Science education in the People's Republic of China

I NTE R N AT I0 N AL SC I EN C E EDUCATION

William W. Cobern, Section Editor

Science Education in the People’s Republic of China

WENJIN WANG Beijing VocationallTechnical College, Beijing, People’s Republic of China

JIAYI WANG Shanghai Secondary Vocational Center, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

GUIZING ZHANG Shanghai VocationallTechnical Teachers College, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

YONG LANG Central China University of Science and Technology, Huazhong, People’s Republic of China

VICTOR J. MAYER The Ohio State University, Earth Systems Education Program, Ramseyer Hall, 29 West Woodruff Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; e-mail: [email protected]

Science education in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) has a long history. Under the influence of traditional culture, science education in the PRC has its own unique characteristics; for example, it is teacher-centered, theory focused, national examination oriented, and homework supplemented. We also find it is characterized by systematic after-class activities and the active involvement of parents. Though science teachers on the whole do not have strong academic backgrounds, they attach great importance to lesson planning and exchange of experiences following systematic pre- or in-service teacher training. As the PRC experiences rapid economic growth, its cultural and educational exchanges with other countries throughout the world will continue to grow. It is the senior authors’ belief that through the development of this

Science Education 80(2): 203-222 (1996) 0 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. CCC 0036-8326/96/020203-20

204 WANG ET AL.

international mutual studying, China will overcome its shortcomings and enhance its strengths in science education. There are also lessons for American science educators to learn about education from this very old culture that has valued education throughout its history. 0 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

INTRODUCTION

The People’s Republic of China (PRC) is a large developing country with a ter- ritory of 3,700,000 square miles, which is slightly larger than that of the United States. It has a population of 1,169,619,000, approximately 4.5 times that of the United States (Famighetti, 1993). To educate this large population there are nearly 730,000 elementary schools with 5,532,200 teachers and 121,641,500 students and more than 100,000 high schools with over 3,700,000 teachers and nearly 54,000,000 students (State Education Commission, 1992). Therefore, since science is taught at all grade levels, the number of people involved in science education in China is the largest in the world. Because of the country’s size, political system, and culture, science education differs in many ways from that found in the United States and other Western countries. It is therefore valuable for American science educators to know more about how science education is approached in the PRC .

The general goal of education in the PRC is to raise the educational level of the whole nation. Education is viewed as a means to train the skilled personnel needed to transform China into a more prosperous, powerful, and modem socialist country. Science education, as a part of general education, supplies people with a solid foun- dation of knowledge about the natural world and with certain skills in problem ana- lyzing and problem solving. Therefore, science education is seen as an important component in achieving the general goal of education for the country.

In China, because economic development in large and medium-sized coastal cities differs from that in inland, especially rural, areas the problems faced in education are quite different. The educational system in large and medium-sized coastal cities is more fully developed. Here are found modern four- to seven-story school buildings with large, bright classrooms, many of which are equipped for experiments. Partly because of economic factors, however, schools in rural areas are in former temples equipped with a few desks and benches. There is little equipment for student use in these made-over classrooms. There are also differences in the quality and background of teachers. Because of these marked differences, this article characterizes science education primarily in those secondary schools located in China’s large and medium- sized coastal cities where much of the country’s population resides. The reader needs to keep in mind that the educational conditions found there are not general throughout the country.

Education in the PRC is highly centralized as an integral part of the governmental structure of country. The State (national) Education Commission determines educational policy for the entire country. It also develops and evaluates the national examination system given at the end of high school thus having a strong mechanism for en- forcing national policy. Funding for education, however, is derived from the provincial or municipal governments. The provincial or municipal education com-

SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA 205

missions are designated by the government to carry out national educational policy and any locally developed policies. These commissions develop and administer examinations that determine students’ passage from the junior high to the high school level and admission to the national examination.

THE SCIENCE CURRICULUM

At both the elementary and secondary levels, Chinese students take a variety of courses taught in self-contained classes. There are usually 40-50 students in one class. The relative ages of students at each grade level are the same as those in the United States. The academic calendar of schools is composed of two terms. There are usually 21 weeks in each term. A typical school day begins at 7:30 a.m. and ends at 3:30 p.m. It is divided into six periods with each period lasting from 40 to 50 minutes. Classes are held 6 days per week. All students enrolled at the same grade level throughout the country take the same courses. At the secondary level, for example, students take three different science courses, biology, chemistry, and physics. Students stay in the same room throughout the day. Each teacher will come to the students’ room at the time scheduled for that teacher’s subject. Some newer high schools may have a special laboratory room. On a day when there is a laboratory activity scheduled in a science course, the class may go to the laboratory room for that day only. Table 1 presents a timetable of a single week of courses for students in a class in grade 8.

Only 30-40% of junior high school graduates are allowed to enter academic senior high schools. Almost the same percentage of graduates from senior high schools is allowed to enter college. Those who want to enter a higher level of education must pass a nationally uniform entrance examination. This examination is similar to a combination of the general SAT and the advanced area-specific examinations held in the United States. Information from the science courses is included in the entrance examinations. Because of their importance to the future of the students, teachers, parents, and students pay great attention to them. The examination system, therefore, plays a very important role in science education.

TABLE 1 Typical Subject Schedule for a Grade 8 Class

P Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

1 Math Geography Politics Physics Math Chinese 2 English Math Math Biology Chinese English 3 Hygiene English sports Chinese Sports Math 4 History Chinese English Chinese English Geography 5 Chinese Biology Practical Math Politics Hygiene 6 Physics After-school Arts History Class meetings Arts

7 Music activities

P = periods are 45 minutes in length.

206 WANG ET AL.

The term “science education” is defined differently in different countries. In the United States, science education includes content and processes from the disciplines of biology, chemistry, earth science, environmental sciences, and physics and excludes geography. In China, science education usually includes nature, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, hygiene, and environmental protection and also excludes geography. Content and processes from the earth sciences are not normally included in the science curricula. This is because, following the revolution in 1949, Russia was looked to as an example for the Chinese people to follow. Many Russian ideas were carried to the PRC and implemented in the educational system. Russian education excluded geography and the earth sciences, thus none are taught in Chinese science education. Following the “Great Leap Forward” in 1958- 1960 and the “Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution” in 1966-1976, and in part because of the need to accommodate the population growth of China, many Russian influences were elimi- nated from the educational system. Physical geography and the Earth sciences, however, are still absent from science curricula although political and economic geography content is included in the social studies curriculum (Butler, 1986). Table 2 presents science subjects found in Chinese elementary and high schools.

Following is a brief description of each science subject and is based on each of the senior authors’ 10 or more years of experience as science educators in the system. The descriptions focus on the secondary school, grades 7 - 12.

Biology

Students have two periods of biology class per week in grades 7, 8, 10, and 11. This accounts for about 4.5% of instructional time in these grades. Biology includes topics from botany (taught in grade 7) and zoology (taught in grade S), and some basic knowledge about evolution, heredity, and nutrition (taught in grades 10 and l l ) .

TABLE 2 Class Periods Required for Science Courses and Geography

Grade*

Subject 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total

Nature 1 2 2 5 Biology 2 2 2 2 8 Hygiene 2 2 4 Chemistry 3 3 3 3 1 2

Environmental protection 1 1

Geography** 2 2 3 2 2 11

Physics 2 3 4 3 4 1 6

Total 1 2 2 4 6 7 9 8 7 4 6

*Elementary school includes grades 4-6, junior high grades 7-9, and senior high

**Geography is a part of the social studies curriculum. Only a small part of the grade 11 grades 10- 12.

course is devoted to physical geography.


At the end of grade 11, there is a locally constructed examination for all students in the province or municipality. Passage of this examination is one of the standards used to determine if a student can graduate from high school and whether the student can be admitted to the national examination.

Hygiene

This is a science course offered to students in grades 7 and 8. Two periods per week are required, accounting for a little over 2% of the total instructional time at those grade levels. In this course, students learn about the structure of the human body, the functioning of its different systems, and the relationship between human health and environmental quality. Nutrition fundamentals are also studied. Only local examinations are given in this subject to determine passage into high school.

Chemistry

Students have three periods of chemistry class per week in grades 9-12 accounting for about 7% of instructional time. In grade 9 of the junior high school, students are exposed to the fundamentals of the field. In senior high schools, students spend 2 years studying the theory and foundations of inorganic chemistry. They also spend 1 year studying organic chemistry. Chemistry is one of the subjects appearing in the senior high entrance exam. It is also a subject on the national examination for those students who seek admission to science and technology universities.

Physics

Students normally have two periods of physics per week in grade 8, three periods per week in grades 9 and 11, and four periods per week in grades 10 and 12. Almost 9% of the total classroom instruction focuses on physics content. The physics curriculum runs in two topic cycles: one in the junior-high school, and the other in the senior high school. Each cycle follows the following sequence:

Mechanics+Heat-*Electricity and Magnetism +Optics-*Atomic Physics

Physics is another subject appearing on the senior high entrance exam and it is a subject on the college entrance examination for those students wishing to be admitted to a science or technology university.

Nature

Nature is the science course taught in elementary schools. Students have one period per week in grade 4 and two periods per week in grades 5 and 6. In this course, students are expected to gain competencies in biology, physics, chemistry, and mete- orology. The primary objective of this course is to cultivate students’ interest in sci-

208 WANG ET AL.

ence and to develop their basic scientific literacy. Local examinations given at the end of grade 6 help to determine admission to junior high school.

Geography

Students are required to spend two periods per week in grades 5 , 6 , 8, and 11, and three periods in grade 7 studying geography as a part of the social studies curriculum.

Among the total periods of instruction in high schools, the instruction time allo- cated to geography is about 4%. In junior high school, the geography cumculum focuses on Chinese and world geography. Students learn about physical, political, and economic geography in grade 11. There are examinations in both grades 8 and 11 sponsored by the province or municipal education commissions.

Environmental Protection

Since 1992, an environmental protection course has been added to the curriculum. There is one period each week for this course. A new textbook published in 1991 was compiled specifically for this subject. In this textbook, four main aspects of environmental protection are discussed. They are: (1) the importance of environmental protection both in China and in the world; (2) the seriousness of environmental pollution in China; (3) the laws and policies about environmental protection; and (4) the methods of dealing with environmental pollution. This course is taught primarily in larger cities and usually by the chemistry teacher. A local examination for students complet- ing this course is used to help determine admission to the next higher grade.

Environmental topics are often integrated into other science courses. In chemistry, for example, while the student is learning about air and oxygen, the ozone layer and its depletion and the probable effects on human life are discussed.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE TEACHING

The nature of science teaching in the PRC can be characterized in four broad areas, the nature of classroom teaching activities and what determines it, the types and roles of after-school activities, the degree of involvement of parents in science education, and the underlying cultural influences.

Characteristics Related to Classroom Teaching Activities

The Use of Lecture. Lectures are the primary method used in teaching. It is quite common in the PRC for a science teacher to dominate the entire class period and to mo- notonously present his or her prepared lectures from the beginning until the last minute of the class. There are several reasons for this highly teacher-centered approach. First, textbooks contain very concise explanations on each topic with little or no elaboration and examples. They are not suitable for student self-study. This means that students must rely on the teacher’s explanation for a deeper understanding of topics. In addition, students are taught that it is rude for them to interrupt the teacher’s lecture by asking questions or initiating discussions. They are made to feel that they should not selfishly use


time that belongs to the whole class. Finally, the typical size of a science class in the PRC is quite large. Normally there are 50 students in a class (Wellington, 1992) and therefore it is difficult to address individual needs. One advantage of using lectures as the primary means of instruction is that students are exposed to much information in a limited time. This method also allows a teacher better control over the class. The shortcomings, however, are the lack of student involvement and the neglect of the differences in abilities and needs among students. In recent years, along with the introduction of the various educational theories and experiences of the Western countries, more and more teachers, parents, and students have become aware of the limitations of this mode of instruction. Following a series of instructional experiments conducted in different schools of large cities such as Beijing, Tienjin, and Shanghai, some experienced teachers are now advocating that “students at the center, whereas teachers as the guide” should be the motto that guides the nature of instruction in science. Only in this way can we motivate the students to actively learn.

The Role of the Textbook. In China, the cumculum for the entire country is set by the State (national) Education Commission (SEdC). Textbooks are written by specialists approved by the SEdC. They are viewed by teachers as akin to educational laws or rules. Teachers and their students follow the text very closely. Often the school head, dean, or province subject adviser will sit in the classroom to see if the teacher is following the teaching plan and the textbook properly. The importance given to following the standardized texts and teaching plans is linked to the national system of examinations. These examinations are held annually by a province or city and are closely based upon what is contained in the standard textbooks. Consequently, teachers do not dare to add or skip chapters of a text. Any student who wants to excel in an examination must study the textbooks very carefully and cannot afford to ignore any theoretical or narrative information included in them. Teachers feel a deep responsibility to help their students obtain good scores. As a result, textbooks function as the central pillar for science lessons and are not the occasional references or sources of homework as often happens in the United States. In the last several years, however, different kinds of science textbooks have been developed. Schools in both the cities and rural areas are allowed to choose how they will be used. Provinces or municipalities may modify their examinations to adapt to these new textbooks. Chinese science textbooks are published and sold by the state-owned press. The page size is mandated at about 5 X 7 inches, smaller than those typically used in the United States. They average 150 pages in length. Usually there are two or three volumes for each subject in junior or senior high schools. They are printed on newsprint and, except for a frontispiece, color is almost never used. The books do include, however, many line drawings and some black and white pictures. There are also some charts and tables that serve as illustrations. Every student in the PRC has to buy the textbooks at a standard price fixed by the government at around three or four yuan. At the current exchange rate this is about $0.50-0.70.

The Role of Examinations. Examinations are used to give teachers feedback about the effectiveness of their teaching so that they can make any necessary ad- justments for the following year. The examinations also provide students with information about their level of achievement in the subject concerned and provide

210 WANG ET AL.

parents and the government with some indication about the performance of a particular school. In junior high schools, the examinations for geography are held in grade 8 and physics and chemistry in grade 9 as part of the entrance examination for senior high schools. These examinations are organized by the provinces or municipalities. Evaluation and statistical analysis of the exams are also conducted by the provinces or municipalities. In senior high schools, there are two sets of exams. The first set is held by a province and/or municipality. A set of locally constructed examinations is given at the end of grade 11. Performance on these examinations will determine whether a student enrolls in the science or the humanities track in grade 12, the highest scorers taking the science track. Geography, a part of the social studies curriculum, is usually tested in grade 11 along with biology. At the end of grade 12, students take a series of national examinations developed by the State (national) Education Commission. Two types of examinations are given: one focusing on science and mathematics, the other on the humanities. Physics and chemistry are the only science subjects included in this national examination and only on the one that focuses on science and mathematics. Geography is included as an aspect of the social sciences. These are part of the national entrance examination for university admission. The work of evaluating the results on these examinations is done by the province or municipality education commissions.

It should be obvious that students and parents must take these examinations seri- ously. Achievement will help to decide the student’s future. Teachers attach importance to them because the scores their students attain are seen as a reflection of how well they have been taught. School masters and also administrators at different levels regard the examination results as very important since they are linked directly to the reputation of the schools and their communities. The national entrance examinations can help to promote the level of science education and suggest the direction of science education during the following year. The knowledge and skills tested in the examinations will most certainly be taught and studied very carefully. One obvious problem related to the national examination is that many students believe that the purpose of learning in school is to pass the examination. To a certain extent they are encouraged to think this. Formulas, for example, are never provided when students take the examinations so they must memorize all the specific details from their science courses. It has been said that student behavior can be characterized by the following: “take notes in class, check notes after class, recite notes before the exam, and throw notes away after the exam.”

When a teacher presents a lecture, his or her focus is always on information reten- tion and analysis of theories that are contained in the textbook. Though science courses such as physics, chemistry, and biology should focus on experiments, there is a bias toward the elevation of theory over practice. This is because the university entrance examination and most other tests cover only theoretical knowledge, not practical skills. Questions about experiments will appear only on a written test paper. As a result, teachers usually focus on teaching theory and allocate only a little time for experiments. Students trained in this manner know many facts and theories about a subject and can get high scores on examinations, but their practical problem-solving skills are limited.


The Use of Homework. Science teachers usually assign a great deal of homework. In addition, parents often ask their children to complete additional advanced level exercises taken from supplementary workbooks. Teachers and parents both want students to reinforce what they have learned in the classroom. They believe that students can develop good study habits by applying themselves to this additional school-related work. However, it creates a heavy burden on the students. They must often spend 1 or 2 hours every day to finish their science course homework in addition to another hour or two to homework in other subjects. After years of training in this way, students are good at working out difficult exercises and problems. They can achieve higher scores in international examinations than American students (Stevenson & Stigler, 1992). But they lack the ability to carry out experiments by themselves. Their practical problem-solving ability is far from satisfactory. This is well-known in the circle of Chinese science educators.

Computer Use. Because of the national educational system, there are uniform educational goals, instructional objectives, and textbooks across all levels of schools in China. However, since the educational situations differ so greatly between the cities and rural areas, it is almost impossible for every school to achieve at the same level in the educational goals and instructional subjects. In an attempt to establish greater uniformity the PRC has let the best subject experts and educational technologists work together to design and produce instructional courseware in physics, chemistry, biology, and geography. However, based on the senior authors’ experiences and recent conversations with educational researchers at Huadong Normal University, Shanghai, what has been developed has not been implemented yet in elementary and secondary school instruction for several reasons.

First, there is serious financial pressure on schools. The PRC is still a developing country and therefore its resources for education are quite limited. Schools have little money to install computers. Many young children in the mountainous areas have not even seen a real computer. Even in large and medium-sized cities, many elementary and junior high schools have only a few Apple I1 computers. Though many senior high schools have computer labs, possibly one with about 25 IBM PCs and its com- patibles and another with Apple I1 computers, the ratio of students to computer is still more than 43: 1 (Pelgrum & Plomp, 1991). This compares to a 12: 1 ratio in the United States. This means that it is impossible for most students to operate a computer as part of a science course. In addition, this problem is compounded by the fact that these computers may not have the power to operate up-to-date courseware. For example, some courseware developed with the CAI software SEC 2.0 must be run on an Apple I1 with a memory of 64k, but in many schools in China, the Apple I1 computers only have a memory of 48k. The LCD panel is another example. Because of the large class size in the PRC, if a science teacher wants to display some CAI courseware in the classroom, an LCD panel should be available. But now, there are few schools that have such a device, not even the best schools of Beijing or Shanghai.

Second, there is a shortage of qualified teachers and management personnel. Before the Cultural Revolution, there were no computer science courses in teachers’ colleges. It was only in 1980 that Beijing Normal University first introduced such a

212 WANG ET AL.

course. It was much later that other universities adopted computer science courses. Therefore, few science teachers have received formal training in computer science. Generally, they do not know how to operate computers and know little about CAI and how to evaluate courseware.

Finally, there is a need for improved CAI software. Compared to that used in the United States, most of China’s ready-to-use courseware has much room for improvement. According to a study completed by Chuande and published in 1986:

Quite a number of courseware packages have a strong tendency to go the way of the language lab of the 1960s, using sterile and mechanical computerized instruction materials that are out of touch with the current needs and thinking of the professions concerned.

They do not fit the current cognitive psychology theory and pedagogical methodol- ogy. That is, China’s courseware developers need further training to gain a compre- hensive understanding of the important features of CAI.

Characteristics Related to After-School Activities

At least once a week, elementary and secondary school students take part in after- class activities. More than 90% of the students get involved in them based on their individual interests. At the end of the term, unlike in the regular science courses, students do not have to take a test or examination nor do they receive grades as an evaluation of their performance. Through these activities students obtain interesting and useful knowledge and skills. They are an important supplement to the regular science courses so they are often called “after-school activities” or “second classrooms.”

Generally speaking, there are two kinds of clubs. One gives emphasis to the academic subjects and is called a “subject-related club,” while the other pays more attention to the extension of a student’s knowledge and is called a “student-interest club.”

Subject-Related Clubs. These clubs are for those students in grade 5 and above. They include clubs for each of the science subjects and also other subjects such as, Chinese, English, and history. Each grade has a club for each of the academic subjects. It is usually the outstanding students who participate in these clubs because they are not satisfied with the level of knowledge they obtain in the classroom. The teachers supervising the clubs often teach club members more advanced knowledge on the subject concerned. The members are also required to work out some difficult problems, and teachers teach them the ways to solve these problems. Whenever there is a tournament on this subject held by a province or city, those club members will participate, representing their home school. This kind of club does a good job in training students in reasoning and logic. They also allow students to become familiar with more of the academic theory of a subject.

Here, special mention should be made about environmental protection clubs. Almost every high school has one. According to statistics collected by the Shanghai Educational Bureau, about once a week, after school, typically about 20 students will attend club activities in each school. Occasionally, there is a presentation given by invited specialists


or professionals. Sometimes students themselves conduct experiments such as a chemical analysis to identify the elements contained in water from a nearby river or well. Often they will take field-trips to factories or farms to observe how environmental protection measures can be carried out. Once or twice a year, a tournament will be sponsored by a city or province. In such tournaments, students will answer different kinds of questions about environmental pollution and protection. Sometimes they will present papers about their observations and experiments. Winners of such tournaments receive prizes and are eligible to participate in more advanced competitions.

Student-lnterest Clubs. These exist in all elementary and secondary schools. Usually, students from different grades interested in the same field will take part in the same club. In the area of biology there are botanical, zoological, hygiene, and Red Cross clubs. The students learn to plant flowers and trees, raise small animals, collect specimens, and perform simple first-aid. In the field of geography, there are related clubs such as meteorological, astronomical, and geographical clubs. Many schools have their own small meteorological station, though the equipment is quite simple. Some famous high schools even have their own astronomical observatory. In chemistry, there are clubs focusing on soil analysis and analytical chemistry. Students learn how to operate different kinds of chemical instruments that they cannot use during regular class hours. They also learn more advanced chemistry. In physics, there are clubs focusing on radio and television, photography, electricity, and model planes and ships. These clubs provide students with various opportunities to further explore an area of interest. Students not only gain knowledge and skills that they cannot learn in their classroom, but also get an idea of the type of work a professional in a certain field might do. Moreover, the problem-solving abilities and hardworking attitudes of the students are also developed or reinforced.

Schedule, Location, Membership, and Content. At the beginning of every semester, the dean’s office issues a plan for the after-school activities. The plan includes the kinds of clubs that will be run during a semester, the tournaments and exhibitions that will be held, and the school budget for the activities. Under the guidance of this plan, teachers are assigned to be the instructors of certain clubs according to their background and interests. Sometimes specialists or engineers are invited to be instructors or to give lectures or demonstrations. Usually a student can only join one club because of the availability of space and instruments since the activities of all clubs are carried out at the same time. During the first club meeting of each semester, the instructor and students will work out their plan for the semester, including the budget. After this has been done, there is little room for change in content, membership, or schedule during the re- mainder of the semester. The time and place for club activities are fixed. Most students actively and enthusiastically take part in the activities of these clubs. The development of schedule, plan, membership, and content ensures that these after-school activities will be of high quality and carried out properly and regularly.

Guarantee of the Special Fund. The funds for after-school activities mainly come from the government’s budget. Every academic year, the education commissions at each administrative level will allocate a certain portion of their budget to

214 WANG ET AL.

support after-class activities. In addition, there are often donations from research institutions, factories, colleges, and other enterprises. However, since the PRC is still a developing country, financial resources are very limited. Sometimes certain activities or clubs have to be canceled because of the lack of funds. Anyway, it is remarkable for such a developing country to make available some funds for after- school activities since they have little relation to the scores that students get in their science courses. This exemplifies the great value placed on after-school activities in the PRC.

lnstructional Stations. At municipal and provincial levels, there are organizations called “Instructional Stations for Science-Technology-Related Activities for Teenagers.” They have several functions. First, they organize and coordinate after- school clubs in the whole area. They work out the annual plan, distribute the funds to the schools according to their size and achievement, and help to solve problems con- fronting the schools. Next, they provide instruments and equipment to the schools that are of better quality than those available in the schools. Stations offer them for use by schools or students free of charge. Finally, they organize various competitions to promote after-school activities in schools. The winners of such competitions are selected to participate in more advanced competitions and are awarded a free trip to a national scenic spot during their summer vacation.

After-school activities are one of the main features of science education in China. They are of great help in developing student morals, intelligence, and abilities. Not infrequently some very talented teenagers are discovered because of such activities. These talented boys and girls often become the top students when they enter the university.

Involvement of Parents in Science Education

Parents in China get very involved in their children’s studies, especially in science. They play an important role in their progress and achievements. Parents in the PRC generally hold several beliefs about education.

Effort Is More Important than lnnate Ability. Parents are seldom satisfied with the accomplishments of their children. They always set high goals for them and ask them to reach goals such as higher scores in science courses or a higher rank in the class or their school. Parents often think that children can accomplish the purpose of study through hard work, whether their ability is high or low, and that effort is much more important than ability.

Homework Is more Important than Other Activities around the Home. When parents arrive home in the evening, the first thing they do for their children is to check if they have finished their homework. Usually, they ask their children to complete some additional exercises. Parents never ask their children to do any housework or allow them to take part in any other activities until they finish their homework. The standard of living of many families is not very high, but if there is one desk in the family, it will belong to the children. Parents will use it only when the children


have finished their lessons. Furthermore, parents pay special attention when selecting reading materials to increase the knowledge of their children. Commonly found in urban homes is a science encyclopedia published especially for children. This is a set of popular science books. With easy-to-understand words, the books introduce the scientific principles in different fields. This set of books is extensively used and much loved by Chinese families.

Guidance for Students’ Study Is Their ResponsibiIity. In most Chinese families, besides inspecting the students’ homework, parents always try their best to give some guidance in science study for their children. If they know the subject matter, they will instruct their children themselves. If not, they will try to ask someone to serve as a tutor. They do not care how much they have to spend. They never think that only the schools are responsible for their children’s education. They consider themselves educators, though their roles are different from the teachers in school.

Contact with Schools is an Important Parental Task. Parents always try their best to keep in contact with the teachers to know how their children are doing in school. If their children have been mischievous, they always support the teacher and reproach their children. Parents seldom complain about schoolwork and always tell their children to obey the teacher’s instructions.

UNDERLYING CULTURAL INFLUENCES

Some characteristics described, to a certain extent, are closely linked with the deep-rooted traditional Chinese culture. China is a country with a civilization stretch- ing back continuously some 5000 years. This civilization was built on agriculture. Its ideological framework was Confucianism. Even today, some aspects of Confucian- ism still influence most Chinese people.

Respect for Teachers

Throughout history, Chinese have shown respect for age, seniority, rank, and male- ness. Confucius embodied this attitude toward teachers since he himself was a teacher and had 3000 disciples. Such sayings as “Teachers’ dignity should be main- tained forever” and “Once my teacher, forever my parent,” common expressions based on Confucianism, are still considered truisms. Teachers have long been re- garded as authority figures second only to parents. Today, in some rural areas, parents still ask their children to kneel before their teacher when they go to school for the first time. As a “dispenser of knowledge” and as an “engineer of the soul,” common expressions based on socialism, the teacher’s role is an exalted one. As a result, the accomplishment of strict classroom discipline is easy in most schools. Students obey teachers’ demands unconditionally, and teaching activities are carried out smoothly in the classroom. The side-effect of this is that the student always thinks the teacher’s words are the truth. They seldom doubt what teachers tell them. They do not dare to discuss problems with teachers. Unfortunately, this attitude can hinder development of their creative ability.

216 WANG ET AL.

Emphasis on Hard Work and Theoretical Study

In traditional Chinese society, people were divided into four classes: scholar, farmer, laborer, and merchant. Traditionally, every parent dreamed of having a scholar in the family. In China, education was the road to fame and material success. Since the Sui Dynasty (581-617 A.D.) established a system of official selection through an examination system, one’s social status has been closely linked with his educational background. It has been generally acknowledged that if one wants to become a senior official, one has to study better. There are widespread stories in which a certain child of a poor family becomes a senior official and wins fame after years of hard work under extremely difficult conditions. Stories of this type reflect a popular belief that has been spread for thousands of years-“a gold mansion and a beautiful girl await you inside a book.” Compared to scholarly pursuits, everything else is lowly. Although now scholarly pursuits are not closely linked with an ideal job, people in general still attach great importance to knowledge obtained from books. Most students in the PRC study hard and try their best to learn as much as possible in their class. However, because of the impact of Confucianism, people often hold high the learning of theory and look down upon practical experimental skills. As a result, Chinese students’ ability in carrying out experimental work is not fully developed.

Parents’ Active Involvement

There is a proverb that has been handed down for thousands years: “Parents should be blamed if they do not properly bring up their children.” Under this influence, Chinese parents tend to be more protective of children, to provide a higher proportion of positive feedback when teaching their children, to evaluate more realistically a child’s academic and personal characteristics, to be less satisfied with a child’s accomplishments, and to press children to higher standards. They never hold that it is only the responsibility of the school to teach and train children. Confucian doctrine also holds that children are their parents’ future. Therefore, parents are willing to do whatever they can to help their children. They share the glory if their children get good marks or behave well in schools. They feel ashamed and even want to die if their children fail exams or are ordered to quit school for some type of misbehavior. Often parents will disown children who violate the law or are sent to a correctional institution.

SCIENCE TEACHERS RESPONSIBILITIES AND THEIR TRAINING

Work Load

Most science teachers start their work at around 7:30 every morning and finish it about 4:30 p.m. At noon, they have 2 hours for lunch. This kind of routine lasts 6 days a week. Science teachers seldom teach other subjects, even within the realm of science. Moreover, in urban schools, they often specialize in one or two grade levels each year. Usually each science teacher teaches 14-16 lessons per week and each lesson lasts 45 minutes. So they always repeat their lectures in different classes of the same grade. The work load of science teachers is heavier than it appears because of


the large class size. Teachers spend much time correcting students’ papers. They are also asked to prepare their lessons in detail and develop the teaching plan for every period of lessons. Moreover, most science teachers are also appointed as class coordi- nators. The class coordinator has to administer class discipline and plays the role of counselor, career adviser, class administrator, and sometimes remedial tutor. Home visits are a part of a class coordinator’s routine tasks.

Lesson Preparation

Teachers have to prepare their lesson plans very carefully before each lecture. They are required to hand in lesson plans to the dean’s office. Lesson plans are viewed as a reflection of a teacher’s professional skill and his or her work performance. As a result, most science teachers pay special attention to their lesson preparation. There are often people observing a teacher’s lecture taking notes and talking with the students. They may include a teacher’s colleagues at the same or less experienced level, the department head, the school principal, the district subject adviser or visitors from other schools. To further help the teacher, the city or district will spon- sor activities that ease the exchange of teaching experiences or explain new curriculum and textbooks.

In-Service Training

Unlike in the United States, in the PRC the focus for in-service training of science teachers is on the development of teaching skills and on understanding the curriculum content. In-service activities all concentrate on those issues instead of on the teaching and learning of more advanced knowledge in education or science. In-service training in the PRC pays little attention to the achievement or upgrading of academic degrees for science teachers. For the in-service training of new teachers, a method much like an apprenticeship is now being set up. When a newly trained teacher is employed, an experienced veteran teacher is appointed to help him or her. For nearly 1 year, the new teacher listens to every lecture given by the veteran teacher, shows the veteran teacher his or her teaching plans, and asks for help when needed. The experienced teacher listens to the new teacher’s presentations and gives him or her some advice for further improvement. By the end of the year, a meeting is held to evaluate the development and achievement of the new teacher’s teaching skill and attitude. Only after he or she obtains a favorable evaluation can the new teacher become a regular employee in the school.

Teachers’ Colleges and Courses

The science teacher’s training occurs at three different levels: 4-year universities or colleges leading to a bachelor degree for senior high school teachers; three-year colleges for junior high school teachers; and secondary level institutions leading to a certificate for primary teachers.

Science teachers in high schools will teach only one subject. Therefore, in their preparation in a 4-year teacher’s college, students must study many academic courses

218 WANG ET AL.

related to the subject they intend to teach. This accounts for about 50% of all courses taken through the 4 years. These courses are offered by a specialty-related department. Other courses a student must take in appropriate departments are general courses, about 35% of the total curriculum, and professional courses, about 15% of the curriculum. The general courses include mathematics, foreign language, political science, and short courses in Chinese language and literature. Professional courses include general psychology, pedagogy, and curriculum and teaching methods. Time allocation for different courses is shown in Table 3.

The course entitled, curriculum, and teaching methods is taught by a professor of the department concerned who has teaching experience at the high school level. This course includes experience in a variety of techniques including preparing lab materials, designing lab demonstrations, and making charts. Part of this course is a systematic analysis of secondary school textbooks. The key points and difficult parts of every chapter are analyzed in detail. This course is very helpful to students because they will later use these textbooks and syllabi. Teaching methods are also taught in this course. Students will learn teaching skills used to explain a concept or principle. They will also analyze textbooks, prepare lesson plans, correct students’ assignments, and design tests.

Teaching practice takes place in the last year of training and usually lasts 6 weeks. Each student is supervised by an experienced teacher in the school. After 1 or 2 weeks of observation, the student-teachers will teach six to eight lessons indepen- dently. Several days before they present these lessons, they are required to present a copy of their lesson plan to their supervisor and then to give a trial performance for their classmates. Their supervisor usually pays particular attention to the first one or two lessons. Sometimes he will ask a student-teacher to practice two or three times before they start teaching.

Junior high school science teachers also teach only one subject. Their preparation is similar to that described above, except that it is only three years in length and occurs at a 3-year teacher training institution.

Teachers’ Certif icates/Degrees

According to the policy stipulated by the State Education Commission, elementary science teachers should hold a normal school certificate or its equivalent. Science teachers in high schools should hold a bachelor degree or its equivalent. Ten years ago, during the Cultural Revolution, less than 30% of the science teachers reached this standard. Today, after 10 years of in-service training and employment of new college graduates more than 90% of teachers meet these standards in the large and medium-size coastal cities (State Education Commission, 1992). In contrast to the United States there are no elementary or secondary science teachers in the PRC who hold a master’s degree, let alone a doctoral degree.

CONCLUSIONS OF AN AMERICAN SCIENCE EDUCATOR

As an American science educator, viewing the current situation in science education in the People’s Republic of China, I (Mayer) note some parallels in emphasis with our own science education programs and some marked differences. I would


TABLE 3 Training Curriculum for Physics Teachers at Beijing Normal University

Courses Periods Total Percent Semester per Week Periods of Total Taken

Science courses Mechanics Mechanics Lab Thermodynamics Electricity and Magnetism Electricity and Magnetism Lab Optics Optics Lab Methods of Mathematical Physics Theoretical Mechanics Electrodynamics Radioelectronics Atomic Physics Thermodynamics and Statistical

Plasma Physics (optional) Nuclear Physics (optional) Quantum Mechanics Solid State Physics Modern Physics Lab Superconductor Physics (optional) Semiconductor Physics (optional)

Physics

Professional courses Pedagogy Psychology Physics Pedagogies Teaching Practice

General courses Differential and Integral Calculus Foreign Language (English) CPC History Differential Equations Philosophy Economics Machine Drawing (optional) Social Science

Totals

5 4 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 4

4 4 4 5 4 4 4 (12 weeks) 5 (1 2 weeks

3 3 3 6 weeks

5 4 3 5 3 3 3 3

90 72 90 90 72 72 72 72 72 72 90 72

72 72 72 90 72 72 48 48

54 54 54 21 6

180 288 108 180 108 54 54 54

2286

51.35 3.1 2 2.49 3.12 3.12 2.49 2.49 2.49 2.49 2.49 2.49 3.12 2.49

2.49 2.49 2.49 3.12 2.49 2.49 1.66 1.66

13.10 1.87 1.87 1.87 1.48

35.55 6.24 9.98 3.74 6.24 3.74 1.87 1.87 1.87

100

1 1 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 5

6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8

5 7 7 8

1 2 2,3,4,5 1 2 3,4 3,4 5 6 7

220 WANG ET AL.

hope that as Chinese science educators move toward reform, they can profit from both the successes of American science education and the knowledge of mistakes that we have made. In turn, engaged as we are in our own efforts at restructuring science education, we need to profit from the experiences of this very old culture having long traditions of education.

Lewin (1987), in an analysis of the Chinese science education programs, com- mented that:

The school science curriculum in China is characterized by subject specialization, emphasis on the physical sciences, infrequent practical activity by students, emphasis on content rather than process skills, and theoretical rather than applied ap- proaches to subject matter.

It is clear from our discussion of the system among experienced Chinese science educators contained in this article, that the situation in the PRC some 10 years after Lewin’s study is in most respects the same. There has been some innovation in science education by including more content in the biological sciences in the precollege curriculum and an examination in that subject at grade 11 levels; and the addition of a course in environmental protection at the grade 9 level in some large city schools. There is also increased interest and discussion among senior science teachers regarding the advantages of a more experiential or activity-based approach to science instruction and of the deleterious effects of a dominantly lecture approach.

I would hope that as further changes in the science curriculum are contemplated that there will be a broadening of perspective to include more emphasis on biological concepts and especially to add to the curriculum at all levels the knowledge and science processes contributed by the earth sciences. The science curriculum in the PRC is still very heavily focused on physics and chemistry with very little attempt to provide knowledge and experiences that would relate the physical and chemical concepts to the natural world-the habitat of the student. It is interesting to examine the teacher training curriculum of the physics teacher (see Table 3) for example. Over 50% of the courses in the typical 4-year curriculum are in science. Every single course is in physics. There is not even one course in biology, much less any in the earth sciences, included in the curriculum. Such a program, as in the United States, leads to a very narrow vision of the nature of science and of the importance of concepts from the various sciences among teachers and those who are most influential in the development of national curricular policies. This narrowness of the science curriculum seems to be inherited from the Soviet Union, which early in the development of the People’s Republic of China, influenced greatly the educational and the political system. One needs to look only to the immense environmental problems of the old Soviet Union to see the fruits of a science education program so narrowly focused on physics and chemistry. Including a year of environmental protection at the ninth grade level is a start, but there needs to be a substantial thread of earth science and biology throughout the science curriculum and, in the education of future teachers of science, to accomplish the important goals of science literacy for all and for the developing science talent of the nation.

The recognition by leading science teachers of the PRC of the problems of an in-


structional system heavily oriented toward lecture and rote memorization is a signifi- cant step toward improving science instruction. As in the United States there are im- pediments to such change stemming from the limitation on resources for accomplish- ing the changes recognized as important. The need for improved facilities to fit an experiential approach; the amount of resources necessary to prepare teachers to use classroom activities; and the potential resistance to change by parents, students, and teachers are all problems shared to some extent by science educators in America. China does have one advantage however. Over 50% of a teacher’s “work day” is conducted away from his or her students. This time is available for planning, consulting with other teachers, and administrators, and for further in-service training. If American teachers had this amount of time available for similar activities, I am confident we would see a vast improvement in the quality of science teaching here. Another difference in China is the respect given teachers and the support of parents for teachers and the school science program. In the United States schools and teachers seem to be under constant attack for the perceived ills of American society. If our schools and teachers could command a similar level of respect and confidence among our politicians, scientists, and citizenry, perhaps then, we would have increased resources and a teaching cadre confident of its worth, and therefore one that is more creative in its approach to providing quality science education programs and instruction.

Clearly the examination system in China has a powerful effect upon its science curriculum and instruction. Since it too emphasizes the rote learning of a vast amount of specific information in physics and chemistry, the examination system drives the nature of what is taught at the junior and senior high school levels. That, of course, has also been identified as a problem in American schools. The various nationally developed examinations offered here, at least in the recent past, have focused on fairly specific information from the sciences, rather than on broad science concepts and processes. Textbooks, and therefore curriculum, have been developed to fit these types of examinations. With the recent move here toward state and national standards and their emphasis upon authentic assessment, we have some hope and prospect that testing procedures in this country will change and therefore science teaching will change. So far, at least, there does not sqem to be an effort in the PRC to change ei- ther the type or system of examinations. Such changes will be essential if there is any hope of changing the instruction and goals of science education in the PRC.

Its been a privilege to be able to interact on a formal and informal basis with science educators from China on common problems and perceptions regarding science education in two countries so fundamentally different in culture, politics, and economic systems. I have found that often similar problems are shared. Others have only become apparent to each of us through our discussions. Hopefully these discussions have provoked us into reexamining our basic and long-held assumptions about science education and science literacy. I know I have.

REFERENCES

Butler, J. J. (1986). Earth science education in the People’s Republic of China. Journal of Geological Education, 34, 173- 179.

222 WANG ET AL.

Faminghetti, R. (1993). The world almanac and book of facts, 1994. Mahwah, NJ: Funk and Wagnalls.

Lewin, K. M. (1987). Science education in China: Transformation and change in the 1980’s. Comparative Education Review, 31,419-441.

Pelgrum, W. J., et al. (1991). The use of computers worldwide: Results from a comparative survey in 18 countries. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the American Educational Research Association.

State Education Commission (1992). Educational statistics yearbook of China (1991 -1992). Beijing: People’s Education Press.

Stevenson, H. W., & Stigler, J. W. (1992). The learning gap. New York: Summit Books. Wellington, J. (1992). Physics teaching and teacher training in China: A Western perspective.

Zhang, C. (1986). Computer-based education in China. Educational Technology, 26, 41 -43.

Accepted for publication 25 May 1995

Physics Education, 27, 130- 133.

Documents

Science education in the People's Republic of China