The Semantics of Prepositions (From Mental Processing to Natural Language Processing) || Index

Index

Prepositions are printed in italics: D = Dutch, Ε = English, F = French, G = German

aan (D) 37 about (E) 75, 82, 95, 124, 306 above (E) 31, 106 ff„ 110, 125, 330 abstraction 2

in the mental lexicon 363 of essential properties 369

across (E) 31, 106, 119, 122, 332 active zone 39 adposition

spatial 20 after (E) 121, 315 f. ago( E) 314 all across (E) 331, 334 f. all along (E) 336 all around (E) 334 all over (E) 331, 334 all through (E) 334 f. along (E) 19, 30, 119, 155 f., 336, 360,

368 f. als(G) 301 ambiguity 161

lexical 11, 355, 385 an( G) 307,452 analysis

in natural language processing 1, 353 of source language 375

ANTLIMA 480 applicability degree 478, 486, 504 argument

external 223, 225 f., 229, 245 internal 238 f., 245

argument structure 101, 113 f., 118, 129, 139, 141

around (Ε) 19 ,30,155,334 artificial intelligence 357, 436, 441, 446 as(E) 301 as soon as (E) 301 aspect 19, 168 at (E) 7, 19, 74, 76, 93, 108, 111, 127,

133, 305 f., 310, 329, 336, 371

attention distribution of 373, 376 focus of 366

auf (G) 452 autonomy 30 away from (E) 329,336 axis

horizontal 15, 254, 288 identification of 407, 420 maximal 234 observer 15,226,254,260,265,272, 288 vertical 6, 15, 254, 371

axis-based sides 254

background 3, 9 base 8, 31 basic cognitive domains 357 because (E) 112 before (E) 102 ff., 106, 314, 316 behind (E) 31, 33,103,110,330 bei (G) 306, 448, 452, 463 below (E) 125,330 beneath (E) 330 beside (E) 122 between (E) 155,333,360 between ... and (E) 315 bevor (G) 316 bis (G) 309, 316 f., 321 Boolean algebra 401,415 bottom of object 257

intrinsic 281 boundedness 338

of reference objects 198 f., 201, 209 f., 279 mental closure of, see Gestaltschließung

bounding 5, 17, 190, 201, 368 by (E) 79, 119, 124, 128, 136, 140, 309,

317 by the time (E) 316

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518 Index

C-selection 102, 126, 133 calculus of individuals 401 case

accusative 312 genitive 308 inherent 107, 136, 141 structural 107

case property 106, 122, 129, 139, 141 Case Theory 107 categorization

natural 205, 207 of perceptual data 339 semantic 4, 10, 13

category discrete 3 functional 105 lexical 100 f., 122, 139, 143 natural 205 prototypical 21 schematic 21 semantic 4 vague 3

chains of meaning 18,76 classification function

and typicality 488, 491 binary 504 graded 478, 486, 493

close to (E) 125 coercion

of spatial objects 499, 505 cognition

adequate and symbolic 508 disposition 351 equivalence 509

Cognitive Grammar 3 f., 8, 12, 14, 18, 20, 363, 365

cognitive routine 3 structure 339

coincidence situation 263 f., 278 compositionality 357 computational linguistics 18, 362 concept

abstract 5 autonomous lexical 29 geometrical 258, 435 spatial 5, 441, 484, 503 topological 258

conceptual information 221, 224 ff., 229 f., 236, 245 f.

conceptual properties functional 15 gestalt 15 structural 15

conceptual representation 279 conceptual structure (CS) 221, 236, 269,

272 conceptual variants 124, 126, 130 conceptualization 3 f., 8, 21, 179 f., 354

and specificity 352 metonymic 360 of spatial objects, see idealization principles of object conceptualization 16, 180 f., 212, 214

condition communicative 11 contextual 14, 481, 496, 510 necessary and sufficient 4, 11, 32, 179, 188, 190, 203-206 pragmatic 4, 9, 353, 365

configuration of landmark 17,338 of trajector 338 spatial 16, 21, 39, 210, 367 f., 373

configurational information 344 conjunction, temporal 21 constraints

contextual 4 constraints on linguistic expressions

cognitive 352 f. context

marked 431 non-verbal/extra-linguistic 270, 397 normal 432

context conditions see condition contextual

context of discourse see discourse context

conventionality 3 f., 10 cooccurrence restrictions 19, 88 f., 94,

107, 109 cross-linguistic relation 344, 352

dans (F) 16, 18, 41 f., 179, 183, 185, 187 f., 190, 192, 394, 401, 417, 422 ff., 429, 431 f., 434



Index 519

deductions 394 default meaning 359 defaults

of semantic relations 358 defeated,

see knowledge, defeasible depictorial representation 16, 23, 446,

467 depth assignment 261 f., 265, 276 derriere (F) 183 devant( F) 183 dimension adjectives 256 Dimension Interpretation 256 f., 262, 264,

288 dimension projection

mental process of 210 dimension reduction

mental process of 196, 210 dimensional expressions 249 dimensionality 5, 37, 39, 45, 50, 59, 62 f.,

159, 199, 213 and boundedness 50-53, 197, 199 designation of 250, 281 of objects 5 ,15 ,17 ,159 ,190 ,199 , 201 f., 209, 213, 279, 449, 450 of related entities 37, 39, 62, 364, 368, 372 of the landmark 156, 159, 341, 373, 376

disambiguation of word senses 96, 167, 353

discourse context 358, 360 discourse domain 21 discourse situation 8 f., 363, 370, 374 ff.,

385 disposition

spatial 374 distance adjective 256, 259 Distance Interpretation 256 ff., 262, 288 domain

abstract 19, 76, 354 basic 13 mental 73 semantic 8, 120, 123 spatial 89, 446 specific 13, 21 temporal 20, 368

domain of discourse see discourse domain

down (E) 106, 155, 330 durch (G) 15,221-246,449 during (E) 119, 306 f., 310 f. dynamism

in the lexicon 357

economy in computational linguistics 362 in mental categorization 362

encounter situation 263, 277 encyclopedic

see meaning, encyclopedic entlang (G) 449 environment 8

spatial 4 events

simultaneous 300 temporal ordering of 315

experience physical 4 preconceptual 4

experiential approach 255 extension

of predicates 3 metaphorical 3, 10, 18, 20, 85, 380 ff. metonymic 10, 18, 380 semantic, of prepositions 85 semantic 3, 13, 18, 19, 73, 362, 380, 382 spatial 5 temporal 5

family of concepts 13, 14 family resemblance relation

see family resemblance structure family resemblance structure 10, 16 f., 29,

44, 56, 206, 362 feature

necessary and sufficient 29 semantic 1

figure 9, 31 figure-ground reversal 370 flexibility

in computational linguistics 362 f. in the use of prepositions 371 lexical 355



520 Index

for (Ε) 11, 119, 140, 169, 170f., 312ff„ 317, 322, 359

foreground 3, 9 formalism 385, 394

inferential properties of 394 propositional 16

from (E) 75 f., 84, 103, 134, 332 f., 336 from ... behind (E) 103 f. from ...on (E) 316 from ...to (E) 315,331,333 front of object

intrinsic 281 front-based region 266 function 6, 18, 21

graded 17 typical 372, 374, 376 f., 432, 434

functional properties 234 ff., 238 f. für/auf {G) 313, 318, 322 fuzziness 16, 60

gegen (G) 306 generalization 203

schematic 358 generation

in natural language processing 1,17, 21 of a semantic representation 358

genericity 10 geometric property 354, 367, 446 geometry

projective 401 gestalt

mental 4f., 225 f. gestalt properties 222, 225 f., 233-239,

241 Gestalt Psychology 4, 9, 365 Gestaltschließung

cognitive principle of 209 f. process of 193, 197, 368 f.

gradation see graded classification function 484, 489

grammaticalization 19 f., 100, 141 f. granularity

of space in natural language 401 gravity 352, 366, 423 Grice's Cooperativity Principle 480

ground in Gestalt psychology 9, 31 in metaphorization 384

head lexical 101,107,111,113,118,121, 139 f. semantic 101, 107 syntactic 101, 107

high{E) 256 highlighting

contextual constraints on 4, 360 f. hinter (G) 252, 264 hoch (G) 258 Horizontal 266

idealization of geometrical and topological proper-ties 360, 368, 374, 376 of spatial objects 499, 503, 506

identification 285 image

mental 17 image schema 4, 89, 153, 364 immobility 273 implicatures 372, 430 in (D) 16 f., 35, 43, 56, 60 in (E) 7, 28, 64, 74, 78, 102 f., 111,

126 ff., 131, 133 f., 137, 143, 155, 308, 310, 329, 335, 360, 364, 377, 384

in (G) 310, 322 in back o / (E) 330 in front o / (E) 7, 30, 122, 330 inference 381,427,434 information processing 1, 2

economical 356 flexible 356 distribution of 1 functional 233 f., 236, 238 f. prototypical 29

informativity 19, 169 inmitten (G) 450 innate structure 21 innerhalb (G) 311 interlingua 353 internal argument 443 Internal Localization Noun (ILN) 394



Index 521

interpretation computational 15 linguistic 4 propositional 352 f. semantic 352, 355

into{E) 7, 102, 330 f., 335

jenseits (G) 453

knowledge about typical use 18 background 352, 359, 368 classificatory 363 conceptual 12, 362 contextual 12 defeasible 18 encyclopedic 13 flexible use of 357 indefeasible 18 lexical 12 pragmatic 18 semantic 12, 362 stereotypical 362

landmark (lm) 6, 9, 16, 19, 27, 153, 365 f., 369, 422 ff.

language performance 351, 357 later {E) 315 lattice theoretical analysis 17, 413 level

depictorial 461, 464 functional 17, 400, 410 geometrical 17, 397, 400 f. grammatical 443 linguistic 444 of conceptual representation 12, 14 f., 182, 265, 444 ff. pragmatic 400 propositional 460 f., 474, 508 semantic 14, 446

lexical acquisition 353 lexical change 354 lexical entry 258 lexical variant 108, 123 f., 142 lexicalization 19, 124, 133, 143, 357

language-specific 11 lexicalization patterns 355 lexicon

semantic 13, 356 f.

LILOG 15,467 linguistic hedges 17 links (G) 252 listener model 480 localization 453

dynamic 15, 456 ff. static 15 typical 16

located entity (LE) see located object

located object (LO) 9, 15, 442 f., 448 ff., 452 ff., 456, 459 f., 463 f., 466

location 15 random 160 vertical 86

logic 394 first-order predicate 18 non-monotonic 18, 363, 397, 432 order-sorted predicate 467

mass terms 414, 416 meaning extensions of prepositions

see extension, semantic of prepositions meaning

conventional 355 encyclopedic 16, 327, 362 functional 16, 396, 435 generic 355 ideal 363 f., 371, 376, 385, 502 indexical 360 intrinsic 10, 353, 374 lexical 28, 118 linguistic 3 f., 13 prototypical 2, 14, 17, 206 f. schematic 14 spatial 16, 384

mental closure of object boundaries see Gestaltschließung

mental completion of material boundaries see Gestaltschließung

mental image 473,481,489,493,501, 506

mental manipulation of object conceptuali-zation principles of 193, 196 f., 199, 202, 207-215

mental model 444



522 Index

mereology 401, 415 meronomy 412, 416, 419, 421, 423 f.,

426 f., 430 metaphor 362, 380

and abstract meaning 384 established 384 frozen or dead 384 in computational linguistics 380 spatial 377

metaphorization 5, 209, 214 f. metonymic 9 metonymy 5, 257, 362 f., 373, 380

logical 362 mind 1 ,2 mobility 5, 7 modularity 268, 435, 445 motion 7, 9, 82

nach (G) 315 nachdem (G) 316 naive physics 396, 401, 410, 436 natural language processing (NLP) 1 f.,

21 f., 353, 441 near (Ε) 118,122,125,137,330 neighbourhood region 253, 258, 260

side-based 288 network model 152 next (E) 122

object catagorization processes of 6, 16, 181, 212, 214, 278

object category see object concepts

object concepts 181,272,447 interaction with prepositions 177-217 spatial properties of 177-217, 188, 456

Object Schema (OS) 15, 234 f., 241, 254, 269, 278, 285

objects spatial 476, 483, 497, 499

observer 31 observer-related sides 263 f. of (E) 107, 109, 127, 129, 137, 140 off (E) 75, 119, 329, 332, 335 on (E) 7, 19, 28, 74, 77, 125, 128, 130 f.,

133, 136, 306, 329, 335, 364 f., 373, 376, 378 f.

on top ο / (Ε) 122, 330

onto (Ε) 332, 335 ο/? (D) 32,156 orientation 7 ff., 15, 18, 272, 396, 408

actual 6 f. canonical 6 f., 273, 281 contextually induced 6, 274 f. deictic 411 fixed 273, 281 inherent 6, 274, 281 intrinsic 6 ,281 ,370 ,374 ,410 spatial 5 f.

orientation-point see point of orientation

out o / (E) 75, 128 ff., 143, 155, 329, 330f., 335

over (E) 32, 83, 95, 107, 155, 330, 371 f.

parameter 14, 21, 221, 224f„ 230 configurational 338 innate 338, 348 of structure 338 path 15, 229, 231, 233, 239, 246 relational 338 semantic 285, 459 f.

past (E) 31 perception 17 perfectivity 158 period of time 79, 305,310 periods

simultaneous 303 perspective 2, 8, 352 perspectivization 6 f., 261, 263, 265, 273,

275, 281 canonical 276 f. contextually induced 277 inherent 277

plasticity in categorization 356, 371

plurals 413,418 point in time 79, 305, 308 point of departure 84 point of orientation 74, 76

metaphorical 77 point of view

observer's 6 speaker's 7, 9, 372 f.

points simultaneous 303



Index 523

polysemy 10, 12, 32, 151, 354, 362 f., 380 position 9, 15 positional variation 281 postposition

Japanese 328 predicates

prepositional state 86 predication

function of 8 relational 8 scope of 8

preposition accompaniment 80 area 85 ff. case 20, 137 f., 140 f. cause 93 ff. circumstance 565 ff. connection 79 contact 77, 85 deictic use of 7, 31, 165, 452, 464 directional 330-334 dynamic 80 enclosure 78 formal definition of 394 German projective 249-288 instrument 90 intransitive 173 intrinsic use of 7, 31 lexical 19 locative 334 manner 90 means 85, 90 movement 82 multiplex 19, 155 non-lexical 19 path 64, 81, 221, 223 f., 236 projective 7, 14, 17, 256 projective, extrinsic use of 14 proximity 75 separation 75, 84 ff. simplex 19, 155 source 74, 84 spatial 27, 221 f., 471, 473, 479, 483, 502 static 35 f., 80, 85, 87 temporal 21, 295, 298 temporal ordering 315 vertical space 75

preposition stranding 138 prepositional variants 100 Primary Perceptual Space (PPS) 15, 261,

254 ff., 273 Principle

Lincencing 116 principle

of maximum trajector 432 of minimum landmark 433 relevance 8, 372 salience 8, 369 f. tolerance 371 typicality 8, 370

principles biological 8 cognitive 8, 16, 20, 182f., 208, 212, 214 f., 352, 367, 369, 385

see also mental manipulation of object conceptualization

fixation 431 localization 448 of mentally creating boundary 211 of subsumption 209,212 pragmatic 8, 18, 21, 397, 430, 434 f. spatial 441

processing conceptual 459-467 of semantic representation 12,180, 182 ff., 187 f., 208, 211

profile 8, 31 projection

geometrical 408, 420 projection properties 101, 106, 111, 139,

141 Prototype theory 12 prototypicality 13, 62, 362 psycholinguistics 435 purpose 8

quantifiers floated 136

quantity of objects 18

radial structure 96, 484 reanalysis 130, 143 rear of object

intrinsic 281



524 Index

rear-based region 266 reasoning

analogical 355, 384 human 17 spatial 441

rechts (G) 252 redundancy

lexical 358, 363 reference object (RO) 9, 15 f., 252 f., 257,

260, 264 f., 285, 442 f., 448, 449-455, 459, 463

reference relation 471 experiential 473 objectivist 472, 508 realistic, see objectivist

reference semantics in Artificial Intelligence 471 of spatial prepositions 471 operational 475, 493, 506

reference system extrinsic 451 intrinsic 451

referent 471 fictitious 472 perceived 473 spatial 471

relation antonymy 259, 260, 288 between trajector and landmark 374 common sense spatial 17 default 370 directional 7 dynamic 7 functional 17, 370 ordering 17

part-whole 17, 35 f., 55, 412, 416, 418, 421, 452, 463 positional 7 projective 7 spatial 8, 19, 21, 27, 456, 459 spatial universal 367 static 7, 80 temporal 409 topological 7

relational information 344 relevance

communicative 372

of parts of objects or situations 2, 18, 21, 352, 367, 373, 375 ff., 385, 433 f., 450, 465

representation lexical 18 semantic 3

right of (E) 360 round (E) 122,306 rule

lexical 20

S-selection 144 salience 8

of parts of objects or situations 2, 21, 352, 367, 375 f., 382, 385, 465 of shape 372 ff., 377

schema 13 f., 363 schema theory 362 schematic structure 5 schematization 21, 367, 370, 375 ff.

and translation 374 principles of 375

schematization type 368, 371, 382, 384 transfer of 381 f., 384 f.

search domain 16, 454 f., 459 f., 466 seit (G) 11,314,318,322,358 seit (dem) (G) 316 selection properties 108 f., 116, 123, 135 selection tree 22, 295, 319 selectional restrictions

of preposition 358 semantic form 221 f., 224, 227, 237, 243,

265, 269 semantic representation 14

of spatial prepositions 14, 16, 181 ff., 188, 203 ff., 207 f., 211 f., 214

semantic structure 1, 229 f. semantics

cognitive 27, 181, 206 common sense 362, 441 formal 3, 393 437 lexical 27 f., 206 modularized 17 naive 362, 396 procedural 400, 475, 478, 493, 503 prototype 205 f., 207, 358, 362 reference, see reference semantics



Index 525

semantics and pragmatics 3, 357, 435 situation 363

sense abstract 19 durative 22 lexical default 362 f., 374 novel 18 polysemous 18

set-theory and basic spatial relations 366

shape 5, 15, 407 sidedness 15 similarity judgements 206 f., 209 since (E) 11, 108, 125, 314, 316, 359 situation of discourse

see discourse situation sobald (G) 301 SOCCER 17, 475, 483 sous (F) 183, 434 space

absolute 401 Newtonian conception of 31 physical 31 relativistic 31 structure in natural language processing 401

specification 285 state 21

passive 86 stevent (state or event) 296 sur (F) 18, 183, 394, 401, 412, 4 1 9 ^ 2 2 ,

428, 434 synthesis

in machine translation 1, 353, 382 system

conceptual 13 image understanding 1 ,17 machine translation 21 natural language processing 373 question answering 446 semantic 13 text understanding 15, 17, 446

tegen (D) 317 Thematic Dependency Requirement (TDR)

136 thematic roles

see theta roles

therefore (E) 112 theta binding 117,132 theta grid 1 1 3 , 1 1 8 , 1 2 9 , 1 4 5 theta identification 116 theta marking 114, 117 theta roles 235 Theta Theory 113 three-level approach 393-437 through (E) 19, 75, 77, 108, 155, 159, 331,

335, 373 throughout (E) 331, 334f. time of discourse 21, 296 time of event 21 time of state 21 time-point

see point in time time-span

see period of time to (E) 1 2 7 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 7 , 1 4 0 to the left of {E) 31, 33, 330, 332, 336 to the right of (E) 3 1 , 3 3 , 3 3 0 tolerance 16 top of object 257

intrinsic 281 topic

in metaphorization 384 topological property 17, 354, 367, 446 topology 369, 401 toward(s) (E) 119, 333 trajector (tr) 6, 9, 16, 19, 27, 153, 365 f.,

369 f., 395, 422 f. transfer

in machine translation 353, 377 metaphorical 384

transitivity of meronomies 427, 429, 431 f., 433 f.

translation 352 f. human 351 machine (MT) 1 , 3 , 3 5 1 , 3 5 3 , 385 of prepositions 355 process of 375, 385

two-level approach to semantics 4, 8, 12, 14ff., 16, 181 f., 249, 254f., 267f. , 272, 285, 444 f., 447

two-level model see two-level approach

typicality 18, 21, 364, 367, 385, 431, 489



526 Index

Typicality Schema 498 and ideal meaning 503

TyPoF 493 Instantiation Rules 499, 505

über (G) 252, 258, 449 uit (D) 43 um (G) 305 f., 449 under (Ε) 19, 31, 75 f., 83, 95, 330 underneath (Ε) 330 universality

in grammatical structure 337, 340 in semantic structure 20, 153

unter (G) 252 until/till (E) 103, 111, 121, 309, 316 up (E) 104, 155 usage patterns

difference in 352 f. use-type 190, 192, 195, 197, 199, 200 f.,

208 ff. utterance situation 21, 367, 372

vagueness 11, 17, 355, 362, 368, 373, 385 valency 19, 168 vehicle

in metaphorization 384

verbalization of visual information 17

Vertical 254, 258, 261, 272, 287 f. via (E) 332, 336 viewpoint

see point of view visualization 471, 488 VITRA 475 von ... (an)/ab(G) 316 von ... bis (G) 315 vor (G) 252, 264, 314, 452, 464

während (G) 301, 311, 317, 321 wenn (G) 301 when(E) 301 while (E) 301 wie (G) 301 with (E) 75, 80, 94, 127 within (E) 311 world-knowledge 19, 167, 397, 431, 462

X-bar theory 19, 100, 102, 130

zwischen (G) 450 zwischen ... und (G) 315







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The Semantics of Prepositions (From Mental Processing to Natural Language Processing) || Index