do the
environment better than harm since the noise and dust associated
with transportation of
construction materials are reduced.
b) Designers: With the emphasis now placed on value engineering,
designers are required to
produce less expensive design to remain competitive. Designer
find that geotextile may increase
the reliability of a structure because the quality control of
their placement is relatively easy, their
installation is not weather dependant, their properties are more
uniform than soil particles andthey mitigate soil defects by
bridging weak spots and separate layers which tends to mix.
Geotextile open new possibilities for innovative design instead
of using the same, old and dull
design. Especially in coastal protection application, geotextile
present solutions to problemswhich designers have long been
struggling, for instance, sand filters wash away and difficult
to
construct under water while geotextile are secure and easy to
place.
c)
Owners: Owners also plays a major role to the success of
geotextile because they dare to use them
in the early days. Motivations of owners are a combination of
contractors and designersmotivations. Owners and contractors are
most interested in low cost and designers are interested
in stability, reliability and sometimes experimentation. For
owners, by adopting geotextile,
maintenance work can be reduced which in turn save cost.
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Long Term Resistance of Geotextile
Geotextile have been widely used in geotechnical engineering for
several decades. Along withpolymers such as polyester (PET) or
polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) is the polymer most
commonly used for these applications. When engineers began to
use these materials, the first
investigations on the long term performance for instance, UV
resistance, chemical resistance,biological resistance and etc under
practical environmental conditions started.
UV Resistance
Any polymer used for the manufacture of geotextile will degrade
when exposed to the ultraviolet
radiation of natural sunlight overtime. Therefore, it is
essential to consider resistance of geotextile to
the effects of sunlight when designing geotextile. Particular
care is necessary when geotextile is to beinstalled in regions of
the world whereby the UV radiation levels are high or when
geotextile will
remained exposed over period of weeks or even months on large
scale projects. It is wiser to protectthe geotextile from
degradation. This can be done by using stabilizers, in order to
match the aging
process with the long term requirements of the application. High
quality geotextile comes equipped
with high performance stabilizers, therefore the required life
time of the geotextile is guaranteed.
However, prediction based on laboratory testing is not possible
to determine the degradation ofgeotextile caused by UV sunlight due
to the large number of parameters influencing the product life
time. For instance:
a)
The degradation process within the polymer of the geotextile
takes place extremely slow under
ambient temperatures.
b) There is no proven correlation between laboratory tests and
practical application, as theseproducts have only been in use for
30 years. However, a design lifetime of 120 years is required.
c) Products installed 30 years ago cannot be compared to todays
product, as structure and chemicalcomposition have changed because
of constant ongoing product development.
d)
The chemical reaction of oxidative process is very well known,
but in practical applications otherstress factors, such as
installation damage, chemical attack and many others, may be
superimposed on it.
Chemical Resistance
Polypropylene is characterized by an excellent resistance to
chemicals. It is proven in the course of
CE certification programme as a number of investigations were
carried out in accordance to ISO
14030. For polypropylene geotextile, no strength loss was
observed, even in acidic or alkaline
conditions, in contrast to polyester products. The fiber surface
of polyester yarns is particularlysusceptible to degradation when
exposed to alkaline condition (pH >10), external hydrolysis will
take
place. But even when it is exposed to acidic condition, the
material is gradually degraded by internalhydrolysis. In this case,
the polymer chains are split by the presence of water, thereby
reducing the
molecular weight. Last but not least, it will lead to a drastic
reduction of mechanical properties.
Therefore, it is essential to protect polyesters material by
providing extra coating.
Biological Resistance
Investigations according to EN ISO 12225 have shown that
polypropylene geotextile are 100%
resistant to micro-organisms. At the moment, no organisms are
known to be harmful to polypropylene.
It is important to know the biological resistance of the
material in long term applications, as the
influence of the organisms cannot be estimated.
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