SIU HNH HCTOMAS ALVIRA LUIS CLAVELL TOMAS MELENDO

Nguyn tc (ting Ty Ban Nha): METAFISICA do Tomas Alvira, Luis Clavell, Tomas Melendo 1981 Bn ting Anh METAPHYSICS do Fr. Luis Supan 1991 Bn ting Vit SIU HNH HC (dch t bn ting Anh) do Fr. Ngc Bo, O.P 2008

LI NI U Trong hai thp nin gn y, mt s lng ln nhng tc phm trit hc n hnh u l nhng chuyn kho v nhng kho lun, m tt nht nn coi nh sch s k v phn loi. Km theo hin tng ny l chuyn suy gim vic n hnh v s dng nhng tc phm trit hc c tm mc tng qut hn, v d nhng sch gio khoa. iu ny c th l do nhng thay i th hiu ca c gi ng i gi y dng nh h cn c thot khi li tip cn h thng qu mc v hc thut qu cao ca nhiu sch gio khoa trit hc. Mt khc, khuynh hng mun chuyn ha v mun th c li hiu mang m tnh lch s cng nh suy t v cc vn trit hc khin chng ta l l vi mt cng tc quan trng, l cung ng cho nhng ai mun i vo lnh vc trit hc mt kin thc c bn c th c dng nh nn tng cho mt s hp th phc li nhiu nghin cu chuyn su. Quyn sch ny l mt bn gio khoa v trit hc c bn, l Siu hnh hc khoa hc v hu th, nh vn lun c hiu k t thi Permenides, Plato, Aristotle, v Thnh Thomas Aquinas cho n ngy nay. Siu hnh hc c bit c gi tr trong thi chng ta nh trit hc khai m n s siu vit ca hu th sau nhiu th k b hn ch do ch quan. Nhng nghin cu ng i v hin tng lun, hin sinh, v trit hc phn tch, thm mt ln na lm dy ln nhng vn lin quan n hu th. Mc tiu ca chng ti l trnh by cho c gi nhng nguyn tc siu hnh mt cch sng t v th t. Do , c gi c th gii quyt nhng vn trit hc nng bng m con ngi thi i chng ta phi i mt. T. ALVIRA L. CLAVELL T. MELENDO

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LI NI U DN NHP I. BN CHT SIU HNH HC 1. 2. 3. 4. Khi nim Siu hnh hc Siu hnh hc nh Khoa hc v Hu th xt nh Hu th Siu hnh hc v Tri thc Nhn loi Siu hnh hc Lin quan th no n c tin v Thn hc II. HU TH KHI IM CA SIU HNH HC 1. 2. 3. 4. Khi nim Hu th Yu tnh Cch thc Hin hu ca S vt Vic Hin hu (Esse) Vic Hin hu xt nh Hin th Mnh lit nht

5. ngha ca Esse nh ng t ni trong mt cu 6. Cc c tnh ca khi nim hu th III. NGUYN L BT-MU THUN 1. 2. 3. 4. Nguyn l u tin v Hu th Nhng ng li Din t Nguyn l Bt- Mu thun Tri thc Qui np v Nguyn l u tin S Hin nhin ca Nguyn l ny v li Bo v n nh lun chng i Nhn 5. Vai tr ca Nguyn l u tin trong Siu hnh hc 6. Nhng Nguyn l S yu khc t c s trn Nguyn l Bt-Mu thun PHN I: CU TRC SIU HNH CA HU TH I. BN TH V PH TH 1. 2. 3. 4. Bn cht Bn th v cc Ph th Vic Hin hu thuc v Bn th Phc hp Bn th v Ph th Tri thc ca ta v Bn th v Ph th II. CC PHM TR 1. 2. 3. 4. Khi nim v cc Phm tr Phn loi chn ging ti cao Phm cht Tng quan III. CU TRC HIN TH TIM NNG CA HU TH 1. 2. 3. 4. Khi nim v Hin th v Tim nng Nhng loi Hin th v Tim nng Tnh u tin ca Hin th Tng quan gia Hin th v Tim nng xt nh nhng nguyn l cu to ca Hu th 5. Vin tng Siu hnh hc v Hin th v Tim nng

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6. Phm vi siu hnh ca hin th v tim nng IV. YU TNH CA MT HU TH 1. Yu tnh: cch thc hin hu ca mt bn th 2. Yu tnh ca nhng hu th vt cht 3. Yu tnh ca nhng bn th thing ling V. NGUYN L C VT HA 1. Yu tnh ca nhng hu th ch tn ti ni mi c th 2. Vic tng bi yu tnh ni nhng c vt 3. Vic n l ha yu tnh 4. Vic c vt ha cc ph th v cc bn th thing ling VI. ESSE: HIN TH TI HU CA MT BN TH 1. 2. 3. 4. Vic Hin hu l nn tng ti hu ca mi thc ti ESSE v Yu tnh phn bit nhau thc s Phc hp Yu tnh Hin hu l cu trc c bn ca nhng vt th to ESSE, xt nh Hin th, l trng tm ca Siu hnh hc Thomas VII. CH TH HIN HU C LP 1. 2. 3. 4. Khi nim v Ch th Hin hu c lp Phn bit gia Bn cht v Suppositum Vic Hin hu thuc v Suppositum Ngi v PHN II. CC SIU NGHIM I. NHNG KHA CNH SIU NGHIM CA HU TH 1. 2. 3. 4. Khi nim Siu nghim v cc Phm tr Nhng kha cnh Siu nghim ca Hu th Hu th: nn tng ca nhng c im Siu nghim Hu th v nhng c im ca n u mang tnh loi suy II. TNH N NHT CA HU TH 1. 2. 3. 4. Tnh n nht Siu nghim Nhng th loi v nhng cp ca tnh n nht Tnh a bi Nhng khi nim ny sinh t tnh n nht, v nhng khi nim i lp vi tnh n nht 5. Aliquid (another or something) III. CHN L 1. Hu th v Chn l 2. Chn l l c im siu nghim ca Hu th 3. Chn l ni tr nng con ngi IV. THIN HO 1. Bn cht ca Thin ho 2. Thin ho v Hon b 3. Thin ho v Gi tr V. CI P 1. Bn cht Ci p 2. V p v Hon b 3. Nhng cp ca V p

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4. Con ngi Tri gic V p PHN III. CN NGUYN TNH I. NHN THC V TNH NHN QU CH THC 1. Kinh nghim v tnh Nhn qu 2. Nguyn l Nhn qu II. BN CHT CA CN NGUYN TNH V CC LOI CN NGUYN 1. Bn cht ca Cn nguyn tnh 2. Cn nguyn, Nguyn l, iu kin v C hi 3. Nhng loi Cn nguyn tnh III. CN NGUYN CHT LIU V CN NGUYN HNH TH 1. Bn cht Cn nguyn Cht liu 2. Cn nguyn Hnh th 3. Tng quan gia Cn nguyn Cht liu v Cn nguyn Hnh th IV. NHNG CN NGUYN TC THNH 1. Bn cht Cn nguyn Tc thnh 2. Nhng loi Cn nguyn Tc thnh V. HOT NG XT NH HIN TH CA CN NGUYN TNH TC THNH 1. Bn cht ca Hot ng 2. Nn tng ca Hot ng 3. Nhng nng lc tc ng xt nh nhng nguyn l gn cho hot ng VI. CN NGUYN CU CNH 1. 2. 3. 4. Bn cht Cn nguyn Cu cnh Nhng loi Cn nguyn Cu cnh Nguyn l v Cu cnh tnh Mc ch l Cn nguyn cho nhng cn nguyn khc VII. Cn nguyn tnh ni Thin Cha v Cn nguyn tnh ni Th to 1. Nhng gii hn ni Cn nguyn tnh Th to 2. Nhng c trng ca Cn nguyn tnh ni Cn nguyn nht 3. Tng quan gia Cn nguyn nht v nhng Cn nguyn nh

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DN NHP: I. BN CHT SIU HNH HCCon ngi lun ngc nhin v ngun gc v tr. Con ngi lm vic lin tc, i tm mt s gii thch v v tr mt th gii thch gi c l ti hu v ph qut, hoc bao trm tt c. Qua dng lch s, khai sinh nhiu trng phi. Mt s trng phi coi nn tng c bn ca thc ti chnh l mt yu t c th gn lin vi thc ti , v d vt cht, tinh thn, t tng hay chuyn ng, v nh vy cng c ngha rng mi s trong v tr u ny sinh t yu t . S khc li tha nhn s hin hu ca mt Nguyn L siu vit, vn lm nn v tr m khng phi l thnh phn ca v tr. Mt s nh t tng li cp n s hin din ca mt ngun gc v tr, ang khi nhng ngi khc li cho rng v tr n t hai hoc nhiu ngun. Nhng vn trn khng thun ty l suy l; tri li, chng nh hng rt nhiu ln i sng con ngi. V ng nhin c s khc bit gia mt bn l ngi tin rng mi s k c chnh anh ta pht sinh t vt cht l v quay v vi vt cht v bn kia l ngi tin rng mnh c Thin Cha to dng, Ngi a anh ta t h v sang hin hu. Khi u, vic nghin cu nhng vn trn to nn mt b tri thc gi l trit l, minh trit, hoc khoa hc. Sau ny, trnh ln ln vi nhiu khoa hc c th khc, khoa hc ni trn c gi l Siu hnh hc. 1. KHI NIM SIU HNH HC Ta c th nh ngha Siu hnh hc l vic nghin cu cn nguyn ti hu, nhng nguyn l u tin v ph qut nht ca thc ti. a. Cn nguyn ti hu khc bit vi nhng cn nguyn gn. V d, vic tng p sut khng kh l cn nguyn cho vic thay i kh hu; qu tim l c quan khin cho mu lu thng. Vic nghin cu nhng cn nguyn ni trn thuc v nhng khoa hc c th. Tri li, nhng cn nguyn ti hu c nh hng trn mt khung cnh, v d nh mt nh lnh o chnh tr nh hng ln ton th t nc ca ng, hay c mun ca mt con ngi i tm hnh phc i vi ton th hot ng nhn linh ca anh ta. Khoa Siu hnh hc xt n cn nguyn ti hu tuyt i ca v tr. N c gng tm ra cn nguyn , nghin cu v bn cht v hot ng ca cn nguyn ni trn, v v Thin Cha l cn nguyn ti hu ca mi s, nn hin nhin Ngi cng l ch chnh yu ca Siu hnh hc. b. Siu hnh hc cng nghin cu nhng nguyn l u tin v ph qut nht ca thc ti. Bn cnh nhng cn nguyn nh hng ln nhng hiu qu ca chng bn ngoi, cn c nhng yu t ni ti ni chnh cc hiu qu, kin to nn chng v nh hng n cch thc hin hu v hot ng ca chng. Cc yu t thng c gi l cc nguyn l; chng hn, nhng nguyn t l cc nguyn l nht nh cho phn t, xc nh bn cht v nhng c im ca cc phn t; ni cc sinh th, cc t bo hot ng nh nhng nguyn l cho c th. Nhng Siu hnh hc i tm nhng nguyn l u tin v ph qut nht, tc l nhng nguyn l m v c bn to nn mi s. Bt c ai xt mt iu g nh nguyn l ni ti u tin ca mi s, ngi cp n lnh vc siu hnh. 2. SIU HNH HC NH KHOA HC V HU TH XT NH HU TH Mi khoa hc u c i tng nghin cu ring vn l mt kha cnh ca thc ti m n lu n. Chng hn, sinh vt hc nghin cu th gii cc sinh th, ton hc nghin cu nhng kha cnh lng tnh ca s vt. Ta cn phn bit i tng cht liu (material object) vi i tng hnh th (formal object) ca mt khoa hc; iu trc c coi l ch ca mt khoa hc v n l tng s nhng g c nghin cu, ang khi iu sau l kha cnh ca i tng cht liu m khoa hc ch n. Chng hn i tng cht liu ca sinh hc l tt c mi sinh th, nhng i tng hnh th ca n li gii hn i tng nghin cu, v khoa hc ny ch din tin vic nghin cu t khi im l s sng. Tng t th, i tng cht liu ca y hc l c th con ngi, nhng i tng hnh th ca n l c th con ngi trong mc l ch th ca sc khe hoc bnh tt. Siu hnh hc nghin cu hu th xt nh hu th, nhng c im v cn nguyn ca hu th

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Cc khoa hc c th c i tng nghin cu l mt s kha cnh chuyn bit ca thc ti. Tuy nhin, cn c mt khoa hc no khc nghin cu ton b thc ti bng cch ch trng n kha cnh chung nht ca mi s: l, mi s u hin hu, n l thc. Kha cnh chung c gi thit bi bt c loi tri gic c th no. Chng hn khi mt nh thc vt hc nghin cu v xp loi cc loi, ng ta bit rng c nhng cy, bit rng chng l nhng hu th; khi nim hu th hin n trc bt c khi nim v mt loi thc vt no. Ta cn gii thch vic nh sau: i) Hu th: y l mt thut ng siu hnh tng ng vi iu c gi l s vt (thing) trong ngn ng thng thng. Hu th m ch th g c, hay mt iu g c vic hin hu (hin th hin hu = act of being). Mt cy l mt hu th, ging nh mt con chim, mt ngi, mt vin kim cng u l hu th; nhng ang khi t ng con chim ni n mt bn cht c th hay mt cch thc hin hu, th hu th li din t s kin l c con chim (Ens, L.t Being). ii) Xt nh hu th: trong cun gii thch sch Siu hnh hc ca Aristotle, Thnh Thomas Aquinas ni: Nhng khoa hc khc, vn lin h n nhng hu th c th, cng xt n hu th (v mi i tng nghin cu ca cc khoa hc cng u l hu th); tuy nhin, chng khng nghin cu hu th xt nh hu th, m ch nh mt loi hu th c th no , v d, con s hay hng k, ngn la hay th g tng t1. V th, c th ni rng i tng cht liu (i tng chung) ca Siu hnh hc l thc ti trong ton tnh ca n, v mi s vt, bt k bn tnh ra sao u l hu th. Mt khc, i tng hnh th (i tng ring) ca n l hu th xt nh hu th (being as being) hoc hu th xt nguyn n l th (being as such). Ni rng i tng cht liu ca Siu hnh hc bao gm tt c thc ti, khng c ngha rng Siu hnh hc l tng s cc khoa hc c th khc bit nhau. cng khng phi l s tng hp mi khoa hc c th (nh ch trng ca mt s trit gia phi thc chng lun) (positivist philosophers). Siu hnh hc l mt khoa hc ring bit, v n nghin cu mt kha cnh c th ca thc ti ph hp vi Siu hnh hc, ng thi cng c cc khoa hc khc gi thit l s hin hu ca cc s vt. iii) c im v cn nguyn ca hu th: Khi chn i tng nghin cu, mi khoa hc phi nghin cu nhng c tnh ca i tng v tt c nhng g lin quan ti i tng bt c cch no. ang khi mn vt l nghin cu kt qu ca nhng c im vt l ni vt th, chng hn nh khi lng hoc nng lng ca chng, th Siu hnh hc nghin cu nhng c im ca hu th theo mc chng l nhng hu th. Vy cng vic ca Siu hnh hc cng cn l khm ph nhng kha cnh ca hu th xt nguyn n l th (being as such) (v d, chn l), cng nh nhng kha cnh khng thuc v hu th xt nh hu th (chng hn vt cht hay bn cht vt th). Hn na, bt c khoa hc no cng u nghin cu mt loi cc s vt ring bit v nhng cn nguyn ring ca chng, v tri thc khng th hon b tr phi nm bt c nhng cn nguyn. Do Siu hnh hc phi nghin cu cn nguyn ca mi hu th trong mc chng l hu th: iu ny l mt trong nhng phm vi chnh ca Siu hnh hc khi nghin cu i tng ring ca mnh. Cng nh y khoa nghin cu nhng cn nguyn v sc khe th l (v d vic dinh dng, kh hu, v sinh), th Siu hnh hc dn chng ta n cn nguyn vic hin hu ni mi s vt tc l Thng , xt nh ng To Ha. Mt khi tin b trong vic hiu bit nhng vn siu hnh khc nhau, chng ta s cng thy r l nhng c im c bn nht ca th gii thc t l thuc vo chn l nn tng ny l mi vt u hin hu: rng chng l nhng hu th. Vic hin hu l c im nn tng nht ca mi s vt, v mi hon b hay c tnh ca chng, trc khi l mt iu g, th trc ht phi hin hu . y l iu kin s yu m mi vt u phi l thuc vo. V Siu hnh hc l khoa hc i tm yu t cn bn nht ca thc ti, nn nht thit n phi nhm n vic hin hu nh i tng nghin cu nn tng ca mnh. Mt vi trng phi t tng trit hc chn nhng kha cnh khc ca thc ti nh i tng ca Siu hnh hc. Chng hn, thuyt duy sinh (vitalism) coi s sng l i tng; thuyt hin sinh (existentialism) li coi l cuc hin sinh ca con ngi; thuyt duy tm (idealism) coi l t tng con ngi; thuyt duy s (historicism) li coi l tin b ca lch s. Kant ch trng cc iu kin ca tri thc khoa hc nh i tng trit hc ca ng (criticism). Tuy nhin, tt c nhng trit gia ny khng bao gi trnh khi c vic nghin cu v hu th; iu h lm l gii hn hu th vo mt i tng c th v hn ch no . Ngun gc lch s ca khoa hc v hu th K t thi cc trit gia u tin, khoa hc v hu th c hiu nh mt tri thc ph qut c mc tiu l khm ph nhng yu t s yu (primary elements) ca thc ti. Tuy nhin, yu t ny lun c ng ha vi mt yu t vt cht no (nh la, kh hoc nc), cho n khi Parmenides ln u tin

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ni n hu th nh kha cnh nn tng ca thc ti. ng ni: hu th th hin hu v v th th khng hin hu, l cch thc thuyt phc (v n i theo Chn L) (Fr. II. V.3). Tuy khng hon ton coi thng hc thuyt ca Parmenides, cc trit gia v sau li ch n nhng kha cnh trit l khc. Tuy nhin, khi Aristotle vo cuc, th hu th u tin tr thnh i tng ca khoa Siu hnh hc. Nhng danh hiu gn cho khoa Siu hnh hc Siu hnh hc c gn nhiu danh xng, ty theo nhng kha cnh m ngi ta mun nhn mnh. Aristotle gi l nht Trit hc, v n nghin cu nhng cn nguyn v nguyn l u tin ca thc ti. Danh xng ny din t xc ng a v trung tm ca Siu hnh hc trong trit hc, v n cng khin cho Siu hnh hc khc bit vi nhng ngnh tri thc khc m Aristotle gi l nh Trit hc. Siu hnh hc l nht khng phi v n c sm v mt bin nin. N l nht bi v c tnh u tin ng nhin trong trit hc xt nh ton khi, v trong tng quan vi nhng khoa hc khc. Danh xng bn ngn ng Ty phng Metaphysics (m c ch c ngha l vt qu Vt l (Physics) c Andronicus ngi x Rhodes ghp vo ni n nhng tc phm ca Aristotle v nht Trit hc, v n c xp sau cun sch ca Aristotle v vt l. Danh xng din t ng mc bn cht ca khoa hc ny, v n vt qua khung cnh thc ti vt cht c nghin cu trong khoa vt l. Sang th k XVII, Christian Wolff gi mn hc ny l Ontology (Hu th lun), mt thut ng pht nguyn t ting Hy lp c ngha l vic nghin cu v hu th. Cc trit gia duy l a dng thut ng Hu th lun thay v Siu hnh hc. Du sao, Hu th lun cng din t cng mt i tng ca Siu hnh hc. 3. SIU HNH HC V TRI THC NHN LOI Siu hnh hc v tri thc t pht Mi ngi u c mt tri thc tng qut v thc ti, th c nh nh sng l tr t nhin. H bit mnh mun ni g khi cp n hu th, chn l, hay thin ho. H c mt tri thc no v bn cht con ngi, v v khc bit gia nhng thc ti bn th v ph th. Hn th na, mi ngi cn c th nhn bit Thng l nht Cn nguyn ca v tr, ng gn gi v hng dn vn s i n cng ch. Chng ta gi loi tri thc ny l tri thc t pht, cng lin quan ti nhng ti c nghin cu bi Siu hnh hc. iu ny khng c g phi ngc nhin, v con ngi t nhin c khuynh hng tm hiu v v tr, v vai tr ca mnh trong v tr, ngun gc v tr vv Do , ta cng d hiu ti sao loi tri thc ny c gi l Siu hnh hc t pht hoc Siu hnh hc t nhin ca tr tu con ngi2. Tuy nhin, iu ny khng xa b nhu cu v mt khoa Siu hnh hc c khai trin thnh mt khoa hc, bi nhiu l do: v tri thc t pht th thng khng hon b v thiu chnh xc; v c l n khng chc chn v sng t trong mt s kha cnh; sau cng, v n chu nh hng bi cc thc h u thng trong mt s khung cnh vn ha, hoc c nhiu ngi chp nhn. Ngoi ra, cn ghi nhn rng nhng xc tn lun l ca mi con ngi u c nh hng quyt nh n tri thc ca ngi v cc vn Siu hnh hc. Kinh nghim cho thy rng, mt khi nhng c nhn mt i s chn chn v mt lun l, th h cng mt lun nhng xc tn tr thc nn tng, do ri vo thi hoi nghi trc chn l. Chng hn, h b dn n thuyt v tri lin quan n tri thc m ngi ta c v Thng , v b dn n thuyt tng i lin quan n nhng i hi ca lut lun l. Rt cuc, con ngi t tn mnh nh trung tm ca ton th v tr. y chnh l l do tim n ng sau mt s h thng trit hc i nghch trit vi chn l, chng hn thuyt Mc xt, thuyt v tri, v thuyt duy tm: nhng thuyt trn u l nhng c cu l thuyt xy dng trn mt s thi c bn sai lc i vi cuc sng con ngi. V l mt khoa hc, Siu hnh hc phn no chu nh hng bi i sng lun l ca cc trit gia trong cuc. nh hng ny cng r rng trong nhng im chnh m cc vn k thut chuyn mn hn ty thuc vo. Vai tr dn dt ca Siu hnh hc i vi cc khoa hc khc V Siu hnh hc bn n nhng vn ht sc nn tng ca tri thc nhn loi, v v i tng nghin cu ca n bao trm ln ton th thc ti, nn ng nhin cc khoa hc c th, mt cch no , u ty thuc vo Siu hnh hc. i tng nghin cu ca mi khoa hc c th l mt loi hu th c th. Chnh v th m nhng nguyn l siu hnh, nhng c im ca hu th, v mt s khi nim nn tng khc v thc ti cng c phn nh cch no trong khu vc nghin cu chuyn bit ca mt khoa hc c th. Nhng nguyn l c cc khoa hc c th tip nhn v, d khng hin nhin c

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chng khm ph, vn c cc khoa hc s dng khi cn thit. V d, khi cc nh vt l tin hnh th nghim v nng lc ca vt th trong hot ng l ha ca chng, h s dng n nguyn l nhn qu, vi tt c nhng hm ca nguyn l . Trong n lc tm hiu thu o i tng nghin cu ca mnh, cc nh khoa hc thc nghim thng quay v vi cc vn trit hc. Do ta khng ngc nhin khi thy mt s nh vt l ng i, nh Heisenberg, Einstein, Planck, De Broglie, Bohr, v Schrodinger, cng vit nhng thin kho lun v cc ti Siu hnh hc. Toan tnh ca nhng khoa hc c th mun t s c lp tuyt i khi bt c tri thc siu hnh no (y l hu qu ca thuyt thc chng) s khng bao gi t c hon ton. Nh vy c th thy rng Siu hnh hc gi mt vai tr dn dt so vi cc khoa hc c th khc, v n l nh im ca tri thc nhn loi trong lnh vc t nhin. Vai tr ny c gi ng n l minh trit (sapiential), v khn ngoan (wisdom) c vai tr ring l iu khin tri thc v hot ng ca con ngi nh vo nhng nguyn l u tin v mc ch ti hu ca con ngi. 4. SIU HNH HC LIN QUAN TH NO N C TIN V THN HC Vt ra ngoi v bn trn tri thc t pht cng nh tri thc khoa hc, cn c mt th tri thc thuc lnh vc siu nhin. Tri thc ny pht sinh t Mc Khi ca Thin Cha. y l loi tri thc cao siu, v n hon b ha mi tri thc ca nhn loi, hng dn tri thc nhn loi n mc tiu siu nhin ca con ngi. c tin h tr Trit hc Mt s chn l siu hnh, cho d c th c con ngi nhn bit cch t nhin, vn c Thin Cha mc khi. Bn cnh vic by t nhng mu nhim siu nhin cho con ngi, mc khi ca Thin Cha cng cn cho con ngi nhn bit c nhng chn l ch lc ti hu v v tr, v con ngi, v v chnh Thin Cha nhng chn l kin to nn i tng nghin cu ca Siu hnh hc. V mc ti nguyn t, con ngi tht kh m bit c nhng chn l trn l ht sc cn thit cho i sng lun l vi mt s chc chn tuyt i, khng cht sai lm. V th, Thin Cha mc khi cho con ngi nhng chn l nh : to dng mi s t h v (ex nihilo), Thin Cha quan phng, tnh thing ling v bt t ca linh hn con ngi, s hin hu v bn cht ca mt Thin Cha chn tht, lut lun l v mc ch vnh cu ca con ngi, v thm ch c danh xng ring bit ca Thin Cha nh ng Hng Hu (God as the Subsisting Act of Being: I am who am). Vi s tr gip ca Mc Khi, Siu hnh hc c c c nhy vt ngoi thng, c nht v nh trong lch s t tng loi ngi. Cc Kit hu thi u thng ngc nhin trc s kin ny l ngay mt a tr hc hi v nhng chn l c tin cch s si cng c c nhng cu tr li su sc v xc ng trc nhng vn ln thch tm tr con ngi, cn hn c nhng trit gia Hy lp. Nhng tm ti ca tr tu lin quan n ci xu, au kh ca con ngi, s cht, t do, ngha cuc sng, v s thin ho ca th gii, c c nhng cu tr li y v trit nh c tin Kit gio. Nh nhng cng trnh ca cc Gio ph v Tin s Gio hi, c tin b khng ch trong Thn hc Kit gio, nhng cn trong li hiu trit hc v nhng chn l t nhin c mc khi. S khai trin ny v sau c gi l Trit hc Kit gio: gi l Kit gio khng phi nh vo ni dung ni ti ca n cng nh cch thc chng minh hp l vn nm n trong phm vi t nhin, nhng ng hn l v n c khai trin di s khi hng v dn dt ca c tin Kit gio3. S kin cc chn l t nhin m Siu hnh hc nghin cu, c mc khi, khng h khin cho Siu hnh hc l d tha trong t cch mt khoa hc. Tri li, iu cng thi thc Siu hnh hc nhn bit su sc hn cc chn l , v Thin Cha mc khi cc chn l ct cho con ngi khm ph chng su xa hn na nh tr tu con ngi, v nhn c s bi dng tr thc nh cc chn l . Trit hc phc v c tin Nh L tr phc v c tin, th Siu hnh hc cng c dng nh mt cng c khoa hc ca Thn hc. Mt khi Siu hnh hc c hon b ha nh s hng dn bi c tin, th n li tr thnh mt cng c c gi tr c th hiu tt hn na nhng mu nhim siu nhin kin to nn ni dung ca khoa Thn hc. a) Tri thc thuc lnh vc siu nhin gi thit tri thc thuc lnh vc t nhin. L do l v n sng khng thay th t nhin, nhng nng cao t nhin. Chng hn chnh vic nghin cu n sng v nhng

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nhn c ph bm, i ta phi bit rng linh hn con ngi l thing ling, t yu tnh l t do v hng v Thin Cha, ng l cng ch ca con ngi. Trong Kit hc, khi ni rng c Gisu Kit l ngi tht, th cng i ta phi hiu cho ng th no l bn cht con ngi. Nu hiu ti li v mt thn hc, ta cn phi bit n nhng nng lc ca con ngi, c bit l ch v nhng am m, v phi c mt tri thc ng mc v bn cht iu thin ho v ci xu. Sau cng, i vi vic nghin cu Cha Ba Ngi v mu nhim Nhp Th, tri thc ca ta v khi nim bn tnh v ngi v l iu kin cn thit. (Ni Thin Cha, c ba ngi v Thin Cha vi mt bn tnh Thin Cha; c Gisu Kit l mt Ngi V Ngi V Thin Cha trong hai bn tnh, bn tnh Thin Cha v bn tnh nhn loi). Hn na, tht kh m c c mt tri thc ng mc v nhng chn l c Thin Cha mc khi, nu nh trc khng c mt tri thc t nhin su sc. b) Mt khi coi nh tri thc siu hnh, Thn hc s khng t n tm mc mt khoa hc, v ri vo sai lm cng nh hm h. Mt tri thc ch c coi l c tnh khoa hc khi ni dung ca n c din t mt cch c trt t, cn c v chnh xc, iu to nn mt ton khi gn b. V phi s dng n tri thc t nhin v thc ti, nn Thn hc tr nn mt khoa hc mt khi tri thc tin vn c phong ph ha bi mt khoa hc dng c, m trong trng hp ny, chnh l Siu hnh hc. Siu hnh hc em li mt s chnh xc cn thit hiu c ngha nhng thut ng n t tri thc t pht. Hn na, nhng li gii thch sai lm v tn iu trong dng lch s buc Thn hc phi i tm s chnh xc v thut ng v khi nim t quan im Siu hnh hc. Do , khng th no b qua nhng g c c nh n lc trn, m li khng gp nguy c ri vo cng nhng sai lm trc . V d, nhng thut ng nh bin i bn th (transubstantiation), ngi hip (hypostatic union), v cht liu v hnh th ca b tch (matter and form of the sacraments), th khng th c thay th d dng, v chng din t r rng ngha xc thc ca c tin, nh m c th trnh c nhng sai lm v mt c tin. Ngoi ra, Siu hnh hc l cn thit hiu c nhng li din t tn iu c hun quyn Gio hi ngh. Thnh Gio hong Pi X, trong thng ip Doctoris Angelici (ngy 29 thng 6 nm 1914) ni: Nu nhng nguyn l (khoa Siu hnh hc ca thnh Thomas Aquinas) m b loi b hay b mo m, th nht thit dn n hu qu l nhng ai nghin cu cc thnh khoa s kh nm bt c ngha nhng ngn t c hun quyn Gio hi s dng din t nhng tn iu c Thin Cha mc khi. Do , chng ti c mong rng mi gio s trit hc v thn hc nn cnh gic rng nu khng i theo bc ng ca thnh Thomas, nht l trong nhng vn siu hnh, t s gy ra nhng thit hi nng n. Sau cng, chng ta cng phi ghi nh rng nhng kinh Tin Knh s dng rt nhiu thut ng chnh xc, nhng thut ng ch c th hiu c tt hn nh s tr gip ca tri thc Siu hnh hc xt nh dng cu4.

SCH C THM PLATO, Republic, V. 474b ff; VII, 514a ff. ARISTOTLE, Metaphysica, I, ch. 1-2; II, 1; VI, 1; XI, 3. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, In Metaph., Prooem; I, lect. 2; II, 2; III, 4-6; IV, 1,4 and 5; VI, 1; XI, 1, 3 and 7; In Boeth. De Trinitate, lect. 2, q.1. L. DE RAEYMAEKER, Filosofia del ser, Gredos, Madrid 1968.

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CHNG II: HU TH - KHI IM CA SIU HNH HCTrc khi cp n nhng ch khc, chng ta cn c mt ci nhn khi qut s khi v mt s khi nim siu hnh nn tng, nh hu th, vic hin hu, yu tnh, tn ti. V hu th l i tng ca Siu hnh hc, cho nn mi vn cn phi c gii quyt cn c vo ngha hu th. Do tin vn ta phi am tng v ngha hu th. 1. KHI NIM HU TH Hu th l ci hin hu (Being is that which is = Ens est id quod est). Khng th nh ngha hu th theo ngha cht c, v mt nh ngha cn n nhng khi nim bao qut hn. V d, mt chic xe hi c th c nh ngha l mt c xe c gn mt dng chuyn ch. Nhng nh ngha hu th, ngi ta cn n mt khi nim tng qut hn bao gm c hu th. Tuy nhin, khng th c c khi nim no theo kiu , v hu th bao trm mi thc ti. Do ta ch c th gii thch hu th l ci hin hu, ci tn ti, hoc ci c thc (that which is real). Chng hn mt con ngi, mt con chim, mt chic my bay, tt c u l hu th. Ni cht ch, thut ng hu th khng c cng ngha vi thut ng s vt (thing). (Being pht sinh t ng t to be (esse). Khi nim hu th khng phi l mt khi nim n thun; n hm vic kt hp gia mt ch th (a subject = id quod) v mt hin th (an act = est). C hai yu t can d vo khi nim ny: mt vt no vn hin hu, v chnh vic hin hu ca s vt . Vt no nm vai tr mt ch th, c ngha l mt thc ti c th m s hin hu (esse) thuc v (ging nh ch th ca vic ci l con ngi ang ci). Tuy nhin, hai yu t trn li to nn ch mt n v: mt yu t (ens) bao hm s hin din ca mt yu t khc. Khi chng ta ni n hu th, mc nhin chng ta ni n hin hu ca n, mc d chng ta khng a ra li phn on n c hoc mt iu g c. Cng vy, khi chng ta nghe thy nguyn ng t c chng ta cng bao hm ch th ca n, hoc chng ta khm ph ra s vng mt ca ch th hnh vi . C th tm tt nh sau: 1) Hu th (ens) ch yu ni v s vt hin hu: hu th m ch s vt trong mc n ang c vic hin hu (hin th hin hu = act of being = esse). 2) Tip n, hu th cng c ngha l s hin hu (esse) ca s vt , v mt s vt ch c th hin hu nu nh n chim hu vic hin hu. 3) Do , hu th lin quan ti mt vt no vn hin hu trong thc t. Cn phn bit hu th thc t (real being) vi hu th thuc tr (being of reason), v hu th thuc tr l hu th trong mc n l mt th g ch tn ti ni tr tu con ngi, chng hn nh nhng tnh cch gi tng trong mt cun tiu thuyt, hay nhng c im tng tng do tr v (fantasies) ca ngi ta to nn. D nhin, nhng khi nim c mt tnh thc hu nht nh, h ti chuyn chng c suy tng bi quan nng tr tu ca chng ta. Chng thun ty l nhng khi nim hoc nhng thc ti tm tr khng h c s tn ti no bn ngoi tr tu con ngi. Khi chng ta ni rng mt iu g l thc, chng ta mun phn bit n khi mt hu th thuc tr; do , mt con ngi c thc th khng phi l sn phm ca tr v, nhng l mt ai tn ti bng xng bng tht. 2. YU TNH CCH THC HIN HU CA S VT Mi s vt th hin hu, v ng thi, chng cng l mt iu g (something). Mi s vt th khc vi nhng s vt khc do bn cht ca n, bn cht t n vo mt loi nht nh (nh loi = specifies). Khi c hi mt s vt l g, chng ta thng tr li rng n l mt cun sch, mt ci bn, mt con ch hay mt th g . Nhng danh t din t s vt l g (what), c ngha l yu tnh ca s vt: n cho ta bit v nhng s vt, bt k nhng phm tnh ph th kh bin c th no. V d, mt con th khng ch thun ty l mt tp hp nhng phm tnh khc bit; ng hn, n c mt s thng nht ni ti,

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hoc mt kiu ht nhn m t xut pht nhng phm tnh ni trn. Ht nhn ny c tr tu ta nm bt, ri n lt tr tu li din t iu qua nh ngha hn t con . Do , yu tnh c th c nh ngha nh iu khin cho mt vt l chnh n (Therefore, essence can be defined as that which makes a thing to be what it is). Mi s vt u c vic hin hu, nh chng ta gi cc s vt l nhng hu th (beings = entia). Tuy nhin, r rng l mi s vt u c yu tnh ring ca n, nh n c mt danh xng khc vi danh xng ca mi s vt khc. Nh yu tnh m mt ngi l con ngi, nc l nc, ch khng phi l bt c th g hin din trong th gii vt cht. Do hai nguyn l cu to u hin din ni mi thc ti trong v tr l: chnh vic hin hu (esse) v cch thc hin hu (essentia trong ting Latinh). Chng l hai thnh t khn thit v bt kh phn ly ca mi hu th tn ti trong v tr. 3. VIC HIN HU (ESSE) Gi y chng ta xem xt yu t chnh ca hu th, l hin th ca n: hin hu (to be = esse). ngha ca hin hu th qu r rng vi mi ngi, khng cn n mt trc gic c bit no c. Chng ta hy xem xt mt s kha cnh ca esse xt nh mt hin th (esse is an act) a) Tin vn esse l mt hin th, tc l mt hon b ca mi thc ti (esse is an act, that is, a perfection of all reality). Thut ng hin th c dng trong Siu hnh hc m ch bt c hon b hoc mt c im no ca mt s vt. Do , n khng thun ty c s dng ni v nhng hot ng (vic nhn hoc bc i chng hn)1. Theo ngha ny, mt hoa hng trng l mt bng hoa c mu trng nh mt hin th em li cho hoa hng mt s hon b loi bit. Cng vy, hin hu p dng cho nhng s vt, cng ni ln mt hon b c thc, nh hon b s sng ni cc sinh vt. Tuy nhin, trong trng hp esse, chng ta cp n mt hon b c bit. b) Esse l mt hin th ph qut (Esse is a universal act), c ngha l n thuc v mi s vt. Esse khng tuyt i thuc v mt loi thc ti c th no, v nu khng c esse, th cng chng c s vt no c. Khi chng ta ni v bt c iu g, trc ht chng ta bit rng n hin hu: con chim hin hu, vng hin hu, m my hin hu. c) Esse cng l mt hin th ton din: n bao trm mi tnh cht s vt (Esse is also a total act: it encompasses all that a thing is). ang khi nhng hin th khc ch lin h n mt phn hoc mt vi kha cnh ca hu th, th esse l mt hon b bao gm tt c nhng g m mt s vt c c. Chng hn, hin th c sch th khng din t ton b hon b ca ngi ang c sch, nhng esse l hin th ca mi mt v ca mi thnh phn ca mt s vt. Nu mt cy hin hu, c ngha l ton th cy hin hu vi mi kha cnh v mi thnh phn ca n mu sc, hnh th, s sng, s pht trin ca n tm li, mi th ni n u chia s esse ca cy. Do , esse bao trm ton b mt s vt. d) Esse l mt hin th cu to v c bn nht ca mi hon b, v nh c n th cc s vt mi hin hu (Esse is a constituent act, and the most radical or basic of all perfections because it is that by which things are) . Nh yu tnh l iu khin cho mt vt l th ny th kia (s t, con ngi), th esse l ci khin cho cc s vt c hin hu. Ta c th xt iu ny qua nhiu gc . (i) Esse l iu chung nht trong mi hin th (Esse is the most common of all acts). iu khin cho mi vt hin hu th khng h ti nhng nguyn l khin chng khc bit (yu tnh ca chng), nhng chnh xc h ti hin th m qua mi s vt u nh nhau, tc l chng c vic hin hu. (ii) Esse th t bn cht c trc bt c hin th no khc (Esse is by nature prior to any other act). Bt c hot ng hoc c im no u gi thit mt ch th hin hu c lp hot ng bm vo, vy m esse c gi nh bi mi hot ng cng nh mi ch th, v nu khng c esse, th chng c chi hin hu. Nh vy, esse khng phi l mt hin th ny sinh t yu tnh cc s vt; ng ra n l iu khin cho cc s vt hin hu. (iii) Chng ta phi loi b mi th khc kt lun rng esse l hin th cu to (We have to conclude, by exclusion, that esse is the constituent act). Khng mt c im vt l hoc sinh hc no ca cc hu th nng lng, cu trc phn t hoc nguyn t ca chng li khin cho cc s vt hin hu, v mi c im trn nu mun to nn nhng hiu qu ca chng th tin vn phi hin hu .

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Tm li, esse l vic hin hu u tin v thm hu nht em li mi hon b cho ch th, ngay t bn trong (esse is the first and innermost act of being which confers on the subject, from within, all of its perfections). Sau y l nhng trch dn t cc tc phm ca thnh Thomas Aquinas v esse : Esse th hon b nht trong tt c (), n l hin th vt trn mi hin th () v l hon b vt trn mi hon b (De Potentia, q.7, a.2, ad 9). Chnh esse l hon b nht trong mi s, v i chiu vi mi s n l hin th; v khng g l thc hu tr phi trong mc n hin hu. Do , chnh esse lm cho mi s c thc hu, ngay c nhng hnh th cng vy (d l hnh th bn th hay ph th) (Summa Theologiae, I, q.4, a.1, ad 3). Esse th thm hu nht trong mi s vt v gn b su xa nht ni mi s vt, v n c vai tr kin to (role of form) (hin th, mt iu g nh hnh hay thc hu ho) i vi tt c mi s c trong mt s vt (Summa Theologiae, q.8, a.1).

4. VIC HIN HU (ESSE) XT NH HIN TH MNH LIT NHT Vic hin hu th thuc v mi s vt nh hin th u tin v l ngun cho mi hon b khc. Tuy nhin, khi quan st th gii chung quanh, chng ta thy rng c nhiu s vt ht sc a dng trong v tr; do chng ta phi kt lun rng vic hin hu khng phi l mt th g ng nht ni mi s vt: bi v c khc bit ni mi s vt. Nt c trng ny khng gii hn vo nguyn esse ; n cn c nhn thy ni nhng phm cht v nhiu hin th khc. C ngha l nhng hon b c nhng ch th ca chng chim hu nhiu cp khc nhau. V d, nh sng c tm thy trong nhiu cp mnh yu khc nhau; tng t th, hnh vi hiu bit hoc c mun c th c thc thi vi cng mnh hn hay yu hn ni cng mt c nhn hay ni nhiu con ngi khc nhau, hoc ni nhng hu th c tr nng thuc nhiu bn cht khc nhau (con ngi, thin thn, Thin Cha). a) Vic hin hu c cc hu th khc bit nhau chim hu trong nhiu cp khc bit nhau, i t nhng thc ti km hon b nht ln n tn Thin Cha (The act of being is possessed in different degrees of intensity by different beings, ranging from the most imperfect realities all the way to God). Hin nhin l c mt phm trt hu th trong v tr: khi i t th gii khong vt, c tip ni bng nhiu hnh thc s sng, cho n hon b ln lao nht l hon b ca Thin Cha. Phn tch n cng, khc bit v cc hon b bt ngun t nhng cch thc chim hu vic hin hu: v ngun mch mi hon b ca mt s vt chnh l esse ca n, nhng cp chim hu cc hon b trn th phn nh nhng mc cng trong vic hin hu3. Thin Cha chim hu esse trong tt c vin mn v cng ca n. Do Ngi c mi hon b. Nu nh Ngi thiu mt hon b no th Ngi khng c esse trong tt c vin mn ca n, nhng phi chu s gii hn. Mt khc, cc th to chim hu esse km hn, v chng cng bt ton th cng c t esse hn; chng hng mt cp km hn trong vic thng d vo hin hu. Ta khng nn ngh rng mi hon b khc (v d, s sng, hiu bit) th c thm vo esse4. Khng phi l chuyn nhng sinh th hin hu, ri vt xa v bn trn hin hu, chng c thm s sng; ng hn, cch thc hin hu ca chng h ti chuyn ang sng (living), v sinh ng, tc l sng, l mt cp hin hu cao hn. b) Do s khng chun khi ta coi esse nh mt thuc tnh m h v bt nh thuc v mi s vt xt nh hon b km ci nht ca chng (Hence, it would be incorrect to consider esse as a vague and indeterminate attribute which would belong to all things as their least perfection). Mt s trit gia hiu esse l mt khi nim ngho nn nht, v cho rng n b qua mi c im khin cho cc s vt khc bit nhau. i vi h, esse l mt khi nim ht sc tru tng v trng rng, mt khi nim c th p dng cho mi th (ngoi din ti a) v xt v mt thc hnh n khng c ni dung (ni hm ti thiu), v ch ni ln mt im ti thiu mi s vt phi c l thc t. Li hiu v esse nh trn l mt li tip cn lun l hn l siu hnh, v n ngn cn vic hiu esse nh l hin th ca s vt, c chim hu theo nhng cch thc khc nhau, v c chim hu cch hon b nht ni Thin Cha. Li nhn xt esse theo kiu lun l hin nhin pht sinh do nhng trit gia duy l, c bit l Wolff v Leibniz. Tuy nhin, ngay c Scotus v Suarez trc cng coi esse nh khi nim ht

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sc bt nh m ni dung ca n th ng nht vi yu tnh kh th (possible essence). Nh vy, chng khin cho hu th (ens) v yu tnh ng nht vi nhau, v coi yu tnh nh mt yu t trung lp i vi vic hin hu (esse), th l gin lc yu tnh vo nguyn kh tnh hin hu. i theo tuyn t tng ny, Wolff nh ngha hu th nh ci c th tn ti, ngha l ci m s tn ti ca n l khng mu thun5. Do , ng phn chia hu th thnh kh th (possible) v thc t (real); u tin ca hu th thuc v hu th kh th, v hu th thc t khng hn g hu th kh th c a vo hin th6. Mt trong nhng thiu st ch yu trong lp trng ny l nh sau: t tng thm nhp hay ng ha hu th, v khi nim hu th cc k bt nh ny ch tn ti trong tr c con ngi, nh kt qu ca vic tru xut lun l (logical abstraction). Do , n khng phi l mt esse thc t nhng ch l mt esse theo khi nim. Trong thuyt duy l, kh tnh (possibility) c hiu nh c im khng-mu thun ca mt khi nim, c ngha l, kh tnh ca hu th c suy tng hoc c quan nim bi tr nng. c) Hin hu (to be) (esse) th khng hon ton ng ngha vi tn ti(to exist); esse din t mt hin th, ang khi tn ti ch c ngha rng mt s vt ang c (To be (esse) is not exactly the same as to exist; esse expresses an act, whereas to exist simply indicates that a thing is factually there). Khi qu quyt mt s vt tn ti, chng ta mun ni rng n l thc, rng n khng phi l h v, rng n ang . Tuy nhin, esse ni n mt iu g bn trong nhiu hn, ch khng thun ty ni n s kin c ni thc ti, ng hn n l hon b thm su ca mt s vt v l ngun mch cho mi hon b khc. Tn ti khng din t iu g khc hn l kha cnh bn ngoi ca esse n l mt hiu qu ca esse. V mt hu th c esse, nn n thc s , c a ra khi h v, v n tn ti. Do , tn ti l hiu qu ca vic c esse. Coi esse nh tn ti l mt hiu qu lun l ca vic ng nht hu th (ens) vi yu tnh kh th, phn cch khi vic hin hu. Nh vy, ny sinh hai th gii: th gii tng c lm nn bi nhng yu tnh tru tng hay t tng thun ty, v th gii cc thc ti c s tn ti thc s. Th gii thc ti khng hn g mt bn sao ca th gii t tng, v n khng thm g vo vic kin to hu th hc ca cc s vt. Nh Kant ni, khi nim v 100 ng gilders tht th chng khc g khi nim 100 ng gilders kh th7. S phn bit gia mt bn l yu tnh tng hoc tru tng, v mt bn l tn ti ch thc, lm ny sinh nhng h ly nghim trng trong nhiu vn trit hc quan trng. c bit trong lnh vc nhn thc, iu ny dn n vic phn cch trit tr nng con ngi khi cc gic quan: yu tnh tr thnh i tng ca t tng thun ty, ang khi tn ti thc t th kin to nn i tng c nm bt bi gic quan (iu ny cng lm ny sinh nhng quan im cc k sai lm l duy l v duy nghim hoc thc chng; trong trng hp ca Lebniz, n lm ny sinh s i lp gia cc chn l lun l (logical truths) v cc chn l thc t (factual truths). H qu khc ca quan im ny l c gng chng t s hin hu ca Cn Nguyn Nht khi i t idea v Thin Cha (ch hu th lun = ontologism): Thin Cha l yu tnh duy nht vn bao gm s tn ti ni cc thuc tnh ca yu tnh, do Thin Cha hin hu. Lun chng ny kt lun v mt Thin Cha ch tn ti trong tr c. 5. NGHA CA ESSE NH NG T NI TRONG MT CU Chng ta thy hn t esse ch yu din t hin th hoc hon b c bn nht ca mi hu th vic hin hu ca n (actus essendi)8. V s kin ny ta c th ni rng Phr hin hu, hoc Ti hin hu, hoc nhng hu th hin hu. Tuy nhin, thay v ni Phr hin hu, chng ta thng ni Phr tn ti, mc d hin hu khng hon ton ng nht vi tn ti, nh ni trn. Bn cnh vic din t ngha chnh yu ny, esse cn lin tc xut hin nh mt ng t trong mi ngn ng. Thc vy, n to nn thnh phn ca mi phn on bng cch ni kt ch t (subject) vi thuc t (predicate), v mt phn on lun c ngha rng mt iu g l hoc khng l, d ni n thun hay theo mt ngha ring bit no. iu ny l r rng trong Anh ng, chng hn khi ta ni, This law is incomplete, hoc Tomorrow is Sunday. Tuy nhin, nhng ln khc, n ch l mc nhin, nh khi ta ni, John jogs every morning hoc Ice melts. Trong nhng v d sau, ng t to be khng xut hin r rng, mc d ta c th a ra nhng li din t tng ng, nh John is a man who goes jogging every morning, hoc Ice is a subtance which melts. Trong vn phm, iu ny c qui chiu v vai tr ca ng t to be nh mt ng t ni (linking verb or copula):

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a)To be ni ln vic phc hp gia ch t v thuc t hin din trong bt c phn on no ny sinh bi tr tu. V d, trong cu, That horse is speedy, is ni kt thuc t speedy vi ch t horse. Trong trng hp ny, ng t ch thun ty nm vai tr ni kt hai hn t ca phn on hay mnh . Chc nng u tin ny ca esse nh copula c din ra trong cp lun l hc; n ch ni kt hai phn ca mt cu, - ngay c nhng ch t v thuc t vn khng c tht hoc trong thc t chng khng thc s ph hp vi nhau. V d, mnh , Man is irrational l mt phn on gi to; ng t is ni kt ch t vi thuc t, nhng mnh li khng tng ng vi thc ti. b) To be c th cho thy mt hon b no thc s ang gn b ni mt ch th, nh khi ta ni v cy bt ch mu en: That pencil is black, cho thy rng phm cht c th (mu en) thc s thuc v cy vit ch. c) Ngoi ra, to be trong mt mnh hoc phn on c ngha rng vic gn mt thuc t cho ch t th phn nh trung thc chn l tc l iu c khng nh trong mt mnh phi l tht. Trong vai tr ny ca esse, chng ta chm n chn l v s gi tr: do , ni rng mt iu g l khng tht, chng ta ni n th khng (it is not, hoc nu mt mnh no khng ph hp vi thc ti, ta ni rng n l gi tr. Thng thng, ba ngha trn c ni kt ni mi phn on. V d khi ta ni, The earth is round, t is va c ngha rng chng ta ang to nn mt phc hp trong pht biu bng cch ni kt thuc t round vi ch t earth; rng roundness thc s thuc v tri t; v pht biu ny l tht. ngha lun l cng nh vn phm ca esse ty thuc vo ngha chnh ca n nh hin th. Nh ta quan st trn, esse l hin th cu to hoc hon b lm ny sinh mi hon b tip theo. Do , pht biu rng mt hon b nm mt ch t, chng ta s dng ng t esse. 6. CC C TNH CA KHI NIM HU TH Ta bn v hu th, khi im ca Siu hnh hc, v mt vi nt trong hin th cu to ca n, tc l esse ca n. hon tt quan st khi u v i tng ca Siu hnh hc, gi y chng ta tm hiu nhng c im ca khi nim hu th (ens). u tin ca khi nim hu th trong nhn thc nhn loi u tin thc s ca esse i vi nhng hon b khc ca cc s vt, lm ny sinh u tin ca khi nim hu th trong lnh vc nhn thc. Mi i tng ca nhn thc chng ta, trc bt c iu g khc, u c tri gic l hin hu, v do tr nng chng ta tin vn bit n nh mt iu g ang hin hu, nh hu th. V l do ny, khi nim hu th mc nhin hm cha trong mi khi nim khc ca tr nng. Ai ny u hiu rng mt cy v mt con nga l nhng s vt ang hin hu v chng chim hu vic hin hu mt cch c th no ; ngi y nhn bit chng nh nhng hu th ang hin hu, vi mt yu tnh xc nh. Do , nhng yu t cu to ca hu th, m chng ta gii thch, th hin din ni mi nhn thc ca tr c chng ta, khng h phn cch. Khi nim hu th l u tin trong mi khi nim m tr nng chng ta th c. Trc khi hiu chi tit th no l mt s vt v u l nhng hon b c trng ca n, th tin vn ta bit rng s vt y hin hu, c ngha rng, n l mt iu g . C c tri thc s khi ny, dn dn chng ta th c li hiu bit tt hn v thc ti nh kinh nghim ca mnh. Nh vy, ngay trc khi mt a tr c th phn bit nhng vt chung quanh mnh, n bit rng chng hin hu; iu ny l tri gic u tin ca n, din ra vo lc bt u c nhn thc tr tu. Ta khng th hiu c bt c iu g, tr phi trc ht hiu rng n hin hu. Tuy nhin, ngi ta khng c ngh rng iu ny ch l mt nhn thc khi u; con ngi ni kt mi kha cnh ca thc ti m hn bit c trong cuc i vo lnh vc hu th, cch ny hay cch khc. y l nhng g chng ta hiu khi ta ni rng mi nhn thc u c gii kt hoc c thu gn vo hu th. Khi nim ca ta v hu th th khi u cn bt ton, v dn dn chng ta hon thin khi nim ny nh kinh nghim, khi ta bit c nhiu hu th hn v nhiu cch thc hin hu hn (Our notion of being is initially imperfect, and we gradually perfect this notion through experience, as we come to know more beings and diverse manners of being). Mt tin b tng t cng din ra trong mi lnh vc tri thc. Chng hn, mt sinh vin khoa Thc vt hc c sn mt tri thc v i sng thc vt, nhng ch nh

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kinh nghim v quan st rng ri hn th anh ta mi c c tri thc su sc hn v ngha ca thc vt. Cng vy, tri thc ca ta v hu th tr nn su sc v rng ri hn khi ta khm ph c nhiu c im cng nh nhiu cch thc hin hu khc nhau. Siu hnh hc c gng hon tt cng tc ny trong cp khoa hc. Hu th khng phi mt khi nim v ging Ging l mt khi nim c p dng ng u v bt nh cho nhiu s vt khc nhau v n ch ni ln nhng c im vn l chung cho tt c nhng s vt v b st nhng tnh cht lm cho chng khc nhau. Khi nim ng vt chng hn, l mt khi nim v ging, c p dng khng phn bit cho mi hu th c i sng cm gic (v d, ngi, nga, ch). i t khi nim ging, t nh ng vt, n mt khi nim c th hn, t nh ngi, chng ta cn thm vo khi nim ng vt nhng kha cnh sai bit mi vn khng hm cha trong ging, c th l nhng khc bit m chng ta b i to nn mt khi nim v ging (v d c l tnh hoc nhng c im phn bit ca nhiu loi ng vt khc nhau). Khi nim hu th khng phi l mt ging, v khng c yu t khc bit no c th thm vo , m li khng hm cha sn trong (The notion of being is not a genus, since no differentiating elements can be added to it, which would not already be contained in it). Khi nim ng vt khng bao hm nhng khc bit c th phn bit mt ng vt khi ng vt khc. Tuy nhin, khi nim ens khng ch ni n nhng g cc s vt c chung vi nhau, nhng cng cn ni n nhng kha cnh khc bit ca chng; nhng kha cnh khc bit cng hin hu, v do cng bao hm trong khi nim ens. Mt s khi nim v ging t c nh tru xut th c mt ngoi din ln hn (chng bao gm nhiu i tng hn) ty theo mc chng bao gm rt t nhng c im nm trong ni dung ca chng (ni hm ca chng). Chng hn, vt th c p dng cho nhiu s vt hn l rn (solid), v khi nim rn thm vo mt c im mi, l s kt cu n nh cc thnh phn. Cc nhc c bao gm nhc c dy, nhc c hi, v nhc c g, l nhng loi xc nh hn. Tuy nhin, khi nim hu th li bao trm mi s: n c ngoi din ti a cng nh ni dung khi nim hay ni hm ti a (The notion of being, however, encompasses everything: it has maximum extension as well as maximum notional content or comprehension). Ens khng ch bao gm mi thc ti trong th gii ni chung, nhng cng cn biu th chng, vi tt c mi c im n l ca chng. Tuy nhin, mi nhn t xc nh cng nh nhng cch thc hin hu u c m ch trong ens theo mt cch thc khng sai bit v c phn no ln ln. Do , nu chng ta mun lm cho mt thc ti c th c nhn bit, th ta khng th ni trng rng l mt hu th. Chng ta cng phi nu r rng cch thc hin hu c th ca n (yu tnh ca n), bng cch ni rng l mt quyn sch, hay mt cy vit, chng hn. c im duy nht ny ca khi nim ens ny sinh t s kin l danh t ens c ly ra t esse, vn l hon b trn ht mi hon b, v mi nhn t khc vn n nh n th ch l nhng cch thc hin hu. Mt khi nim ens ch thun tru tng v v ging th tn ti trong u c cc trit gia nghin cu v nhng thc ti siu hnh nh th chng l nhng khi nim lun l. Nh vy, theo Scotus v Suarez, chng ta nhn bit nhng hu th c bit tn ti nh tr nng ca ta, ri sau chng ta tru xut bn cht chung ca chng, qua t ti yu tnh ca chng. Sau cng, chng ta i n mt ging ti cao, vn l tru tng nht v tch bit khi kinh nghim, v iu ny c gi thit l ens. y l khi nim v ens m ni dung ca n khng cn l hu th thc t, nhng l tng tng qut nht v hu th, c tha k bi thuyt duy l. iu ny gii thch ti sao Siu hnh hc, nh ch thuyt duy l hiu v n, b coi l mt khoa hc khng c lin quan g n kinh nghim v th gii thc t. Hu th: mt khi nim loi suy V qu a bit v phong ph trong ni dung, nn khi nim ens l loi suy, c ngha l, n c gn cho mi s vt theo mt ngha phn th nh nhau v phn th khc nhau (the notion of ens is analogical, that is, it is attributed to all things in a sense which is partly the same and partly different). Chng hn, hiu l mt khi nim loi suy v Thin Cha, cc thin thn, v con ngi u c coi l hiu, nhng tt c lm iu theo nhng cch thc khc nhau vi nhng chiu su tri thc khc nhau. Thin ho cng l mt khi nim loi suy v mc ch ca hnh ng v phng th t ti n u l thin ho, mc d khng theo cng mt cch; cng vy, mt s ti nguyn vt cht v s chnh trc lun l ca mt hnh vi nhn c u tt c, nhng chng khng tt theo cng mt cch. Esse l hon b c kh nng c chim hu theo nhiu cch kh th nht, v mi s vt trong v tr u c esse, nhng theo nhiu

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cch khc nhau. Do , v hu th (ens) l mt khi nim ly ra t esse (vic hin hu), nn n c p dng cho cc s vt mt cch loi suy. c im ny ca khi nim hu th (ens) c tm quan trng ln lao trong vic nghin cu mi vn siu hnh. V d, bn th v cc ph th, hin th v tim nng, cc th to v Thin Cha ng To Ha, l nhng thc ti cc k khc bit, nhng tt c u l hu th theo cch loi suy. Do , tt c chng c th c nghin cu bi cng mt khoa hc m khng phi loi b nhng khc bit thc s ni chng. Loi suy l mt nt c trng chnh ca phng php siu hnh. Aristotle khm ph ra bn cht loi suy ca hu th. Trc ng, hu th ch c xt cch n (univocally), nh Parmenides dy. Nu hu th phi c hiu theo cch n ngha, th khi mi thc ti u c coi l hin hu theo cng mt cch, m sau cng s dn n thuyt nht nguyn (monism). Mi s u nht lot c coi l mt (identically one); do , khng c khc bit gia Thin Cha v cc th to (phim thn). Tuy nhin, khi dng khi nim loi suy v hu th, chng ta c th ni v Thin Cha v cc th to nh nhng hu th, ng thi vn gi s cch bit v bin gia cc khi nim . Nh cch loi suy, hu th th to dn ta n vic nhn bit hu th thn thing v cc hon b ca hu th ny. l l do ti sao vn ny chim phn quan trng nht i vi Siu hnh hc v thn hc. Tng quan gia hu th v nhng khi nim khc S phong ph ca khi nim hu th cng c phn nh ni nhng khi nim din t nhng li hin hu c th (c gi l cc phm tr) v ni nhng khi nim khc, c gi l nhng khi nim siu nghim, ni ln nhng kha cnh chung ca mi hu th. a) a s cc khi nim u gii hn khi nim hu th vo mt cch hin hu chuyn bit (specific mode of being); chng ni ln mt yu tnh m nh mt iu g l chnh n ch khng phi l s vt khc. Chng hn, kim cng m ch mt khong vt vi mt bn cht hay mt cch hin hu khc vi bn cht ca bt c s vt no khc, v nhn c qui chiu v mt tp qun hot ng i nghch vi nt xu. Trong nhm khi nim mnh mng ny chng ta c th ly ra mt s khi nim rng hn, m ch nhng cch hin hu c bn nht m mi thc ti c th c qui vo . Nhng ging ti cao ny ca thc ti c gi l nhng phm tr m c th l bn th v cc loi ph th khc nhau. Sau ny chng ta s nghin cu chng chi tit hn. b) Cng c mt s khi nim ni ln nhng c im ca hu th xt nguyn n (trong mc n l hu th), v do , c th p dng cho mi vt. Chng hn, v hin hu l mt hon b hay mt thin ho, nn mi s, trong mc n hin hu, u c mt loi thin ho v c th hp dn nhng th to khc v hon thin chng. Hn na, nhng s vt l kh tri v l thc nh esse ca chng, v tr nng nhn bit chn l khi n nm bt vic hin hu ca s vt. Do , thin ho v chn l l nhng c im thuc v bt c iu g hin hu. Nhng khi nim ny c gi l nhng khi nim siu nghim, v chng khng gii hn hu th vo mt li hin hu c th no; ng hn chng siu vit mi kha cnh hin hu c th. Nh chng, ta c th nu ln mt s kha cnh hon b ph hp vi vic hin hu, vn khng c din t minh nhin trong thut ng hu th. Chng gip ta th c mt ci nhn su sc hn v y hn v thc ti. Phn hai ca tp sch ny bn v nhng c im siu nghim ca hu th.

SCH C THM

PARMENIDES, Sobre la naturaleza, Fr. I-II (Diels-Kranz 28B 1 and 2). ARISTOTLE, Metaphysica, V, ch. 7; Vi, 2 and 4; VII, 1; XI, 8. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, In I perih, lect. 5; Quodl., IX, q.2, a.3; De ente et essentia c1; In V Metaph., lect 9; De verit., q.1; a.1. E. GILSON, Ralisme thomiste et critique de la connaissance, Vrin, Paris 1947.

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CHNG III: NGUYN L BT - MU - THUNC mt s yu t s yu hoc nn tng ni tri thc con ngi, c dng lm c bn cho mi chn l khc. Cng nh hu th l khi nim u tin ca tr nng chng ta, c hm cha trong bt c khi nim no, th cng c mt phn on ng nhin l u tin, v c gi thit bi mi phn on khc. Phn on u tin ny c pht biu nh sau: Khng th (mt vt) va c li va khng trong cng mt lc v theo cng mt phng din. Khi chng ta khng nh rng mt s vt ang trong mt cch thc ring bit, chng ta gi nh rng khng th no cng mt s vt va trong cch thc ny li va trong cch thc khc. Nu chng ta ni rng vic gip tha nhn l iu tt, chng ta bit rng l iu tt th khng ng ngha vi khng l iu tt. V nguyn l c bn ny lin h n hu th - cho d n c dng trong mi lnh vc tri thc con ngi nn Siu hnh hc, vn l khoa hc v hu th xt nguyn n l th, c nhim v nghin cu v ni ln ngha y ca nguyn l . Khi nghin cu chn l ti thng ny, chng ta tm hiu mt trong nhng c trng hin nhin v nn tng nht ca hu th. 1. NGUYN L U TIN V HU TH

Phn on u tin c gi l nguyn l bt mu - thun, v n din t iu kin c bn nht ca cc s vt, ngha l chng khng th t mu-thun vi chnh mnh (The first judgment is called the principle of non-contradiction because it expresses the most basic condition of things, namely, that they cannot be self-contradictory). Nguyn l ny da trn c s hu th, v din t s vng bn ca hu th cng nh chuyn n i nghch vi v th (non-being = non-ens). Chng ta bit n con ngi ny, ngn ni kia, con vt n, nhn bit mi th nh iu g hin hu, nh mt hu th. Tip n, chng ta i ti tng v s ph nh hu th, hoc l v th, c quan nim khng phi nh s h v thun ty, nhng nh mt v th tng i v gii hn. Chng hn, chng ta ghi nhn rng con ch ny l mt hu th, nhng n li khng phi l con ch khc. Nh vy, khi nhn bit nhng hu th c th, chng ta cng to nn khi nim ph nh u tin v th (non-being). Khi chng ta nm bt mt v th no ni cc s vt, vn ny sinh t s gii hn ca mi s vt, chng ta hiu rng mt hu th khng th va c li va khng trong cng mt lc v theo cng mt ngha. Nh vy, nguyn l bt-mu thun din t s bt tng thch trit gia hu th v v th, vn t nn tng trn s kin ny l vic hin hu lin quan n mt hon b c thc ni mi mt hu th, i nghch tuyt i vi chuyn thiu vng hon b . Chng ta ni trong cng mt lc, v chng hn, khng c g mu thun trong trng hp nhng chic l ca mt cy c mu xanh mt ma trong nm, v mu nu hoc trong ma khc. Chng ta cng ni thm trong cng mt ngha hay trong cng mt phng din, bi v khng h mu thun i vi mt con ngi rt thng tho mt s vn , nhng li dt nt v nhng vn khc. Hin nhin l nguyn l trn c mt tm quan trng nn tng, khng ch trong tri thc t pht v khoa hc, nhng cn trong lnh vc hot ng ca con ngi, v n l iu kin u tin ca chn l trong bt c phn on no. 2. NHNG CCH DIN T NGUYN L BT-MU- THUN Trc ht, nguyn l u tin l mt phn on lin quan n thc ti. Do , nhng li din t su xa hn v nguyn l ny l nhng li din t c bn cht siu hnh, ngha l nhng din t trc tip lin quan n esse ca cc s vt. V d: mt vt khng th cng lc va c li va khng1, v khng th no mt vt hin hu v ng lc li khng hin hu2. Chng ta khng ch ni rng iu t mu thun th khng th tng tng c, v nguyn l bt-mu-thun l qui lut ti thng ca thc ti, ch khng ch l mt nh l hay nh ca tr tu dng gii thch thc ti. Nh vy, iu m chng ta thc s khng nh vi nguyn l ny chnh l: hu th th khng t mu thun vi chnh mnh. Tuy nhin, v tr nng ca chng ta c gng nhn bit thc ti nh n l, nn nguyn l u tin v hu th, theo mt cch thc phi sinh, cng l mt qui lut ca t tng: n cng l qui lut u tin ca lun l hc3. Do , chng ta cng c th tm thy nhng cng thc khc ca nguyn l u tin mang bn cht lun l, v lin h nhiu hn n tri thc ca ta v hu th. V d: chng ta khng th va khng nh

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va ph nh mt iu g v cng mt ch th trong cng mt lc v theo cng mt ngha, hoc nhng mnh mu thun v cng mt ch th th khng th ng lc l xc thc. Tr tu l ch th cho nguyn l bt mu thun. N khng th nhn bit hu th nh t mu thun, chnh xc l v hu th khng th t mu thun. D nhin, chng ta c th t mu thun vi chnh mnh khi suy ngh hoc ni nng, nhng iu ny ch xy ra khi chng ta lc xa thc ti do s khim khuyt trong vic suy lun. Khi mt ai ch cho ta thy ta mc phi sai st no, ta c khuynh hng sa li cho ng. Du sao, mc d chng ta c th qu quyt mt iu g mu thun, th n khng th no hiu c (it cannot possibly be understood). 3. TRI THC QUI NP V NGUYN L U TIN Mt cch t nhin v t pht, nguyn l bt mu- thun c mi ngi nhn bit qua kinh nghim. N l per se notum omnibus (t thn hin minh cho mi ngi). D nhin, n khng phi l mt phn on bm sinh, c tr tu chim hu trc khi bt u c tri thc thc s, hay l mt loi khung sn tr tu c np sn hiu c thc ti. din t c phn on ny, trc ht chng ta phi bit c nhng hn t ca n (hu th v v th). Chng l nhng khi nim m chng ta ch nm bt khi tr nng, thng qua nhng gic quan, hiu c thc ti bn ngoi v nhn bit nhiu hu th khc bit; v d, t giy ny, mt hu th phn bit khi ci my ch kia, phn bit khi khng giy (v th). V nhng iu trn l hai khi nim u tin m chng ta thnh lp, mi ngi nht nh phi nhn bit ngay qui lut bt mu-thun . D nhin, vo lc khi s tri thc, nguyn l ny khng c din t trong cng thc ph qut ca n khng th no mt s vt va c li va khng. Tuy nhin, n c nhn bit vi tm mc y , v ai ny u hnh ng ph hp vi n. Chng hn, ngay c mt a tr cng bit r rng n th chng ging vi khng n, v n c x ph hp vi tri thc . 4. TNH HIN MINH CA NGUYN L NY V LI BO V N NH LUN CHNG I NHN V l phn on u tin, nguyn l ny khng th c chng minh nh nhng chn l khc i trc n. Tuy nhin, chuyn khng th chng minh n, u phi l mt du hiu bt ton; ng hn, chng ta cn ni rng l mt du hiu ca s hon b. Khi mt chn l t mnh hin minh, th khng cn v cng khng th chng minh n. Ch c iu g khng trc tip hin minh mi i bng chng. Bn cnh , nu mi qu quyt u cn c chng minh nh n nhng khng nh khc, hn chng ta s chng bao gi t c mt s chn l t mnh hin minh. Nh vy th tri thc con ngi s khng c c s ti hu. Bo v nguyn l u tin chng li nhng ai ph nhn n Mc d chn l ca nguyn l bt mu-thun khng th c chng minh bng cch dng n nhng chn l hin minh khc (m thc ra lm g c th no nh vy), n vn c th c chng minh cch gin tip qua vic t r rng bt c ai ph nhn n u khng c g chc chn c. Tt nhin, mt lun chng kiu l hu dng, nhng n khng phi l mt bng chng cht ngha. Ngoi ra, s chc chn hoc gi tr tuyt i ca nguyn l bt mu-thun khng da trn nhng l chng gin tip nh th, nhng da trn tri gic t pht ca chng ta v hu th. Tuy nhin, ta c th s lc mt vi lun chng loi , nh c ghi trong sch Siu hnh hc ca Aristotle: a) Mun ph nhn nguyn l ny, ngi ta phi chi b mi ngha ca ngn ng. Nu hn t ngi li cng y nh l khng-phi ngi, th qu thc n chng cn ngha g c. T no cng m ch mi s v, do , li cng chng ni ln bt c iu g. Nh vy, mi thng tin v hiu bit gia nhng con ngi l khng kh thi. Do , bt c khi no c ai ni ln mt t, th ngi cng bit n nguyn l bt - mu-thun, v chc chn anh ta mun t phi c mt ngha mt iu no xc nh v phn bit vi iu i nghch vi n. Bng khng, ngi khng th ni nng r rng c (Cf. Metaphysic, IV, ch. 4). b) Phc ha nhng hiu qu ti hu t lun chng ad hominem ni trn, Aristotle qu quyt rng h ai chi b nguyn l u tin ny u c x nh loi thc vt, v ngay c nhng con vt cng di chuyn t mt mc tiu m chng a chung hn nhng th khc, chng hn khi chng i kim mi (cf. Ibidem).

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c) Ngoi ra, ph nhn nguyn l ny cng c ngha l chp nhn n, v khi bc b n, mt ngi cng nhn bit rng khng nh v ph nh th khng cng ngha. Nu mt ngi ch trng rng nguyn l bt - mu-thun l sai (false), th anh ta tha nhn rng ng (true) v sai l khng ng ngha (the same), do cng chp nhn ng ci nguyn l m anh ta mun kh tr (Cf. Metaphysics, XI, ch.5). Thuyt tng i nh mt kt qu ca vic ph nh nguyn l u tin D l hin minh, nguyn l bt mu-thun trn thc t vn b ph nhn bi nhiu trng phi t tng thi thng c (Heraclitus, Phi Ngy Bin, Phi Hoi Nghi) v, trong mt hnh thc trit v hu nhiu hn na ni thi i mi, bi mt s hnh thc trit hc bin chng (Marxism)4 v thuyt tng i duy s (historicist ralativism). Nhng hc thuyt trn gin lc thc ti vo nguyn vic thay i hoc bin dch: khng c iu g hin hu, mi s u thay i; khng c khc bit hoc i nghch gia hu th v v th. Lm nh vy, nhng hc thuyt trn ph nhn bn cht vng bn ca s vt, v ph nhn tnh vng bn ca vic hin hu cng vi nhng c tnh ca n. Do vy, khng c im chc chn no qui chiu, v khng c nguyn l t chn l tuyt i. H ch trng rng nhng hc thuyt i nghch nhau th c gi tr ngang nhau: mt pht biu th khng xc thc hn iu i nghch vi n. V khng th no t nn tng mi s trn h v (nothing), nn mt khi ph nhn hu th, th chnh con ngi c coi nh nn tng duy nht cho chn l5. Nn tng cn ct ca thc ti cng chnh l vic qui chiu n v mi c nhn: hin hu ca s vt c gin lc vo vic chng hin-hu-cho-ti, gin lc vo li s dng c th ca mi c nhn. Chng hn, nhng thc ti nh hn nhn v x hi khng c bn cht ring, cng chng c nhng qui lut iu hnh chng; ng hn, chng l thuc vo ngha m con ngi t gn cho chng. Nh vy, mi vic ph nhn nguyn l bt mu- thun qua dng lch s u c nh du bng mt ch thuyt tng i ch quan, tn cng i sng con ngi trn nhng lnh vc l thuyt v thc hnh. Tm quan trng ca nguyn l u tin s sng t hn trong lnh vc i sng lun l, v vic ph nhn nguyn l u tin ny cng ph hy lun s phn bit gia iu thin v iu c. Nh vy, nguyn l u tin trong lnh vc hnh ng ca con ngi lm lnh v lnh d b loi b. ng lc v chun mc c x ca con ngi s ch cn l ti mun lm iu ny, m khng l g n nhng chun mc lun l khch quan. 5. VAI TR CA NGUYN L U TIN TRONG SIU HNH HC V l qui lut ti thng v hu th, nguyn l bt mu-thun nm vai tr ch o trong ton b tri thc ca con ngi, c l thuyt ln thc hnh, bi l n dn dt chng ta trnh nhng khim khuyt trong tri thc v hot ng ca ta. Chng hn, Thin Cha s t mu thun vi chnh mnh, nu nh Ngi l ng v bin m li phi chu s bin ha qua dng lch s (nh Hegel ch trng); do , chng ta phi bc gi thuyt trn. Cng vy, tht l v l khi coi v tr nh vt cht t sinh (nh Marx ch trng), v s l chuyn mu thun nu c iu g li l cn nguyn ca chnh mnh. Nguyn l u tin kch thch tri thc siu hnh theo mt hng c bit, v n din t c im c bn ca hu th. Nguyn l bt mu-thun gip chng ta khm ph cu trc bn trong ca cc hu th cng nh cn nguyn ca chng. V d, khi chng ta phn tch bn cht thing ling ca nhng hnh vi nhn linh trong vic hiu bit v c mun, chng ta cm thy cn phi kt lun rng nguyn l cho nhng hnh vi (linh hn con ngi) cng phi l thing ling, v s l chuyn v l khi mt ch th vt cht li pht sinh nhng hnh vi thing ling. Cng vy, trong thn hc t nhin, hin hu gii hn ca mi s vt trong v tr s dn chng ta n kt lun rng c Thin Cha, v s l chuyn mu thun nu nh v tr c c mi c tnh ca nhng g c to nn m li khng c mt cn nguyn no. Chuyn hin hu (act of being) ca cc s vt l iu buc tr nng chng ta phi t n mt tri thc rng ln v su sc hn v thc ti m khng ri vo nhng mu thun. Tr nng chng ta nm bt phn cn li ca tri thc nh vo nguyn l bt mu-thun. V cng nh mi khi nim khc c bao hm trong khi nim ens, nhng li khng c nm bt t khi nim qua ng li phn tch hoc din dch, th cng vy, nguyn l u tin cng tim tng (implied) ni mi phn on, nhng phn cn li ca tri thc con ngi li khng th c din dch t . Ni cch cht ch, chng ta i n tri thc, khng phi l khi i t nguyn l bt mu-thun, nhng ng hn l nh din tin ph hp vi nguyn l . Nu ch nh nguyn phn on u tin ny, m khng bit c nhng cch thc hin hu khc do kinh nghim em li cho ta, th chng ta khng th tin b trong tri thc. Do , nguyn l bt mu-thun hu nh lun lun c dng cch mc nhin v gin tip, hu loi b nhng g l hm h, v dn tr tu chng ta n nhng gii php ng n.

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Mc d vai tr ca nguyn l u tin ch c hiu dn dn trong qu trnh nghin cu, nhng ta cng c th hiu i cht khi nhn thy rng cc trit gia tin b trong tri thc ca mnh ra sao, bi l h c dn dt bi nhu cu phng bt c mu thun no. Heraclitus, ngi tin phong ca ch thuyt tng i, ch trng rng thc ti l thun ty thay i hay bin dch, do ng ta ph nhn nguyn l bt mu-thun. i vi ng, khng g hin hu: mi s u thay i. V phn mnh, Parmenides mun ti lp chn l v hu th, i lp li vic gii th thc ti m Heraclitus ch trng. ng c mt pht biu thi danh: hu th th hin hu, cn v th th khng hin hu. Tuy nhin, v hiu nguyn l ny trong mt cung cch cng ngc, khng uyn chuyn, ng ph nhn bt c v th no, k c v th tng i. Do , ng ni rng mi hn ch, tng bi hoc bin i u l iu khng th. ng kt lun rng thc ti l mt hu th n l, ng b, bt bin. Plato khai trin mt nn Siu hnh hc tha nhn thc ti khuyt php (privation) v khng nh rng th gii kh gic thng d vo th gii Tng. Do , ng phi bao hm v tr gii hn trong phm vi hu th. Tuy nhin, chnh Aristotle mi l ngi nhn mnh n ngha thc t ca v th tng i c tm thy ni cc s vt, khi ng khm ph mt nguyn l hn ch c tht, c th l tim nng (potency). Do , ng nh thc nguyn l bt mu-thun mt cch sc so hn : mt vt khng th va c li va khng trong cng mt lc v theo cng mt ngha (Something cannot be and not be at the same time and in the same sense). 6. NHNG NGUYN L S YU KHC T C S TRN NGUYN L BT MU-THUN Gi y chng ta xt n nhng nguyn l s yu khc c lin h cht ch vi nguyn l u tin. a) Nguyn l kh tam (nguyn l loi tr ci th ba = principle of excluded middle). Nguyn l ny pht biu rng khng c trung gian gia hu th v v th, hoc khng c trung gian gia khng nh v ph nh. Phn on ny c ngha rng mt s vt th c hoc khng c, ch khng cn kiu no khc na, v do n cng gin lc vo nguyn l bt mu-thun. Khng th c iu g trung gian, bi l khng th va c li va khng trong cng mt lc. Nguyn l ny thng c s dng trong l lun, theo cng thc, mi mnh th nht thit phi l thc hay l gi. Mc d hin hu trong tim nng (being in potency) c th c coi nh im trung gian gia hu th v v th, nhng thc ra l n nm gia hin hu trong hin th (being in act) v khng hin hu trong hin th (not being in act) hoc tuyt i v th (absolute non- being). Nguyn l ny c gi tr i vi tim nng: khng g c th va trong hin th va trong tim nng cng mt lc, v theo cng mt ngha; khng c trung gian gia hin hu trong tim nng v khng hin hu trong tim nng. b) Nguyn l ng nht. Nguyn l ny pht biu rng hu th l hu th (being is being), hoc bt c iu g c, cng chnh l n (whatever is, is what it is), hoc hu th th hin hu, cn v th th khng hin hu (being is, and non-being is not). Mc d Aristotle cng nh thnh Thomas u khng ni n nguyn l ng nht nh mt nguyn l s yu, nhiu tc gi Tn-Kinh vin nu ln iu , v hu nh lun gin lc n vo nguyn l bt mu-thun. Nhiu khi, nhng nguyn l khc cng c hm cha trong cc nguyn l nn tng ni trn. V d, nguyn l nhn qu (principle of causality) (mi hiu qu u c cn nguyn hay nhng g bt u hin hu th phi c to thnh) v nguyn l cu cnh (principle of finality) (mi tc nhn u hot ng v mt mc tiu). Ni cht ch, nhng nguyn l trn khng phi l nhng nguyn l u tin, v chng lin h n nhng khi nim hn hp hn, v i sau nhng khi nim ens v non-ens (c bit nhng khi nim v cn nguyn, hiu qu, v mc ch). Do , chng gi thit nguyn l bt mu-thun, v chng c mt phm vi hn hp hn.

SCH C THM ARISTOTLE, Metaphysica, IV, ch. 3-8; XI, 4-6; SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, In Metaph., IV lect. 517; XI, 4-6; S.th., I-II, q.94, a.2. GARRIGOU-LAGRANGE, Le sens commun, la philosophie de ltre et les formules dogmatiques, Beauchesne, Paris 1909. MANSER, La esencia del tomismo, C.S.I.C. Madrid 1953. L. ELDERS, Le premier principe de la vie intellective, in 62 (1962), pp. 571-586. P.C.COURTES, Cohrence de ltre et Premier Principe selon Saint Thomas dAquin, in , 70 (1970), pp. 387-423.

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PHN I : CU TRC SIU HNH CA HU TH. CHNG I: BN TH V PH THSau khi xem xt bn cht v khi nim v hu th cng nh v nhiu thc ti c lin h cht ch vi hu th, gi y chng ta nghin cu nhiu cch thc hin hu nh nhng khi nim c bn trn soi sng. Trong s nhng cch thc hin hu, chng ta nhn thy c bn th v nhiu ph th, nhng th kin to nn nhng cch thc hin hu nn tng ca mi th to.

1. BN CHT BN TH V CC PH TH S lc hai cch thc hin hu Sau khi ghi nhn mt s bin i su sc hn, qua mt s vt khng cn l n na (nhng thay i bn th, chng hn mt c th sng ng cht i, hay vic bin i mt thnh t ho hc sang mt thnh t khc), chng ta cng thng ghi nhn nhng thay i ph th, qua mt vt ch thay i nhng kha cnh th yu, m khng mt i bn cht ca mnh. Chng hn, khi nc thay i nhit th n vn cn l nc; cng vy, mt con ngi cng vn tip tc l con ngi , ngoi tr mt s bin cch trong tnh trng cm xc hoc sc kho ca anh ta. Nhng thay i ph th cho thy ni nhng s vt c mt th nn bn vng bn th v mt s nhng hon b th yu c th i thay, tc l nhng ph th (the presence in things of both a stable, permanent substratum the substance and certain secondary changeable perfections, which are the accidents). Chng ta nhn thy c s khc bit r rng gia hai cch thc hin hu khi ta quan st thy ni mi hu th c mt ht nhn bn th chu nh hng bi nhiu bin thi ph th. V d, mt cy si l mt ch th n l vi nhiu c tnh th yu, nh mu sc, hnh dng l cy, vic sp xp nhng cnh, chiu caovv Vic miu t vn tt trn cho ta hiu rng mi con ngi u t pht c mt tri thc nht nh v yu tnh bn th v cc ph th, cho d mi ch l mt tri thc ht sc phin din. Ngi ta c th ni v vic thay i bn th ca mt lut l no , hay ch l mt vn ph th. Chng ta cng c th qui chiu n nhng bn th ha hc v cc c im ca chng, cc c im chnh l mt dng ph th c th. Gi y chng ta cn xc nh chnh xc hn na bn cht cc thc ti trn t c mt tri thc su sc hn v cc c im ca chng cng nh nhng tng quan h tng ca chng.

Bn th Bn th l yu t quan trng nht ni mi s vt, v chng ta thy n c hai kha cnh c bn. a) Trc ht, bn th l ch th hoc th nn cng ng cc ph th. Do , bn th l ci ng di (that which stands beneath). b) Vai tr trn ca bn th cng da trn bn cht ca bn th nh mt th g lp hu (something subsistent). iu ny c ngha l n khng hin hu ni mt th g khc, nhng hin hu t thn (is by itself), i nghch vi nhng ph th, vn cn n s h tr ca mt iu g khc, tc l bn th, m tn ti. Mt con ngi, mt con c, v mt con gu chng hn, u l nhng bn th, bi v chng t mnh ng vng hoc c s hin hu ring, phn bit khi hin hu ca bt c iu g khc. Tuy nhin, mu trng hay kch c hoc hnh dng, l nhng thc ti ph th vn i hi mt ch th c sn. Cu nh ngha v bn th c rt ra t c im th hai ny: bn th l thc ti, t yu tnh hay bn cht th hin hu t thn, ch khng hin hu ni mt ch th no khc (substance is that reality to whose essence or nature it is proper to be by itself and not in another subject). Nh vy, mt con ch l mt bn th, v xt theo bn cht, n c c im l t mnh ng vng, ngha l mt c th phn bit khi nhng c th khc cng nh mi trng chung quanh1. Cu nh ngha trn tht hu l khi pht biu rng bn th l ci m yu tnh hoc bn cht ca n th ph hp , thay v trc tip ni rng l mt hu th vn hin hu t thn. Trong phn nghin

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cu trn v hu th, chng ta thy rng esse c gin lc vo mt cch thc hin hu chuyn bit l nh bi yu tnh. V d, mt hu th loi bit l mt con ngi nh vo bn cht hoc yu tnh nhn loi ca ngi , vn em li cho anh ta mt cch thc hin hu chuyn bit, khc vi hin hu ca cc s vt khc. Nh cng mt bn cht , ngi ny l ch th c kh nng ng c lp (mt bn th)2. Tri li, cc ph th lun lun c tm thy ni mt s vt no . Do vy, khng th c mt mu trng lp hu, ng ra chng ta phi ni v mt bc tng trng, mt chic xe trng hoc mt chic o trng Ni cht ch, s d mt s vt l mt bn th ch khng phi l mt ph th, l nh yu tnh ca n hn l nh vo chuyn hin hu ca n. Do vy, trong cu nh ngha v bn th, cn phi nu ln yu tnh, v n chnh l nguyn l a dng ha hin hu. Do , chng ta c th thy c l do ti sao hn t yu tnh i khi c dng tng ng vi bn th. Yu tnh xc nh mt cch thc hin hu ca mt s vt, v bn th khng l g khc hn mt cch thc hin hu m lc ny chnh l s lp hu. Tuy nhin, yu tnh v bn th khng hon ton ng ngha vi nhau. C hai u lin quan n cng mt thc ti, nhng yu tnh ni ln thc ti trong mc n kin to nn mt cch thc hin hu c th hoc xc nh, qua thc ti nm trong mt loi nht nh (v d con ngi, con ch, tri cy), ang khi hn t bn th nhn mnh n vic c mt th nn cho cc ph th v vic n tip nhn chuyn hin hu nh l hin th ring ca n. Aristotle phn bit bn th s yu vi bn th th yu. Mt bn th s yu l mt bn th c bit vn tn ti trong thc t, ni mt hu th n l: v d bn th ca con nga ny, ca a tr kia, ca cy n, hay, mt cch tng qut hn, bn th ca mt iu g (hoc aliquid). Bn th th yu l khi nim ph qut hay tru tng v yu tnh ca bn th s yu. Nh vy, chng ta c th ni n nhng bn th chim , ngi, sodium, v carbon. Li hiu chuyn bit ny th da trn s kin l nh yu tnh m mt bn th s yu c th tn ti c lp, ng thi thuc v mt loi no .

Cc ph th Chng ta miu t cc ph th nh nhng hon b gn b vo mt ch th n l bn vng, v nh nhng xc nh th yu hoc ny sinh t ht nhn trung tm ca mt s vt. Do , c trng c bn ca chng l vic ph thuc vo bn th. V l do , mt ph th thng c nh ngha nh mt thc ti m theo yu tnh th ph hp vi vic hin hu ni mt s vt khc, nh trong ch th ca n (a reality to whose essence it is proper to be in something else, as in its subject). im c trng nht ca bn th l lp hu (to subsist), ang khi iu c trng nht ca mi ph th l hin hu ni ci khc (esse in or inesse). Bn th c mt bn cht hay yu tnh c c hin hu c lp, v iu t ch th vo mt loi (within a species). Cng vy, mi ph th u c yu tnh ring ca mnh, khin cho n khc bit vi nhng ph th khc, v n phi l thuc vo s hin hu ca mt ch th. V d, mu sc th c mt yu tnh phn bit khi yu tnh ca nhit , nhng du sao khng ci no c th ng lp hu. ng ra, c hai u hin hu trong bn th no . Cc ph th th khc bit nhau rt nhiu, nhng chng ta c th phn loi chng thnh bn nhm, chiu theo ngun gc ca chng: a) Nhng ph th thuc v loi (accidents which belong to the species): chng l nhng ph th ny sinh t nhng nguyn l loi bit ca yu tnh mt s vt, do chng l nhng c im chung cho mi c th thuc cng mt loi (v d, hnh dng ca mt con nga, nhng kh nng hiu bit v c mun ni con ngi); b) Nhng ph th lun gn lin vi mi c th (accidents which are inseparable from each individual): nhng ph th ny sinh t chuyn yu tnh hin din cch chuyn bit ni mt c th no , chng hn cao hoc thp, p hoc khng p, l mt ngi n ng hay mt ngi n b tt c nhng iu trn l nhng c im c th c mt nn tng vng bn ni ch th ca chng; c) Nhng ph th c th tch bit khi mi c th (accidents which are separable from each individual): nhng ph th ny, chng hn vic ngi hoc ng, bc i hoc nghin cu, th ny sinh t nhng nguyn l ni ti ca ch th chng, nhng chng ch nh hng n ch th mt cch thong qua;

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d) Nhng ph th ny sinh t nhn t ngoi lai (accidents which stem from an external agent): mt s trong nhng ph th c th l mnh lit, tc l, chng c p t trn ch th i nghch vi xu hng bnh thng ca bn cht (v d, cn bnh do virus); nhng th khc, tri li, c th hu ch cho ch th n nhn chng (v d vic gio dc nhn c t mt ngi khc). Nhng ph th siu hnh v lun l ng trn quan im Siu hnh hc, tc l xt n s hin hu ca cc s vt, th khng c trung gian gia bn th v cc ph th: bt c thc ti no cng u hin hu hoc t thn hoc ni vt khc. Nh vy, khng ngc nhin khi ta thy mt s c im quan trng ca con ngi, nh tr nng v ch, li c k vo s nhng ph th, v chng khng t mnh lp hu, m ch hin hu ni con ngi l ch th ca chng. Du hiu phn bit ca ph th khng phi ch chng khng quan trng my v do c th tuyt i b qua. c trng phn bit ph th chnh l vic chng phi gn vo mt th g hin hu. Thc ra c nhng ph th rt quan trng, chng hn vic c mun; v c nhng th khc km quan trng hn, chng hn vic ngi mt ch. Tuy nhin, trong lun l hc, v nhng ph th thuc nhm th nht nu trn c gn mt cch khn thit cho mi c th ca mt loi, nn chng mang mt danh hiu c bit, chnh xc hn: nhng ph th ring, hoc nhng c im. Nh vy, hn t ph th c dnh cho ba loi ph th kia, c th c tm thy hoc khng tm thy ni mt c th ca mt loi no . Do vy, ng trn quan im lun l hc, ngi ta c th coi nhng c im nh nhng thc ti cch no nm gia bn th v ph th. Theo li ni thng thng, hn t ph th c s dng theo mt ngha khc. N c coi nh ng ngha vi bt c th g ngoi lai v c t cn k, v ta c th b qua n. D nhin li hiu l sai lm, v cc ph th th gn b cht ch vi bn th : chng hn, i sng con ngi (nhng bn th) ph thuc rt nhiu vo thi v tp tnh lun l ca c nhn (nhng ph th).

2. VIC HIN HU THUC V BN TH Hin hu ca bn th v ph th Ni cht ch, iu hin hu ng ngha phi l iu c vic hin hu nh mt hin th thuc v chnh n, c ngha l iu g hin hu t thn, v chuyn ny ch ph hp vi bn th. Tri li, v nhng ph th khng lp hu, chng khng c hin hu (esse) theo ngha cht: ch c ch th ca chng, cch ny cch khc, mi hin hu, ph hp vi nhng ph th 3. Trng lng ca mt con nga khng hin hu t thn, c mu sc hoc hnh dng cng vy. Do , s l ng cch khi ta ni rng con nga th nng, hoc th trng, chnh xc l v l con nga c nhng ph th . Phn tch n cng, nhng ph th khng chim hu vic hin hu ca ring n; ng hn, chng ty thuc vo vic hin hu ca bn th ng lm ch th ca chng. Chng hn, mt khi trng lng 5kg ch hin din ni mt vt th c sc nng ring bit . iu ny khng c ngha rng nhng ph th chng l g c. Chng cng hin hu, c ngha rng chng l tht, theo mc chng to nn thnh phn ca mt bn th, v kin to nhng xc nh chuyn bit cho ch th . Do , cc ph th lun hm cha s bt ton, v hin hu ca chng h ti vic hin hu ni mt vt khc, chng ty thuc vo vt , v do vy l thnh phn kin to cho mt ch th no 4. Ta cng c th i ti kt lun rng cc ph th khng c vic hin hu ring ca chng, qua vic chng ta quan st vic sn sinh hay hy hoi. V sn sinh v hy hoi vic th c hoc nh mt hin hu nh hng ln iu c hin hu, nhng thut ng ny ch c p dng cho bn th. Chng hn, mu trng khng bao gi c sn sinh hay hy hoi; ng hn, cc vt th tr nn trng hay mt i mu trng nguyn thy ca mnh. Cc ph th khng bao gi c sn sinh hay hy hoi. Chng ta ch c th pht biu ng n rng cc ph th c sn sinh hay b hy hoi theo mc ch th ca chng bt u hin hu hay thi hin hu trong hin th ph hp vi cc ph th . Bn th l hu th (ens) theo ngha cht

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V vic hin hu thuc v bn th v ph th theo nhiu cch khc bit, nn chng c gi l nhng hu th theo ngha loi suy. Chng c phn ging nhau, v c hai th u hin hu; tuy nhin, ng thi chng cng c phn khc nhau, v bn th th hin hu nh vo chnh vic hin hu ca mnh, cn cc ph th ch hin hu v chng c chng bi bn th. Do , ch c bn th mi c gi l hu th ng ngha; cn cc ph th ng ra phi gi l iu g thuc v hu th. Trong cc thc ti loi suy, lun lun c mt thc ti m thut ng loi suy c p dng ch yu cho n v theo mt ngha ph hp; sau n mi c p dng cho nhng th khc v chng c lin quan n iu trn5. Chng hn, nhiu ngha khc nhau ca t do, nh t do chnh tr, t do ngn lun, t do gio dc, u hng v ngha u tin, l t do ca ch con ngi. Trong trng hp hu th, iu loi suy chnh yu (principal analogue) l bn th, cn cc ph th l nhng loi suy th yu, ch c gi l hu th v l chng c tng quan vi bn th (n ni khi bn th c ly i, th nhng ngha khc ca hu th cng bin mt). Theo ngha ny, bn th l nn tng v c s cho mi li hin hu. Cc ph th c th c gi l hu th v chng lin quan n bn th; chng c th l lng hoc phm ca bn th , hoc l bt c kha cnh xc nh no khc. 3. PHC HP BN TH V PH TH Sau khi nghin cu bn cht ca tng cch hin hu, gi y chng ta nn ch ti cch thc chng tng quan vi nhau ni mi hu th c bit. Phn bit thc s Mt bn th v cc ph th ca n th thc s phn bit nhau. Ta hiu iu ny sng t qua vic quan st nhng thay i ph th, trong mt s hon b th yu bin mt v m ng cho mt s hon b mi, cn chnh bn th li khng h i sang mt bn th mi. Ch c th c nhng thay i nh vy nu nh cc ph th khc bit thc s khi bn th m chng nh hng ti. V d, mu sc ca mt tri to l mt iu g thc s phn bit khi chnh tri to, v tri to thay i mu sc khi n chn, nhng n vn khng thi l tri to. Nhng ph th d dng thay i khng phi l nhng ph th duy nht thc s phn bit khi bn th. Mi ph th, do chnh yu tnh ca chng, th phn bit khi ch th cng ng chng. V d, tnh cch kh phn th t bn cht l ph hp vi lng tnh, ang khi bn th xt t thn phi l n nht v bt kh phn. Tng quan l mt s quy chiu v mt iu khc; tri li, bn th l iu g ng c lp. Bn th c s bn vng ca ring mnh, thc s khc bit vi s bn vng ca cc ph th v vt trn s bn vng . Bn th xc nh ngha c bn ca cc s vt v khin cho chng tr thnh chnh chng (mt bng hoa, mt con vt, mt con ngi). Tri li, cc ph th ty thuc vo ht nhn bn th, v ng lc chng kin to nn nhng kha cnh xc nh ca bn th. Tnh n nht ca vt phc hp Phn bit thc t gia bn th v cc ph th dng nh lm gim nh tnh n nht ca mt hu th c th. Thc ra, y l kt qu ny sinh t nhng l thuyt coi bn th nh mt th nn tch bit khi cc ph th, v hu nh ch t chng gn k vi nhau mt cch ri rc. Tuy nhin, cn nhn mnh rng phn bit thc t gia bn th v cc ph th khng hy hoi tnh n nht ca hu th (real distinction substance and accidents does not destroy the unity of the being). Bn th v cc ph th khng phi l nhiu hu th tp kt vi nhau to nn mt ton khi, nh kiu nhiu yu t trang tr khc nhau c phi hp to nn mt cn phng. Ch c mt hu th theo ngha cht, c th l bn th; tt c nhng g cn li u thuc bn th. Chng hn, mt cy khng ngng l mt s vt n l, mc d n c nhiu c tnh ph th. Cc ph th l nhng thc ti khng y , khng t tr c thm vo mt bn th; chng ch l nhng kha cnh xc nh ca bn th, vn b tc cho bn th, do khng lm ny sinh nhiu s vt c xp gn nhau (juxtaposed things). Tnh n nht ca vt phc hp cng tr nn hin nhin trong trng hp cc hot ng. Chng hn mt ng vt th hin nhiu hnh ng, nhng nhng hnh ng khng h ph b tnh thng nht ca ng vt. Tri li, ton b hot ng ca n to nn mt ton khi hip nht hi ha, v l ch c mt ch th n c hot ng. Trong trng hp con ngi, th khng phi tr khn hiu bit, cng khng phi ch c mun; ng hn, chnh ngi v mi hiu v c mun nh nhng nng lc tng quan n, v do mi hot ng ca ngi v u thm nhim tnh n nht ang nm n.

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Thuyt duy nghim (Empiricism) l mt trit thuyt coi bn th nh mt iu g bn vng v khng thay i nm di dng chy cc thay i ph th. Nh vy, trong quan im duy nghim v thc ti, ngi ta khng th ni ti s n nht gia bn th v cc ph th, nhng ch c th ni n mt s cn k gia nhiu s vt khc nhau. Thuyt duy nghim coi bn th nh mt th g tn ng hon ton t tng m ngi ta c th b qua. Ta cn phi nhn mnh nhiu ln rng cc ph th th thuc v bn th, v do mi thay i ph th u nh hng ln bn th, nhng ch theo cch ph th. Esse l gc r cho tnh n nht ca bn th v cc ph th Mt hu th l mt ton b no c cu to bi mt bn th v mt s ph th. Chng u l cc yu t to nn mt th thng nht (n v = unity), v khng hin hu tch bit nhau. Khng ph th no hin hu ngoi bn th ca n, v khng bn th no hin hu ngoi cc ph th ca mnh6. Tuy nhin, nhng thc ti trn nm nhiu mc khc nhau, v nhng ph th tu thuc vo s hin hu ca bn th ch khng cn cch no khc. Do , vt phc hp hin hu nh vic hin hu (act of being = actus essendi) ca bn th, trong mi ph th u c chia s. Mi s vt ch c mt vic hin hu. Nh vy, ton b thc ti bn th v ph th ca mt hu th hin hu nh mt vic hin hu n l m, ni mt cch thch hp, hin hu thuc v bn th (the entire substantial and accidental reality of a being is by virtue of a single act of being, which, properly speaking, belongs to the substance). Mt hu th c esse ph hp vi cch thc c xc nh bi yu tnh loi bit ca n, tc l yu tnh ca bn th. Hon b bn th ny, li lm ny sinh mt lot rng ri cc hon b ph th ph hp vi cch hin hu chuyn bit . Do , mi con ngi l mt hu th n l chim hu vic hin hu ph hp vi yu tnh hay bn cht nhn loi ca ngi . T cp hon b ca hu th, ny sinh nhng hon b ph th ca ngi : chng hn, mt kt cu vt th no , mt mc cm v v nhng nng lc vn ng, cng nh nhng hot ng tinh thn. Mt hu th c mt vic hin hu (actus essendi), l vic hin hu ca bn th. D khng c hin hu ring ca mnh, th cc ph th cng vn c tht, nh vic hin hu ca bn th. Tuy nhin, c mt s ngi thuc phi Thomas li ch trng cc ph th c mt hin hu ring ca chng, phn bit khi hin hu ca bn th. Nhng pht biu c khuynh hng gim nh tnh n nht trit ca mt hu th. i khi Thnh Thomas s dng nhng thut ng esse substantiale v esse accidentale. Tuy nhin, trong nhng trng hp , thut ng esse khng c ngha l actus essendi cch cht ngha; n c dng theo mt ngha tng qut hn c ngha l thc t (esse in actu); mi hu th th nht nh phi c mt s thc ti ph th phn bit khi thc ti bn th ca n, nhng hu th ch c nhng ph th ni trn nh vo mt esse n l, v esse ny ng ra thuc v bn th. Ba cch tng quan gia bn th v cc ph th a) Bn th l th nn cho cc ph th (The substance is the substratum of the accidents), khng ch theo mc bn th chng cc ph th, nhng cn theo mc n em li vic hin hu cho cc ph th. b) Bn th l cn nguyn ca cc ph th ny sinh t n. V d, hnh th (shape) ca mt con vt l hiu qu ca nhng nguyn l ct yu ca n, v v l do ny, mi c th ca cng mt loi u c hnh th ging nhau. c) Bn th c mt kh nng th ng (a passive capacity) n nhn nhng hon b m cc ph th em li cho n, nhng ph th c gi l cc hnh th ph th; v d, nhng hot ng (tc l nhng ph th) l mt loi hon b m bn th c tim nng th hin. Mi tng quan gia bn th v cc ph th dng nh l iu nghch l: mt ng, bn th l cn nguyn cho cc ph th, nhng ng thi bn th li trong tim nng tip nhn cc ph th. S nghch l ny c gii quyt ngay khi ta hiu rng bn th v cc ph th l hai nguyn l ca mt s vt i hi ln nhau v khng th tn ti tch bit nhau. Hn na, trong tng quan vi cc ph th, bn th khng l hin th v tim nng theo cng mt quan im, nhng t nhng quan im phn bit nhau. Bn th l ph th i vi nhng ph th theo mc n cho cc ph th chia s hin hu ca n, ang khi bn th li thuc tim nng (is potential) i vi cc ph th theo mc n c hon thin bi cc ph th ring ca mnh. Do , mt ngi th hin mt s hot ng, vn tun tro t tnh thc hu ni bn th ca mnh; ng thi, cng nhng hot ng li nh hng ln ngi y v em li cho ngi y hon b ln hn.

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4. TRI THC CA TA V BN TH V PH TH Cch thc chng ta nhn bit bn th v ph th c xc nh bi nhng bn cht tng ng v nhng mi tng quan h tng ca chng. Trc ht, phc hp bn th ph th c nhn bit bi tr khn da trn nn tng nhng d kin m gic quan em li (the substance-accident composite is known through the intelligence on the basis of the data provided by the senses). Nhn thc gic quan lun quy chiu trc tip v cc ph th ca mt s vt; tri li, tr khn chng ta, thng qua cc ph th, nm bt c ngun mch v nn tng ca chng, tc l bn th. D nhin, iu ny ch c th xy ra v l cc ph th khng ging nh tm mn che giu bn th: tri li, cc ph th vn m bn th. V c i tng ring l hu th, nn tr nng khng b gii hn vo chuyn nm bt nhng kha cnh ngoi bin hn ca s vt, nhng n nhn bit bt c th g hin hu, ngha l ton b hu th vi tt c nhng c tnh thc t ca hu th. Nh vy, tr nng nm bt hu th nh mt ton khi, c cu to bi bn th v cc ph th. Vic phn bit gia bn th v cc ph th ch c nm bt qua tr nng. iu ny khng th t c nh gic quan ngoi hay ni v nhng quan nng ch tri gic nhng ph th7. Trong tin trnh nhn bit hu th c bit ca mt loi, chng ta lun qua li t bn th n cc ph th, v ngc li. cho sng t hn, chng ta nn phn bit ba giai on nhn thc : a) Trc ht, iu chng ta c c l mt nhn thc cn m h v iu phc hp. Khi chng ta bt gp mt i tng cha bit c, cha quen thuc bn cht ca n, lp tc chng ta hiu rng nhng phm tnh m gic quan chng ta nm bt (v d, mu sc, hnh th, kch c) khng phi l nhng thc ti c lp nhng l mt ton b c thng nht qua vic tt c chng u thuc v mt bn th. D l giai on khi u vic nhn bit mt i tng nh th, th chng ta vn bit rng cc ph th l nhng biu l th yu ca mt ch th vn hin hu t thn, cho d chng ta khng bit c bn th thuc loi no. Nht l v hu th l iu c tr nng ta nhn bit u tin, v theo ngha cht th ch bn th mi l hu th, nn tr nng chng ta khng th nm bt cc ph th m ng thi li khng nm bt ch th ca chng. b) Tip n, t cc ph th chng ta tin n bn th. Khi m ch th ca cc ph th ch c nhn bit mt cch m h, th cc ph th, vn biu l bn th, tr nn ng li t nhin nhn bit bn th l g, tc l nhn bit yu tnh hay bn cht ca bn th. Cc ph th ca mt con ngi (hnh th, nhng hot ng) chng hn, s dn chng ta n yu tnh ca con ngi: l ng vt c l tnh. Do , c th ni c rng, khi i t nhng kha cnh bn ngoi ca mt hu th, chng ta dn d nm bt nhng kha cnh su xa, ni thn hn ca n. Chng ta thm nhp ht nhn bn th t nhng biu l ngoi bin hn. c) T bn th, chng ta quay tr li cc ph th. Mt khi chng ta khm ph yu tnh ca mt s vt, tri thc ny tr nn mt nh sng mi m hn, soi sng mi ph th ny sinh t bn th. N gip chng ta c c mt khi nim tho ng hn v mi mt ph th v v nhng mi tng quan gia chng. Chng ta khng cn nhn bit chng ch thun tu l nhng biu l b ngoi ca iu g , m bn cht cn m h i vi chng ta. ng hn, chng ta nhn bit chng nh nhng biu l ph hp cho mt cch thc hin hu ring bit. Mt khi chng ta nhn bit yu tnh ca mt con ngi chng hn, chng ta c th nm bt d dng hn na nhng ph th khc bit ca hn, v chng ta bit rng chng ny sinh t bn cht con ngi v l thuc vo bn cht . iu ny gip chng ta nm bt ngha thc t ca chng tt hn. Chng hn, chng ta c th nm bt nhiu hot ng ca con ngi nh hiu qu ca mt hot ng c suy ngh v t do, m iu ny li chnh l hiu qu ca yu tnh loi bit ca con ngi, v do , chng ta c th nm bt chng trong chiu kch thc t ca chng. Bng khng, cho d chng ta c th t c mt miu t ht sc chi tit v cc hot ng ca con ngi v thnh cng trong vic o lng nhiu kha cnh ca hnh vi nhn loi, th tri thc ca ta v nhn v vn ht sc ngho nn; thm ch chng ta cn khng th nhn ra rng con ngi c mt linh hn thing ling v bt t. Tm li, ta c th ni rng nhn thc ca ta khi u t nhng c im kh gic ca s vt, c tri gic nh nhng biu l ca mt s vt vn c hin hu. Nhng c im ny by t yu tnh cho ta, v n lt cc ph th li c coi nh ny sinh t bn th ny, bn th vn cho chng ta nh sng hiu bit v cc ph th tt hn na. D nhin, tin trnh ny khng tri qua v hon tt ngay trong mt lc. Thc vy, mt dng chy bt tn chnh l c im cho nhn thc ca ta, khi ta di ng t nhng ph th

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sang bn th, v t bn th sang nhng ph th, s dn dn th c mt tri thc su xa hn v c hai th .

SCH C THM

ARISTOTLE, Metaphysica, VII, ch. 1-6. SAINT THOMAS, In Metaph., VII, lect. 1; C.G. I, 25. R. JOLIVET, La notion de substance, (Essai historique et critique sur le dveloppement des doctrines d Aristote nos jours), Beauchesne, Paris 1929.

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CHNG II: CC PHM TR1. KHI NIM V CC PHM TR (CATEGORIES)

Bn th v cc ph th l nhng cch thc hin hu c bn m mi thc ti u c th gin lc vo. Mc d nhng hon b ph th cho thy mt s a dng ng k, ta vn c th xp loi chng thnh 9 nhm. Bn th v 9 loi ph th kin to nn mi lp ti thng (hoc ging) ca hu th m chng ta gi l cc phm tr. Nhng phm tr ni ln nhng cch thc hin hu thc t1. V hu th c phn nh trong nhn thc v trong ngn ng, nn nhng cch thc hin hu cng c ni kt hu l i vi nhng nhm thuc t tng ng m ta c th gn cho mt s vt2. Thc t, iu ny c ngun gc Latinh l predicamenta, cng ng ngha vi hn t gc Hy lp categories. Qu vy, cun sch Aristotle vit v lun l mang ta Cc Phm tr (The Categories). Trc khi bn n tng loi phm tr, chng ta c th nu ln mt s v d soi sng. Chng hn, ta c th ni v Phr, rng anh ta l mt con ngi (bn th), rng anh ta th tt (phm cht), rng anh ta th cao (lng), rng anh ta l con ng Antn (tng quan), rng anh ta trong phng ( u), rng anh ta ngi (v th), rng anh ta c mt cy vit ch (chim hu), rng anh ta n vo lc 7 gi (khi no), rng anh ta ang vit (hot ng), rng anh ta ang kht (th ng). V bn kh v bn th, gi y chng ta s xem xt bn cht ring bit ca mi mt trong cc phm tr khc. Mt c im chung ca mi ph th l bm vo mt bn th, c ngha rng chng trong (esse in) mt ch th, vic ny khin cho chng l nhng ph th. D nhin, mi ph th u c mt yu tnh ring, qua n xc nh bn th theo mt cch thc phn bit. Chng hn, c lng ln phm u trong bn th v chia s hin hu ca bn th, nhng lng em li cho bn th trng , trng lng v khi lng, ang khi phm xc nh bn th theo nhng cch thc khc, chng hn em li cho bn th mu sc, cng, mi v nht nh. Ni cch cht ch, yu tnh ca mi mt thc ti ph th khng th nh ngha c, v chng l nhng ging ti cao, v ch c khi nim hu th mi tng qut hn chng. Bn cnh , chng l nhng thc ti hin minh trc tip, c nhn bit qua kinh nghim (v d, lng, v cc phm cht nh mu sc hay hnh th, u c nhn bit trc tip nh cc gic quan). Tuy nhin, chng c th c miu t v c minh ha bng cc v d. 2. PHN LOI CHN GING TI CAO trn chng ta xp loi cc ph th theo ngun gc ca chng. Gi y chng ta xp loi chng theo yu tnh ca chng, ngha l chiu theo nhng cch thc ring bit m chng nh hng ln bn th. a) Trc ht, c nhng ph th nh hng cch ni ti n bn th; nhm ny bao gm lng v phm, (vn xc nh bn th ni chnh n v theo mt cch thc tuyt i) v nhng tng quan, (vn xc nh bn th bng cch qui chiu n nhng th khc). Mi bn th vt th hoc vt cht u c mt lng nht nh, c t by ni trng , kch c hoc khi lng ca chng: ph th ny l chung cho mi vt th v n ny sinh t vt cht. Cc phm cht l nhng ph th khin cho bn th thuc v loi ny hay loi kia, v chng ny sinh t yu tnh ca bn th (hoc, ni cht ch hn, t hnh th ca bn th). Do , mi loi bn th u c mt s phm cht nht nh, t nh mu sc hoc hnh th nht nh, v mt s kh nng hot ng no . V chng ny sinh t hnh th, nn cc phm cht cng c tm thy ni cc bn th khng thuc vt cht, tc l ni cc bn th thing ling. Trong trng hp cc vt th, nhng phm cht nh hng ln bn th nh lng: chng hn, mu sc cn n s h tr ca mt mt phng; nhit lun lun thuc v mt th g tri rng ra. Cc mi tng quan, vn c coi nh nhng ph th ngoi lai nu xt n nhng tn im ca chng, xc nh bn th qua vic qui chiu n nhng th khc. Chng hn, tnh huynh l mi tng

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quan h tng gia cc ngi anh em. T h l tng quan thuc v mt con ngi khi qui chiu n cha m ngi . b) Tip n c nhng ph th ngoi lai, nh hng thc s ln bn th, khng phi trong v do bn th, nhng ch theo cch thc bn ngoi v qua mi tng quan ca bn th vi nhng vt th khc. V d, ni ny hoc ni kia, khng lm thay i mt con ngi t bn trong, iu m vic th c mt phm cht mi m c th lm c. Cng nh bt c ph th no khc, nhng ph th ngoi lai th ni bn th m chng nh hng ti, v nh bn th m chng c c hin hu. Nhng nn tng trc tip ca chng li l mt trong nhng ph th ni ti: chng hn, mt vt th mt ni chn, chnh xc l v n c trng , ging nh nhng vt th khc m n tip xc. u (where = ubi) l vic chim ch ca bn th : ph th ny sinh ni mt vt th bi v vt th ni ny hoc ni kia. S hin din ca mt vt th mt ni chn l mt ph th thc s nh hng ln s vt c nh ch, v n em li cho s vt mt mi tng quan vi nhng vt th khc. Tuy nhin, u khng em li mt s thay i ni ti no cho ch th; n ch xc nh ch th trong mi tng quan vi nhng bn th vt th khc gn m thi. V th (position = situs) l cch thc hin hu ca mt vt th ti mt ni chn, chng hn ngi, ng, qu, hoc khom lng. N khc bit vi u v n lin quan n vic sp xp ni ti gia cc phn ca vt th ang chim ch. Mt vt th c th nhiu v th khc nhau trong cng mt ni chn. Chim hu (possession = habitus) l ph th ny sinh khi bn th c iu g tip gip hoc st ngay bn n, (mc y phc, s dng mt cy vit, mang mt chic ng h). Theo ngha cht, ch con ngi mi c kh nng chim hu mt iu g ; nh vy, ni cch chnh xc, habitus ch dnh ring cho con ngi. Khi no (when = quando) l hon cnh thi gian ca mt bn th vt th. V vt th l vt cht, nn chng l ch th cho nhng thay i lin tc, v tri qua nhiu giai on. Vic o lng nhng thay i chnh l thi gian, v khi no m ch khonh khc chuyn bit vo bt c thi im no trong vic thay i . Do , n l mt ph th nh hng n nhng hu th vt cht trong mc chng thay i tim tin. c) Sau cng, c mt s ph th phn l ni ti v phn l ngoi lai. C v s nhng tng tc lin tc gia cc vt th kin to nn th gii vt cht; chng lm ny sinh nhng ph th hot ng v th ng. Hot ng (Action) l ph th ny sinh ni mt bn th theo mc n l nguyn l tc nhn cho s chuyn ng hoc thay i ni mt ch th khc. Chng hn, vic y mt ci bn, un si nc l nhng hot ng, khng phi xt chng ti thn, nhng xt ch chng c coi nh nhng hot ng ny sinh t mt tc nhn vn lm nguyn l cho s thay i din ra bi mt iu khc. D nhin, chnh vic thay i th thuc v nhng phm tr khc; chuyn ng ni chn thuc v ubi, vic tri rng thuc v lng, v nhng thay i nhit thuc v phm. Th ng (Passion) ny sinh ni nhng vt th theo mc chng l nhng ch th n nhn hot ng ca nhng th khc. V l mt iu g c tc ng ln, nhiu khi ch th th ng c gi l th nhn (patient). N l ph th tng ng vi hot ng v, ni mt cch cht ch, n n nhn mt tc ng din tin t vt khc. Nhng v d nu trn, chng hn vic c un nng trong trng hp ca nc, th thuc v phm tr th ng theo mc chng c gy ra bi mt tc nhn ngoi lai. Theo ngha cht, hai ph th tng ng ni trn ch c tm thy ni nhng hot ng ngoi chuyn c tc nhn em n t bn ngoi, chng hn vic un nng hoc vic ct. Tri li, nhng hot ng tinh thn th ni ti, c ngha rng chng kt thc ni cng mt nng lc m t chng pht sinh. Khi mt con ngi hiu bit hoc tng tng mt iu g chng hn, th khng c hiu qu no ny sinh bn ngoi tr nng hoc tr tng tng. C mt trt t ni cc ph th Mc d trn ta thy rng bn th l ch th ph hp cho mi ph th, v ch mnh bn th mi lp hu, th mt ph th vn c th c gi l ch th cho mt ph th khc, theo mc iu sau gn b hoc ng ti bn th thng qua iu trc. V d, mu sc l mt phm cht nh hng ln bn th vt th thng qua lng ca vt th; bn th no khng c lng th cng khng c mu sc.

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Cng vy, mt ph th c th c coi l trong tim nng i vi mt ph th khc. Chng hn, mt vt th trong sut c th c chiu sng, v bt c iu g c lng th cng c kh nng mt ni chn khc vi ni chn m lc ny n ang chim ch. Sau cng, mt s ph th c th c coi l cn nguyn cho nhng ph th khc, chng hn vic ngi cha sinh ra mt ngi con lm ny sinh nhng mi tng quan cha con, v nhn c cng bng (mt phm cht) kin to nn cn nguyn cho nhng cng vic ngay chnh. Nhng mi tng quan h tng nh vy lm ny sinh mt trt t nht nh gia cc ph th, v theo ngha ny, lng c coi l ph th u tin ca nhng bn th vt th, v mi ph th khc u bn r ni bn th nh lng. Cc ph th gn b ni nhng thc ti vt cht, c bit l lng, th c nghin cu nhiu hn trong Trit Hc v Thin Nhin. Phm cht v tng quan l hai dng ph th m Siu hnh hc nghin cu k cng hn, v nhng ph th ny c th c tm thy ni bt c bn th th to no, ch khng ring g nhng bn th vt cht. 3. PHM CHT T yu tnh, mi bn th u c cch thc hin hu ring (n thuc loi ny hay loi kia). Do nhng yu tnh ring bit ca chng, cc bn th khc nhau, ngoi v bn trn nhng yu t xc nh nn tng, cng chim hu mt s c tnh ph th b tc cho nhng nt ring bit ca chng. Chng l mt s phm cht, t nh hnh th, mu sc, cng, nhit , kh nng hot ng (hay nng lng), nhng nt c trng, v cc sc lc. Phm cht l mt p