Periodized Programs - Part 1by Dr. Rob Orr |   Date Released : 02 Sep 2005

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Periodization involves the long-term planning of the training process in order to achieve peak performance at a specified time. The traditional form of periodization involves the dividing of an annual plan into smaller more manageable phases and sub phases; however, this is not to say that periodization cannot be used for shorter timeframes and applied to the general population. A classic example of periodization would be a client wishing to fit into a specific dress size by a specific date.In a non-periodized training program - which typifies the program most fitness enthusiasts subscribe to - all the physical parameters contributing to sporting performance/fitness gains receive equal attention throughout the year. This approach is less efficient than sensible periodization due to numerous factors including:

1.The lack of time in a single week to fully attend to all the parameters that influence performance.

2.The developments of some physiological parameters are interfered with by the concurrent development of others.

3.Some components of performance can not be adequately developed before certain prerequisites are met.

THE ANNUAL PLANWhile the annual plan is a plan used by coaches to plot training schedules to ensure a specific period of peak performance (season or event), the same principles that will be discussed here can be applied to shorter time frames (as a final example will show).To allow for easier control, monitoring and planning an annual plan is divided into smaller phases. Depending on the references used, these phases are also termed periods or training cycles. The three basic phases are listed at the top of Figure 1 below:

Two of these phases, the preparatory and the competitive, are again broken down in Figure 2 - the preparatory phrase into general preparation and specific preparation and the competitive phase into pre-competition and competitive.

These phases and sub phases are again broken down into smaller components called cycles. When it comes to the training cycles, there are various classifications used, and each has its own different time periods.

Matveyev’s model (see Figure 3 below) utilizes macro-cycles of several months to a one-year (or more) duration; meso-cycles are a two- to six-week duration and micro-cycles are a seven-day duration.

Although maybe applicable for the longer term planning, it is commonly regarded that Bompa and Nadori’s adapted model (see Figure 4 below) is more practical. Here, training cycles in conjunction with the above phases and sub phases are divided into macro-cycles of a two- to six-week duration (Matveyev’s meso-cycle) and microcycles of a one-week duration.

Therefore, the breakdown of an annual training plan into the individual training session can be portrayed as in Figure 5 below.

PREPARATORY PHASEGeneral Preparation (Conditioning) Phase

1.Lasts up to four months depending on athlete status (novice/elite). Generally novices will spend longer in this phase.

2.Basic goal is to prepare the athlete for the high intensity training to follow.

3.Increases are to volume of training with only slight increases in intensity.

4.Train the entire organism (e.g., using major muscle groups/compound exercises).

5.Training aims to develop the general physical performance characteristics (endurance, strength, flexibility, mobility etc.).

6.Skill training should not be overlooked. For some athletes, skills work is dominant in this phase (e.g., novice weight trainers). However, with more experienced athletes, major faults are corrected and key components for new skills are introduced. Basic tactical skills are also introduced.

Specific Preparation Phase1.Lasts two to three months prior to the start of the

competitive season.2.Progressive increases in intensity training and

specificity.3.Volume reduced slightly or maintained (secondary

concern compared to intensity).4.Emphasis is given to improving technique and/or

team work.5.Development of max strength and conversion into

power.6.Implementation of hard intervals and race pace

training for endurance athletes.

Training (level) Age1.With each successive year, less general and more

specific preparation is needed.2.Raw (novices) should spend as much time as

possible in general and specific preparatory phases (important for long-term development).

COMPETITIVE PHASEPre-competitive Phase

1.This phase is only generally applicable to individual sports; however, it can still be used in team sports.

2.Generally lasts up to three months.3.Basic goal is the athletes' technical abilities.4.Volume decreases to allow recovery and prevent

exhaustion.5.Intensity remains high (in the form of competitive

situations).6.Any general training performed is used as a

means of active recovery and maintenance of capacities developed in general conditioning phase.

7.Base characteristics are not to drop. If they do, the load for strength training needs to increase.

8.Final touches to skill development.9.Competitive experience developed through

increasing levels of competition (e.g., "scratch" match). It is interesting to note that Gandelsman and Smirnov claim that the athlete should be exposed to around 7 to 10 competition situations in order to achieve high results.

10. Psychological preparation established.Competitive Phase

1.Often separated by a recovery period to allow a physical and psychological rest in preparation for the final two to six weeks of the comp season.

2.Intensity is high with low volume and should peak two to three weeks before competition.

3.Recovery, both physiological and psychological, must be optimal to prevent "burn out." Both loading and unloading microcycles should be used, ratios dropping to a 1:1 (one heavy cycle, one light cycle) if required.

Transition or Recovery Phase1.Allows recovery before next cycle begins.2.Generally up to five weeks long depending on

athlete’s condition. (If possible, the transition phase should not exceed five weeks unless contraindicated - e.g., injuries.)

3.Release mental pressure of serious training and competition while preventing too great a loss of form.

4.Recovery should be in an active form to prevent a large amount of detraining and should take the form of activities different to the usual training.

5.General athletic principals should still be maintained, including diet and alcohol consumption.

It is important to remember that the transition phase is just that, and in order to be effective, the athlete should enter the oncoming season fitter than the start of the previous season.ADAPTATION TO THE FITNESS INDUSTRYWhile based on a concept of an "Annual Plan," the same process and idea can be applied to a general 12- to 24-week training program. For personal trainers, a full 24-week plan can be useful in providing the clients with not only short- and long-term goals but confidence in the integrity of their trainer.

Periodized Programs - Part 2by Dr. Rob Orr |   Date Released : 03 Oct 2005

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With the mechanics of periodization established, we can now look at the principals governing training and programming. There are numerous principals that have developed, and often a single theoretical principal may share several names. This installment will focus on the following well regarded principals:

1.The Principal of Overload2.The Principal of Recovery3.The Principal of Reversibility4.The Principal of Individuality5.The Principal of Specificity6.The Principal of Variety

Finally, this article will conclude with a look at overtraining, delving into means of identifying someone who is overtrained and the adaptations to training required.

The Principal of OverloadThe principal of overload revolves around the need for the body and its systems to be placed under a stress that it is not accustomed to. This training effect causes a response from the body and it adapts and develops. The primary means of applying overload is through manipulation of the training variables, frequency, intensity, time/duration and type/mode of training.

Pyke and Woodman explain why the term progressive is often associated with the principal of overload. “The term progressive is best linked to overload to ensure that the training stimulus is gradually increased.”Overload must be high enough to induce fatigue and therefore a training response. However, it must not reach the point where adaptations become negative due to excessive fatigue. As a general guide, there should be no more than a 10% increases in load per week. Pyke and Woodman state, “It is not necessarily true that if some training is good, more is better.”Another problem arises if the training stimulus is inadequate. If the systems of the body are not stimulated sufficiently, the training effect will be low and adaptations minimal.As Damm states, “Of all the training principals, overload is the most difficult for coaches to accurately determine.”

General Adaption SyndromeThe general adaptation syndrome or GAS as proposed by Canadian Biologist Hans Selye suggest three different phases to overload adaptation. These stages are:

1.The Alarm Reaction Phase. This phase is sub-divided into another two phases:

1.The shock phase, which has a training stimulus that is difficult and tiring, producing a low work output. It is commonly found in athletes attempting a new workload and can be associated with a return to training after a few weeks off.

2.The counter shock phase, where the body begins to adapt to the stimulus, and the same training regime is more productive. Capabilities for a higher workload improve. This phase can be associated with a return to the levels of fitness achieved prior to taking a few weeks off.

2.Resistance Phase A gradual and progressive increase in performance and capability occurs. As there is only a limit unto which the body can adapt from a certain stimulus, a plateau becomes evident. This plateau is associated with the law of diminishing returns where further gains become negligible.

3.Exhaustion Phase If the stimulus is too great or carried on for too long a period, overtraining becomes evident. High levels of fatigue set in, and a deterioration of performance occurs. Signs of overtraining will alert exercise prescriptors that the athlete has been given too great an overload and is entering - or is in - the exhaustion phase.

The Principal of Recovery

Recovery is often the most neglected principal applied to training programs. With goals and time in mind, overload often builds quickly, giving the adaptive reserve little time to replenish.Although the intensity of training is important, another key factor is the type of training performed. For example, exercises that have a higher eccentric component, like running down hill, would require more recovery time than say a flat run, which in turn would require more recovery than a cycle at the same intensity.Besides the components of training loads, there are several other physiological factors that influence the rate of recovery, with age and experience being two of the more prominent. According to Bompa, "It seldom happens that an athlete will fully recover between training lessons; the coach should consider the employment of various methods of recovery." Rushall and Pyke also agree with this statement and add, "Today’s training loads are so demanding that ‘natural’ recovery alone can no longer provide adequate recovery."Besides enhancing recovery with active rest (kinotherapy) and sleep, several other methods can be utilized including:

1.Physiotherapeutic (massage, electrostimulation and ultrasound and hydro - therapy)

2.Reflexology3.Chemotherapy (vitamins and ergogenic aids)

It is important to note that recovery is said to be more effective if a variety of techniques are used rather than just a single method alone.

The Principle of ReversibleThe principal of reversibility or disuse follows the common slogan "Use it or Lose it." As training effect requires an overload of stimulus to adapt and develop, the reverse also applies. With insufficient stimulus, the body will adapt and return to a capability of the lower workload. If athletes who trained regularly ceased training, their bodies would "detrain" over a period of time and only maintain a level of fitness applicable to their current lower work rates.The first thing many people what to know is, “How much detraining takes place?” Various studies have had similar findings. McArdle et al. mention a study where five subjects were confined to bed for 20 days, resulting in a 25% decrease in VO2max, corresponding to a 1% decrease in physiological function each day. In regards to resistance training, Wilmore & Costill have found that reductions in strength are relatively small during the first few months after training ceases. Fortunately, it is easier to regain lost strength, power and muscular endurance than it is to develop it initially.

With these factors in mind, it is recommended that athletes continue training during recovery or off-season phases to maintain current levels and minimize detraining. “The important point is that even among highly trained athletes, the beneficial effects of many years of prior exercise training are transient and reversible,” according to McArdle et al.

The Principal of IndividualityAs can be expected, all athletes have individual differences, from genetics (like sex and fibre type distribution) to training history and lifestyle. Several factors, recommended by Rushall and Pyke, need to be considered.

1.Tolerance to training - Some may enjoy hard sessions, others may not.

2.Responsiveness to training - The ability for their bodies to respond to training (e.g., fibre types and hypertrophy)

3.Recovery from training and competition.4.Training needs - Knowing strengths and weakness

of the athlete.5.Training preferences - Ensuring they not only train

what they enjoy but their weak areas as well.6.Nutritional preferences - For example, vegetarians

would prefer iron from non-meat products.

A strong statement by McArdle et al. summarizes the principal of individuality: "Training benefits are optimized when programs are planned to meet the individual needs and capacities of the participants."The Principal of SpecificityThe principal of specificity revolves around the training effect being specific to the overall objective. The reasoning behind specificity is fairly clear: those requiring beneficial adaptations for their activity need to utilize the systems and muscles of that activity if they wish to gain a training effect and adapt. For example, a client wanting bigger FT fibres would be required to use those fibres, hence long distance running would have a low specificity for a body builder as those fibres are not utilized.As McArdle et al. state, "Specific exercises elicit specific adaptations, creating specific training effects." While most physiologists agree that training must be specific to the nature of the task, this does not mean exclusion of opposing muscle groups and actions.There are two areas of concern when prescribing programs in regards to specificity. The first has the training too "general." For example, as an Australian Football player may cover up to 20 km in a game, continual LSD sessions for 20 km are not necessarily the most specific. The reason is that a multi player ball game like Australian Rules requires short distance

sprints of alternating pace in both a linear and lateral direction.The second error has the implementation of specific training too early before a fitness base has been established (e.g., starting a runner off on a program of Race Pace and Time Trial sessions, before they have developed an aerobic base). This has the potential to lead to over training and injury. "If training becomes too specific too quickly, injuries are likely to occur," according to Damm.The Principal of VarietyThe importance of variety is not just the spice of life. Variety ensures athletes do not stagnate on a set training load. We know that the body adapts to a training stimulus. If the same stimulus where to be used without change, initial adaptation gains would be low and the chances of over use or repetitive strain injury would increase. Obviously certain elements of specificity are lost when methods of training other than event specific are used; however, goals can still be catered for. For example, long distance runners can still develop aspects of their aerobic base by cycling, rowing, swimming, etc.Some more basic forms of variety come from a simple change of venue. Utilizing different gymnasiums, tracks or routes provide a simple means of providing variety, as do training at different hours or with different groups.

By utilizing the above two examples, variations can be given throughout a training year or program. During pre-season training or development training when the requirement for specificity is low, alternating forms of training can provide variety. During the pre-competitive and competition phase when specificity is the priority, variety can come from the change in venues, training groups, etc.

OvertrainingOvertraining can be defined as an induced state of fatigue caused by a prolonged period of high volume/intensity training, with inadequate recovery for adaptation, leading to a depletion of the adaptive reserve. This condition is fairly common amongst athletes and hence has developed several different names including “staleness,” “burnout,” “overreaching,” “overstress” and “failing adaptation.” According to Wilmore & Costill, “Few athletes are under trained, but unfortunately, many are

overtrained, often erroneously believing that more training will always produce more improvement.”A poignant point to raise is that overtraining is not solely caused by or related to a neuromuscular condition. Rather, overtraining is a syndrome that influences and is influenced by the interactions of the metabolic, neurological, psychological and endocrine systems as well as the chronic neuromuscular response.While the effects and thus the presentation of overtraining are individualized, the best indicator of an overtrained athlete is said to be a deterioration in performance and alteration in mood. With this in mind, research by Lemyre, Stray-Gundersen, Treasure, Matt, et al. suggests that the psychological factors are more sensitive to overtraining than physical measures. Unfortunately, it is often difficult for coaches to notice the onset of overtraining as signs are gradual and variations are small. As the coaches often see the athletes on a daily basis, these signs may evade notice. By the time coaches realize they have pushed an athlete too hard, it is often too late.A point to remember is that general fatigue from training is to be expected, and overtraining is predominantly characterized by prolonged fatigue. This is highlighted by research conducted by Urhausen, Coen and Kindermann whereby indicators of overtraining may be influenced by short duration/high intensity training. With this in mind,

Hawley and Schoene suggest a two-week trial of lighter intensity. Athletes with overtraining syndrome may not immediately improve, but there should be noticeable improvements in those suffering from general training fatigue.

Endocrine ResponsesFatigue has been shown to decrease the effectiveness of the immune system. This immune system suppression, characterized through decreasing lymphocytes and antibodies, increases an athlete’s susceptibility to infection and illness. There is also a hypothesis that, in response to the high (and continual) tissue trauma caused by the inability of the body to recover from training, the body’s immune symptom releases more cytokines. These cytokines then initiate a general systemic response, which leads to many of the symptoms associated with overtraining.Autonomic System FatigueIsrael developed two classifications in regards to fatigue of the autonomic nervous system:

1.Sympathetic Overtraining - Sympathetic or Basedowian (after Basedow disease) fatigue is said to be predominantly caused by emotional processes like over-stressing and over-

excitement. The increase in sympathetic system activity is epitomized by increased resting heart rates, loss of appetite, emotional instability, hyperactivity (restlessness) and decreased body mass.

2.Parasympathetic Overtraining - Parasympathetic or Addisionoid (after Addison disease) fatigue is characterised by several inhibitory signs, including the early onset of fatigue, anaemia, low blood pressure, a decreased resting heart rate, frequent infections and mood disturbances.

In regards to the effects of training type and overtraining response, Bompa suggests that sympathetic overtraining occurs predominantly from a high intensity of training, while parasympathetic overtraining is more commonly developed from a high volume of training. Likewise, von Israel claims that sympathetic overtraining appears mainly in sprinters and power athletes, while parasympathetic overtraining occurs in endurance athletes, although endurance athletes do exhibit both sympathetic and parasympathetic symptoms.Uusitalo also suggests that sympathetic overtraining is possibly the precursor to the overtraining state, while the parasympathetic type can be defined as an advanced overtraining state.Hormonal ResponsesThyroxine and testosterone are anabolic hormones that accelerate protein synthesis, while cortisol is a catabolic hormone that enhances protein degradation.

It is the ratio of these two hormones in the blood that is thought to regulate protein synthesis or degradation. Those suffering from overtraining have displayed a decrease in testosterone and an increase in cortisol. This would indicate that those suffering from overtraining syndrome have a higher protein degradation. This may provide a clue as to why there is a decrease in body mass in overtrained athletes.Resting blood levels of adrenaline (epinephrine and norepinephrine) are also elevated in the overtrained. This increase in adrenaline stimulates the heart and may explain why resting heart rates have been shown to increase with overtraining.Recovery from OvertrainingA major problem regarding the treatment of and recovery from overtraining is athletes only shows signs and symptoms once they ARE overtrained and that responses differ between athletes and are very individual. At this stage, "There is no indication that over training directly causes irreversible damage to the athlete." However, athletes that continue training while in an overtrained state are likely to incur more serious injuries, like skeletal joint injuries. With this in mind, the recommended action is to reduce training load or cease training immediately.Prevention of Overtraining Conclusion

As intensity increases of more than 5-10% weekly is suspected to cause overtraining, a guide of no more than a 10% increase per week is recommended. Another more general guide is to interspace high intensity sessions with those of a lower intensity. This can be done by alternating every (or every second) high intensity session with one of a lower intensity. The same applies for training weeks - those of higher intensity (every week or two weeks) should be followed by a week of lower intensity training. Several guidelines have been designed to assist the coach or trainer in preventing overtraining:

1.Consider and follow the principals of training (e.g., individuality, recovery and variety)

2.Consider the stressors of the athlete’s lifestyle (this is an often neglected area)

3.Maintenance of communication and athlete awareness, modifying the program if required

4.Provide recovery sessions5.Provide complete lay off periods between seasons6.Educate and encourage effective diet and

nutrition

Periodized Programs - Part 3by Dr. Rob Orr |   Date Released : 22 Dec 2005After exploring the basic concepts of long-term program planning in Part 1 of this series and then diving into the principles of overload, recovery, specificity, individualization, reversibility, variety and overtraining in Part 2, we’ll take time to explore

volume and intensity of training loads and bring it all together in an overall exploration of periodization application in this final installment of the Periodized Program series!Training LoadsThe exact structure of a periodized strength training cycle can vary depending on the manipulation and/or implementation of training variables such as volume and intensity. Training load is commonly determined by volume multiplied by intensity, with these two factors generally having an inverse relationship. If athletes are going to perform a high intensity training session, they would not be able to last for a long duration, therefore the volume would be short and visa versa. It is through an understanding and careful manipulation of both volume and intensity that effective progression and overload can be applied. Generally volume is the initial training factor, and as athletes move through their training cycles, volume decreases as intensity increases.VolumeVolume relates to the amount of work and is usually determined in quantities, be they distances, times, repetitions, etc. If the volume of training is going to be high, the intensity of the session would have to be moderate to low.

1.Overload is provided by increasing the number of sets and reps/distance (still sports specific) performed.

2.The load on the bar or endurance intensity is increased infrequently and only too small extent.

3.High volume training is often associated with development of hypertrophy in strength/power sports who predominantly train in the lower repetition range.

4.It is also used for "base" or anatomical adaptation development.

Intensity

1.During the high intensity phase, the number of sets or duration of training remains mostly constant with the major overload coming from increases in weight or speed.

2.High intensity work is often associated with development of maximal strength and power due to the low repetition and heavy weight training regime, which requires high neural drive and summation.

ApplicationWhen maximum gains are desired, attempts should be made to increase the training volume prior to increasing intensity. This is done as high volume work provides a "conditioning" effect, allowing greater intensities to be tolerated. It is also during the high volume phase that basic techniques are developed as the load is not maximal and there are numerous training repetitions.The Adaptive Reserve

The adaptive reserve is our body’s ability to adapt in a positive manner to a training stimulus. It must therefore be considered when planning the application of overload.

1.When completely rested, the adaptive reserve is at its fullest. However, when fatigued, the reserve diminishes due to an intensive voluminous training.

2.When overtrained, adaptive reserve is minimal with little or no ability to adapt to the training stimulus.

3.With these points in mind, hard sessions should only be attempted when the athlete’s reserve has fully recovered.

With this in mind, load planning needs to consider the effect of the determined loads on adaptive influences and hence the effect on the adaptive reserve. Easier (recovery) workouts can be performed when the adaptive reserve is slightly depleted. This maintains strength and muscle mass while not interfering significantly with the recovery process.There are several distinct patterns of applying overload - these include linear, step and wave increases. Each have pros and cons as will be discussed, but one should also note the effect different forms of overload have on the adaptive reserve.

1.Linear increases have no set recovery phases.2.Step increases only provide a form of recovery by

maintaining set loads which, when the body adapts, slightly decreases training effect.

3.Wave-like increases provide recovery phases as part of their periodization, therefore allowing replenishment of the adaptive reserve.

Loading PatternsLinear IncreasesEffective for rapid improvements in novices; however, not the most effective method for advanced athletes.

Step IncreasesLarge sudden increases are attempted (e.g., from six to 10 sets or 100m sprints to 400m sprints). Thought to produce more rapid adaptation in advanced athletes. Not suitable for novices who make sufficient progress with less radical methods.

Wave Increases

Has all the advantages of the step-like increases with the added benefit of a recovery period. Sharp increases in load only attempted after a recovery period.

In the above example, a recovery period (Weeks 5 and 6) have been programmed in before the "step" increase in Weeks 7 to 10.

Planning to PeriodizeStep 1The first and key step is to determine the end point, what the training is aimed to achieve (is it the Olympic games in four years time, national titles in September, a wedding in three months or simply the best possible physical condition for summer?)Step 2Determine the amount of time to the target date of the goal. If a full training year is available, then obviously you have 52 weeks of training time available.Step 3Determine the duration of the competitive season and plot all competitions. This will allow a determination of what time is available for use as shown below in Figure 12.

Step 4Divide the remaining training time in the phases of development (see Figure 13 below).

Step 5Determine the amount of time to be spent on each of the components required by the athlete in each phase (e.g., speed, endurance, technique, flexibility, etc).

Step 6Determine how much time will be allocated to each component during the individual macrocycles.

Figure 15 above represents the percentage of time given to each component for the entire general phase. However, the total percentages of time can again be manipulated in the macrocycles. As shown in Figure 16 below, 60% of the time allocated to hypertrophy is conducted in the first cycle, with the remaining 40% of the component being conducted in the second cycle. Likewise, 33% of the relative strength component is conducted in the first cycle, with the remaining 66% conducted in the second.

Step 7Determine how much time will be allocated to each component during the microcycles. Also consider the manipulation of volume and intensity for each component during each session. As Ehrhard states in regard to manipulation of intensity for a cyclist, "attaining a balance between high and low intensity time during a week often makes the difference between a habitually burned out rider and one that performs optimally."

Amidst all of the planning and program application process, it is important to remember that each person

is different and that the application of all of this information will depend on the specific needs and capabilities of the individual each step of the way. It is great to have a plan and to know where you are going, but ultimately we must also be flexible and open to shifting and tweaking the reality of that plan to fit the real needs of the moment. During the entire step-by-step development of each individual’s program, we must stay tuned to the basic concepts of long-term program planning and the principles of overload, recovery, specificity, individualization, reversibility, variety and overtraining as found in Part 1 and Part 2 of this series.