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    PRONUNCIACIN DE LA LENGUA INGLESA

    UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION, A THEORETICAL APPROACH

    1. Phonetics and phonology: allophones and phonemes

    Phonetics: studies sounds from a physiological approach.

    Phonology: Describes sounds from a mental (linguistic) perspective.

    Phoneme: the smallest unit in a language that can cause a difference in meaning (or a contrast) between

    two words.

    Allophone: one of the different possible realizations of a phoneme. Allophones do not trigger a contrast in

    meaning between two words.

    Allophones can appear in two types of distribution (or set of environments):

    complementary distribution: they are mutually exclusive, they appear in different

    environments and whenever one allophone appears the other does not. (example: dark l

    (milk, mill*) and normal l (light, lure))

    free variation: they can appear in the same context. (example: put (t o glottal stop))

    For two sounds to be interpreted as allophones of the same phoneme, they should also be

    phonetically similar.

    2. Perspectives for the study of phonetics:

    1) from the perspective of the speaker(articulatory phonetics)

    2) from the perspective of the listener(auditory phonetics)

    3) from the way the sound is transmitted though the air(acoustic phonetics)

    Articulatory phonetics: studies how sounds are produced by speakers of a given language. It examines the

    different positions (articulatory movements) of the organs of speech used to produce a given sound or string

    of sounds.

    Auditory phonetics: studies how sounds are perceived by listeners.

    Acoustic phonetics: examines the properties of sounds and how they are transmitted though the air.

    3. Organs of speech:

    Thee releasing of the air through the mouth or through the nose depends on the position of the velum (aka

    soft palate). If the velum is raised (there is a velic closure), the nasal cavity is closed and thus the air can

    only escape though the oral cavity. If the velum is lowered (there is a velic opening), the nasal cavity is

    open allowing the air going through it.

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    Active articulators: articulators that move, for example, the lips, the tongue or the soft palate.

    Passive articulators: do not move. For example, the teeth, the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. They take

    part in speech production because an active articulator approaches them to utter a given sound.

    Organs of speech in the oral cavity:

    Alveolar ridge

    Teeth

    Lips

    Tongue

    Tip

    Blade

    Front

    Center Back

    vocal folds

    Pharynx

    Uvula

    Soft palate (velum)

    Hard palate

    Vocal folds: Two chords situated in the larynx. They can basically have three positions Closed: The air that comes from the lungs is blocked and cannot escape until they open again.

    Open: the air that comes from the lungs is expelled freely. The position of vocal folds is also used to

    produce voiceless sounds.

    Nearly together: the air cannot escape freely. It pushes through the vocal folds. This makes the

    vocal folds vibrate. The vibratory movement of the vocal folds causes sound. (voiced sounds)

    The vibratory movement of the vocal folds is also responsible for two other perceptual features, namely,

    pitch and loudness.

    The quicker the vibration, the higher the pitch.

    Our perception of loud or soft sounds depends on the intensity (or amplitude) of the vocal fold

    vibration: the higher the amplitude (or displacement) of the vibration, the louder the sound.

    4. The production of sounds:

    Three factors:

    1) the origin and the direction of the airflow (initiation stage)

    2) the position of the vocal folds (phonation stage)3) the position of the articulators (articulatorystage)

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    4.1.Initiation:

    Airstream mechanism (origin of the airflow):

    pulmonic: Origin in the lungs

    glottalic: Origin in the larynx.

    velaric: origin in the velum.

    Airstream mechanism (direction of the airflow):

    eggressive: outwards (pulmonic and ejective)

    ingressive: inwards (implosives and clicks)

    Ejective sounds: sounds produced with a glottalic airstream mechanism and an eggressive airflow.

    Implosive sounds: sounds produced with a glottalic airstream mechanism and an ingressive airflow.

    4.2.Phonation:

    Modal voice: or normal. Most sounds are voiced.

    Whisper: open vocal folds. We can say that when we whisper all sounds are voiceless.

    Creaky voice: Vocal folds can only vibrate at one end.

    Breathy voice or murmur: vibration is combined with a considerable amount of air.

    4.3.Articulation

    Sounds are describe according to theirplace of articulation and theirmannerof articulation.

    Examples:

    [b] = voiced, bilabial, plosive

    [s] = voiceless, alveolar, fricative

    5. The segmental level and the suprasegmental:

    Segmental level: the articulation of a series of sounds (vowels and consonants) also known as segments.

    Suprasegmental level: the production of a series of suprasegmentals that involve more than consonants

    and vowels and include features such as stress, length, intensityand intonation.

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    UNIT 2: VOWELS, A THEORETICAL APPROACH

    1. Parameters to describe vowels:

    Vowels are produced:

    with no obstruction of the airflow in the oral cavity

    with vocal fold vibration.

    = vowels are produced with an open approximation of the articulators and they are always voiced.

    Vowels are described according to: tongue position, tongue height, lip posture and vowel duration.

    1.1.Tongue position:

    front: the front of the tongue raises towards the front of the hard palate. back: the back of the tongue raises towards the back of the soft palate.

    Central: the centre of the tongue raises towards the middle of the hard palate.

    1.2.Tongue height:

    close (high): the tongue raises towards the palate (no friction)

    half-close (high-mid): the tongue raises (less than for close vowels)

    half-open (low-mid): the tongue raises (less than for half-close vowels)

    open (low): the tongue does not raise.

    1.3.Lip posture:

    rounded: the lips have a round position.

    Unrounded: the lips are not rounded.

    Neutral: with no movement

    spread: with a slight smile.

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    1.4.Classification of English vowels:

    Tongue location Tongue height Lip posture Duration

    Front Between open andhalf-open

    Unrounded Short

    Back Open Unrounded Long

    Central Open Unrounded Short

    Front Between half-closeand half-open

    Unrounded Short

    Central Between half-closeand half-open

    Unrounded Long

    Central Between half-closeand half-open

    Unrounded Short

    Front Close Unrounded Long

    Front Half-close Unrounded Short

    Back Open Rounded Short

    Back Between half-closeand half-open

    Rounded Long

    Central Half-close Rounded Short

    Back Close Rounded Long

    2. Types of vowels:

    Monophtong: vowels produced with only one quality.

    Diphthongs: vowels produced with a change in quality (two qualities)

    Tiphthongs: vowels produced with a change in quality (three qualities)

    English closing diphthongs are with orwhereas English centring diphthongs are with .

    English triphthongs are composed of one of the closing diphthongs followed by .

    Smoothing: When the middle vowel of a triphthong is not fully targeted and thus the first vowel is

    lengthened.

    Strong vowels: mainly occur in stressed syllables.

    Weak vowels: can only occur in unstressed syllables. They are , , , I and u. u occurs in unstressed

    syllables, specially after [j].

    3. Related phenomena:

    3.1.Nasalisation: The only difference between an oral and a nasalised vowel is the position of the

    velum. Nasalised vowels only occur next no nasal consonants.

    3.2.Voiceless vowels and aspiration: voiceless vowels are produced when whispering. The

    phenomenon of aspiration in English can be interpreted as a partial devoicingof vowels.

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    3.3.Pre-fortis clipping: Vowels that precede a voiceless sound ( fortis) are shortened or clipped, as

    opposed to vowels preceding voiced sounds (lenis). It mainly occurs when the consonant

    preceding the vowel occurs word-finally.

    3.4.Rhythmical clipping: The higher the number of unstressed syllables that follow the stressed

    one, the shorter the duration of the vowel in the stressed syllable.

    UNIT 3: CONSONANTS, A THEORETICAL APPROACH

    1. Parameters to describe consonants: the position of the vocal folds, the place of articulation and

    the manner of articulation.

    1.1.Vocal fold position:

    - Open: voiceless sounds.

    - Nearly together: Voiced sounds

    1.2.Place of articulation:

    Place of articulation First articulator Second articulator Examples

    Bilabial Upper lip Lower lip p, b, m

    Labiodental Upper teeth Lower lip f, v

    Dental Upper teeth Tongue tip ,

    Alveolar Alveolar ridge Tongue tip s, z, l

    Post-alveolar Between the palate andthe alveolar ridge

    Tongue blade ,

    Palatal Hard palate Tongue front j

    Velar Velum Tongue back K, g,

    Pharyngeal Rear wall of the pharynx Tongue back

    Glottal Right vocal fold Left vocal fold ,

    Homorganic: sounds produced with the same place of articulation.

    1.3.Manner of articulation:

    - A complete closure of the articulators (as in plosives (p b t d k g) or nasals (m n )).

    PLOSIVES:

    - approximation of the articulators to produce a clomplete closure (closing phase)

    - holding of the closure for a little while so that the aire does not escape (holding phase)

    - opening of the closure and release of the air producing a burst (opening phase)

    NASALS: are also produced with a complete closure of the articulators in the oral cavity, but

    the air is released through the nose.

    A close narrowing of the ariculators (as in fricatives s, f, ).

    A partial closure (as I laterals l). This involves a closure of the tip of the tongue against the alveolar

    ridge, but with the sides of the tongue lowered.

    An open aproximation of the articulators (as in approximants j w).

    Affricates ( ) are produced with a complete closure followed by a fricative release.

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    English consonants: (left: voiceless, right: voiced)

    Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar

    Palatal Velar Glottal Labiovelar

    Plosive

    Fricative

    Affricate

    Nasal

    Approximant

    Lateral

    See how to represent consonants in graphs (position of the vocal folds, place of articulation and degree of

    the constriction)

    2. Types of articulation:Single articulation: with some kind of a constriction in a particular location of the oral cavity.

    Double articulation: two simultaneous constrictions at two different places of the oral cavity (they have to

    have the same degree of approximation or manner of articulation).

    Primary articulation: the most important (and often the only) articulation of a consonant.

    Secondary articulation: involves a simultaneous constriction to the primary one but of lower rank. This

    means that the manner of articulation of the second constriction has to be more open than that of the primary

    one. For instance, t can sometimes be labialised / l can sometimes be velarised (=dark l).

    3. Types of consonants:

    Obstruents: sounds produced with a blockage of the airflow in the oral cavity that causes noise. Obstruents

    include plosives, fricatives and affricates.

    Sonorants: sounds produced with a free escaping of the airflow that causes no noise. Sonorant sounds are

    approximants, laterals, nasals and vowels.

    4. Allophonic variation in English consonants (aspiration, devoicing and velarization)

    Aspiration: takes place when p, t or k are located at the beginning of a stressed syllable. Aspiration is

    blocked when p, t, and k are preceded by s.Devoicing: two devoicing processes:

    the devoicing of voiced obstruents: are devoiced when the originally voiced sound is located

    before or after a pause or is in contact with a voiceless sound. When the voiced obstruent is next to

    a voiced sound, devoicing does not apply. When devoicing takes place at the end of a word, the clue

    that distinguishes a word ending with a devoiced sound from a word ending with an originally voiced

    sound is the duration of the preceding vowel. (=pre-fortis clipping)

    the devoicing of voiced approximants and laterals: English approximants j, w, r and al are

    devoiced when they are preceded by p, t, k at the beginning of a stressed syllable. When p, t and k

    are preceded by an s, devoicing does not apply.

    Velarisation: Dark l (only occurs before consonants (except for j) or before a pause.

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    UNIT 4: COMBINATION OF SOUNDS AND CONNECTED SPEECH PROCESSES, A

    THEORETICAL APPROACH

    1. The syllable:

    Syllable: unit of speech made up of one sound (namely, a vowel) which may be followed and/or preceded by

    other sounds (consonants). The only compulsory element to have a syllable is the vowel.

    Nucleus: corresponds to a vowel and is obligatory.

    Onset: made up of a consonant or a group of consonants preceding the nucleus.

    Coda: made up of a consonant or a group of consonants following the nucleus.

    Rhyme: contains the nucleus and the coda.

    Syllabic consonant: A consonant that makes up a syllable on its own. It is due to the dropping of schwa

    when it's followed by a consonant.

    Sonority hierarchy: Sounds have different degrees of sonority.

    More sonorous

    vowels

    laterals

    nasals

    approximants

    fricatives

    affricatesplosives

    Less sonorous

    2. Phonotactics: combination of sounds

    Phonotactics: The area of phonetics that studies the combination of sounds allowed in a given language.

    Initial consonant clusters (in syllable onset position)

    Zero consonants: All English vowels can occure syllable initially except for and .

    One consonant: All English consonants can appear at the beginning of a syllable except for.

    Two-consonant clusters: are never found in two or three-consonant clusters in syllable

    onset positions. English two-consonant clusters in syllable onset position tend to have two possible

    combinations:

    s + consonant (voiceless plosive= p, t, k / f / nasal = m, n / aproximant= only w, j, l)

    consonant (plosive= p, t, k, b, d, g / f / v / / s /) + approximant (w, j, l, r)

    consonant (n / m / l / h) + approximant (only j)

    Three-consonant clusters:

    s + consonant + approximant (the second consonant tends to be a voiceless plosive.

    Sometimes f and m can also occur in this position, but only in a few rare words.

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    Final consonant clusters (in syllable coda position)

    Zero consonants: cannot occur syllable finally.

    One consonant: cannot appear at the end of a syllable.

    Two-consonant clusters: Consonants cannot occupy the second position of a two-consonant

    cluster in syllable coda position. Two possible combinations:

    Nasal / lateral / s + obstruent (plosive, fricative, affricate)

    Consonant + t / d / s / z /

    Three-consonant clusters: Tend to be made up of a two-consonant cluster followed by a consonant

    that corresponds to some kind of morpheme boundary. There are a few words that contain a syllable

    with a three-consonant cluster (glimpse, text)

    Four-consonant clusters: Can only be made by adding a morpheme consonant to a syllable which

    already has a three-consonant cluster.

    Connected speech processes:

    Assimilation: a process by which one or more sounds take characteristics from another sound. They can be

    regressive or anticipatory, progressive or perseverative and coalescence.

    Regressive (or anticipatory) assimilation: Sounds change their place of articulation to that of the

    following sound but they keep their original voice condition and their manner of articulation.

    t / d / n = p / b / m when followed by a bilabial sound

    t / d / n = k / g / when followed by a velar sound.

    s / z = / when followed by a post-alveolar sound.

    Progressive (or perseverative) assimilation: Only takes place when there is an alveolar syllabic

    nasal (n) preceded by a bilabial or a velar consonant.

    Open = = =

    Coalescence: involves the merging of two sounds into another sound which takes characteristics

    from the two original ones.

    t + j =

    d + j =

    Elision: is a phenomenon which involves the loss of one sound in a given environment. Only t / d. T / d must

    be in word or syllable final position and they must be preceded by a consonant of the same voicing and the

    following word must start with any consonant except for h.

    cold beer = =

    Liaison: is a phenomenon which involves the pronunciation of a sound at the end of a word so as to link it

    with the first sound of the following word.

    Linking -r: Both linking and intrusive -r are typical of non-rhotic accents. Words ending with r or

    re in the spelling are pronounced with final r if the next word begins with a vowel. = linking -r is the

    pronunciation of a word-final orthographic r or re when followed by a vowel in the next word.

    Intrusive -r: Some speakers pronounce r after certain vowels (even though no r is present in the

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    spelling), when the next word starts with a vowel. Intrusive -r can only be found after thouse vowels

    which can be followed by an ortographically motivated r. Thus, it is not possible after high vowels ( ,

    , or) or diphthongs ending with a high vowel (closing diphthongs). Intrusive -r is common after,

    and , and also after centring diphthongs.

    UNIT 5: STRESS AND RHYTHM, A THEORETICAL APPROACH

    An accented syllable has pitch prominence and is always stressed.

    An unaccented syllable which has no pitch prominence and which can be stressed or unstressed.

    1. Lexical stress:

    There are different levels of stress: primary, secondary, tertiary and unstressed. Characteristics:

    Stress levels Nuclear Pitch prominence Rhythmic beat Strong vowel

    Primary

    Secondary

    Tertiary

    Unstressed

    Primary stress (PS): is always accompanied by a pitch movement and a rhythmic beat. It is the main (or

    nuclear) stress of a words and the syllable always contains a strong vowel. Representation: '

    Secondary stress (SS): is very similar to PS but is non-nuclear. A secondary stress always precedes the

    primary one. Representation: ,

    Tertiary stress (TS): is weaker than the secondary one. Usually a tertiary stress is located between the

    primary and the secondary stresses of a word. Representation: ,

    Unstressed (U): tends to be produced with a weak vowel (sometimes strong vowels can also occur in

    unstressed syllables but these cases are minotity).

    Introduce =

    discontinuation =

    2. Predicting the location of stress: (these rules have loads of exceptions)

    Phonological structure of a syllable: strong or weak

    Strong: a strong syllable contains a long vowel or a diphthong (except for ) or ends with more than one

    consonant.

    Weak: a weak syllable contains a short vowel (or) and one (or no) final consonant.

    Simple words (two or three syllables and with no pre-primary stresses). We have to take into

    account:

    word category (noun, verb or adjective)

    number of syllables: two or three

    the phonological structure of those syllables

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    Two-syllable words:

    a) Verbs and adjectives:

    1. If the last (ultimate) syllable is strong, when it will be stressed.

    2. If the last (ultimate) syllable is weak, the penultimate syllable will be stressed.

    b) Nouns:1. If the last (ultimate) syllable of the noun contains a short vowel, the penultimate syllable will be

    stressed. Otherwise, the last syllable will be stressed.

    Three-syllable words:

    a) Verbs:

    1. If the last syllable is strong, then it will be stressed.

    2. If the last syllable is weak, the penultimate syllable will be stressed.

    b) Nouns:

    1. If the final syllable is strong, the first (antepenultimate) syllable will be stressed.

    2. If the final syllable is weak and the middle syllable is strong, the middle syllable is stressed.

    3. If the final and the middle syllables are weak, the first syllable will be stressed.

    Stress in complex words:

    Stem + affix:

    Prefixes: in most cases, the prefix will get a secondary stress, but the primary or main stress will

    remain in the original syllable.

    Suffixes: Can be: stress-attracting suffixes: (suffixes that attract the primary stress) = -ette, -eer, -ese, -ee

    stress-neutral suffixes: (suffixes that do not affect stress placement) = -able, -ish, -ful,

    -less, -ous

    stress-fixing suffixes (suffixes that change the location of the main stress into another

    syllable which is neither the originally stressed syllable nor the suffix itself) = -ix, -ion, -ive

    Compounds: The main tendency in compounds is to have a primary stress on the first element of

    the compound. (Whereas noun phrases have their primary stress on the second element).

    Stress reorganisations:

    Stress shift: involves the relocation of a primary stress into a secondary stress position as a result

    of a stress clash (Portuguese, Portuguese history)

    Stress clash: involves the consecutive (or almost consecutive) production of two stressed syllables

    in different words.

    Consecutive stresses: when three stressed lexical words with one or two more syllables come

    together in connected speech, the word in the middle tends to lose the stress.

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    Weak forms:

    Word Weak form Strong form

    A eI

    Am ()m m

    An n n

    And n(d) nd

    Are A:

    As z z

    At t t

    Be bi bi:

    Been bIn bi:n

    But bt Bvt

    Can kn kn

    Do Du / d du:

    Does dz dVz

    Could kd kUdFor f fO:

    From frm frAm

    Had (h)d hd

    Has (h)z hz

    Have (h)v hv

    He (h)i hi:

    Her (h) h3:

    Him Im hIm

    His Iz hIz

    Just ds(t) dVst

    Me mi mi:

    Must ms(t) mVst

    Of v v

    Shall Sl Sl

    She Si Si:

    Should Sd SUd

    Some sm sVm

    Than Dn Dn

    That Dt Dt

    The D / Di Di:

    Them Dm Dem

    There D Dea

    To t / tu tu:

    Us s Vs

    Was wz wz

    We wi wi:

    Were w w3:

    Who hu hu:

    Would wd wUd

    You j / ju ju:

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    1. Not all monosyllabic function words have a weak form (off, on, or, my, out, those...)

    2. There are some function words that have the same weak forms.

    Apart from emphatic and citation contexts, there are other contexts in which function words tend not to appear in its weak

    form.

    1. Auxiliary and modal verbs located at the end of a sentence are produced with a strong form.

    2. At the beginning of a sentence modal verbs tend to be strong.

    3. Auxiliary and modal verbs are also strong when they appear in the negative form.

    4. Prepositions located at the end of the sentence are strong.

    5. Sometimes, the presence of a weak or a strong form depends on the word category or the meaning of the word:

    have: main verb (strong) / auxiliary (weak)

    there: adverb (strong) / existential form (hay) (weak)

    that: demonstrative adjective or pronoun (strong) / relative pronoun or conjunction (weak)

    some: pronoun (strong) / adjectives (algunos) (strong) / adjective (unos, partitif) (weak).

    UNIT 6: FOCUS AND INTONATION, A THEORETICAL APPROACH

    Intonation: It deals with the pitch changes associated to utterances.

    Tone: the pitch movements or kinds of accents that are linguistically relevant in the whole utterance. It can

    be divided into falling tone or rising tone.

    Stressed syllable: It is a syllable with rhythmic prominence. But not all stressed syllables are accented.

    Accented syllable: It is a syllable which, apart from rhythmic prominence, also has pitch prominence. Thismeans that all accented syllables have to be stressed.

    Focus: It is the part of the utterance that we want to highlight. It can be divided into broad focus sentences,

    in which the whole sentence is new information, or narrow focus sentences, if a part of the sentence is old

    or given information and the other is new.

    Intonational languages: use pitch to change the meaning of sentences. This means that the same

    sentence can vary its meaning if the pitch pattern varies.

    Tone languages: pitch differences are not only used to produce different meanings at the sentence level but

    also at the word level.

    Tonality: the number of intonation units into which a speech chunk is divided.

    Tonicity: It deals with the distribution of accents within each intonation unit in the utterance. Only stressed

    syllables can get an accent, but not all stressed syllables must be accented.

    Intonation unit: chunk of speech delimited by some kind of intonational boundary.

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    Long constituents: It occurs when one of the constituents of the clause becomes too long, then it is treated

    as a separate intonation phrase (IP). For example: the man with black glasses and a brown hat / goes to

    Leeds (long subject = two IPs)

    Lists: In lists, each item in the utterance tends to be included in a separate intonation unit.

    Vocatives: They behave differently depending on whether they are located in initial or in final position. In

    final position, vocatives are produced in a separate intonation group.

    Reporting phrases: As in vocatives, reporting phrases behave differently depending on whether they are

    located in initial or in final sentence position.

    Tone inventory: it is the system of accentual choices of a given language which includes all the tones

    (linguistically relevant intonation entities) used in that particular language.

    Pitch range: It has to do with the key or amount of pitch displacement with which an intonation phrase is

    produced. It can be divided into a broad pitch range (big amount of pitch displacement) and a narrow pitch

    range (small amount of pitch displacement). Pitch range differences are speaker-dependent, that is, some

    speakers have a broader pitch range than other. However, speakers can control and modify their pitch range.

    Britich school: a main tradition for the analysis of English intonation. It is also known as the configurational

    modal since tone units are analysed according to two configurations: the nuclear configuration (which

    includes the last accented syllable and all the subsequent unaccented syllables) and the pre-nuclearconfiguration (which includes all the syllables unaccented and accented preceding the last accent).

    British school divides each intonation phrase into the following parts: pre-head, head, nucleus and tail.

    American school: a main tradition for the analysis of English intonation. It describes intonation by means of

    a series of tone levels such as H (high), L (low), M (mid). On the other hand, the American tradition does not

    differentiate between nuclear and pre-nuclear accents. According to the American School, each stressed

    syllable may become accented, which means that it may be associated to one of the preceding tones.

    Nuclear tones: They are associated to the nuclear syllable. The inventory of nuclear tones includes five

    simple tones and two complex tones. The simple tones indicate the origin of the pitch (high, low or mid) and

    direction of the pitch (fall, rise or level). The complex tones show the combination of two pitch trajectories

    (fall-rise, rise fall).

    Pre-nuclear tones: the types of tones found in pre-nuclear position differ from those in nuclear position in

    that they de not account for the pitch trajectory at the end of the intonation phrase, but they just describe the

    pitch movements of the accented syllables before the nucleus. There are two types of tones: high and low. A

    high tone indicates that the first accented syllable of the head is produced with a high pitch. A low tone

    indicates that the first accented syllable of the head is produced with a low or mid pitch.