TEXTBOOK

VOCATIONAL ENGLISH

АНГЛИЙСКИ ЕЗИК КАТО ЧУЖД ЕЗИК В ПРОФЕСИЯТА

Георги Илиев

TRADITIONAL CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES

A general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a building.The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the workof the various trades required for construction. For example, a plumbing contractorinstalls the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, a steelerector structural steel, and an elevator contractor installs elevators. Their contractsare with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general contractor.Sometimes, in addition to a general contractor, the owners contracts separatelywith specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who performa substantial amount of the work required for a building. Such contractors arecalled prime contractors. Their work is scheduled and coordinated by the generalcontractor, but they are paid directly by the owner.Sometimes also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contractto an organization for both the design and construction of a building. Suchorganizations are called design-build contractors. One variation of this type ofcontract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-riseapartment buildings. The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, butthe design is substantially completed before owners purchase the homes.Administration of the construction procedure often is difficult. Consequently,some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional constructionmanager, with extensive construction experience, who receives a fee. The constructionmanager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to constructthe building. Managers usually also supervise selection of subcontractors. Duringconstruction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries,

and keep the work on schedule (see Art. 17.9). In some cases, instead, the ownermay prefer to engage a construction program manager, to assist in administratingboth design and construction.Construction contractors employ labor that may or may not be unionized. Unionizedcraftspeople are members of unions that are organized by constructiontrades, such as carpenter, plumber, and electrician unions. Union members willperform only the work assigned to their trade. On the job, groups of workers aresupervised by crew supervisors, all of whom report to a superintendent.During construction, all work should be inspected. For this purpose, the owner,often through the architect and consultants, engages inspectors. The field inspectorsmay be placed under the control of an owner’s representative, who may be titledclerk of the works, architect’s superintendent, engineer’s superintendent, or residentengineer. The inspectors have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meetsthe requirements of the contract documents and is performed under safe conditions.Such inspections may be made at frequent intervals.In addition, inspections also are made by representatives of one or more governmentalagencies. They have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meetslegal requirements and have little or no concern with detailed conformance withthe contract documents. Such legal inspections are made periodically or at the endof certain stages of construction. One agency that will make frequent inspectionsis the local or state building department, whichever has jurisdiction. The purposeof these inspections is to ensure conformance with the local or state building code.

BUILDING COSTS

Construction cost of a building usually is a dominant design concern. One reasonis that if construction cost exceeds the owner’s budget, the owner may cancel theproject. Another reason is that costs, such as property taxes and insurance, thatoccur after completion of the building often are proportional to the initial cost.Hence, owners usually try to keep that cost low. Designing a building to minimizeconstruction cost, however, may not be in the owner’s best interests. There aremany other costs that the owner incurs during the anticipated life of the buildingthat should be taken into account.Before construction of a building starts, the owner generally has to make asizable investment in the project. The major portion of this expenditure usuallygoes for purchase of the site and building design. Remaining preconstruction costsinclude those for feasibility studies, site selection and evaluation, surveys, and programdefinition.The major portion of the construction cost is the sum of the payments to thegeneral contractor and prime contractors. Remaining construction costs usually consistof interest on the construction loan, permit fees, and costs of materials, equipment,and labor not covered by the construction contracts.The initial cost to the owner is the sum of preconstruction, construction, andoccupancy costs. The latter covers costs of moving possessions into the buildingand start-up of utility services, such as water, gas, electricity, and telephone.Life-cycle cost is the sum of initial, operating, and maintenance costs. Generally,it is life-cycle cost that should be minimized in building design rather than constructioncost. This would enable the owner to receive the greatest return on theinvestment in the building

MAJOR BUILDING SYSTEMS

The simplest building system consists of only two components. One component isa floor, a flat, horizontal surface on which human activities can take place. Theother component is an enclosure that extends over the floor and generally alsoaround it to provide shelter from the weather for human activities.The ground may serve as the floor in primitive buildings. In better buildings,however, the floor may be a structural deck laid on the ground or supported aboveground on structural members, such as the joist and walls. Use of adeck and structural members adds at least two different types of components, ortwo subsystems, to the simplest building system. Also, often, the enclosure overthe floor requires supports, such as the rafter and walls , and the walls,in turn, are seated on foundations in the ground. Additionally, footings are requiredat the base of the foundations to spread the load over a large area of the ground,to prevent the building from sinkingMore advanced buildings consist of numerous subsystems, which are referred toas systems in this book when they are major components. Major subsystems generallyinclude structural framing and foundations, enclosure systems, plumbing,lighting, acoustics, safety systems, vertical-circulation elements, electric power andsignal systems, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC).Structural System. The portion of a building that extends above the ground leveloutside it is called the superstructure. The portion below the outside ground levelis called the substructure. The parts of the substructure that distribute buildingloads to the ground are known as foundations.Foundations may take the form of walls. When the ground under the buildingis excavated for a cellar, or basement, the foundation walls have the additional taskof retaining the earth along the outside of the building

In most buildings, the superstructure structural system consists of floor and roofdecks, horizontal members that support them, and vertical members that supportthe other components.The horizontal members are generally known as beams, but they also are calledby different names in specific applications. For example:Joists are closely spaced to carry light loads.Stringers support stairs.Headers support structural members around openings in floors, roofs, and walls.Purlins are placed horizontally to carry level roof decks.Rafters are placed on an incline to carry sloping roof decks.Girts are light horizontal members that span between columns to support walls.Lintels are light horizontal beams that support walls at floor levels in multistorybuildings or that carry the part of walls above openings for doors and windows.Girders may be heavily loaded beams or horizontal members that support otherbeams .Spandrels carry exterior walls and support edges of floors and roofs in multistorybuildings.Trusses serve the same purposes as girders but consists of slender horizontal,vertical, and inclined components with large open spaces between them. Thespaces are triangular in shape. Light beams similarly formed are called openwebjoists

Systems for Enclosing Buildings. Buildings are enclosed for privacy, to excludewind, rain, and snow from the interior, and to control interior temperature andhumidity. A single-enclosure type of system is one that extends continuously fromthe ground to enclose the floor. Simple examples are cone-like tepees and domeigloos. A multiple-enclosure type of system consists of a horizontal or inclined topcovering, called a roof , and vertical or inclined side enclosures calledwalls.

Roofs may have any of a wide variety of shapes. A specific shape may beselected because of appearance, need for attic space under the roof, requirementsfor height between roof and floor below, desire for minimum enclosed volume,structural economy, or requirements for drainage of rainwater and shedding of snow.While roofs are sometimes given curved surfaces, more often roofs are composedof one or more plane surfaces.

Exterior walls enclose a building below the roof. The basis element in the wallsis a strong, durable, water-resistant facing. For added strength or lateral stability,this facing may be supplemented on the inner side by a backing or sheathing. For esthetic purposes, an interior facing usually is placed on the inner sideof the backing. A layer of insulation should be incorporated in walls to resistpassage of heat.Generally, walls may be built of unit masonry, panels, framing, or a combinationof these materials.Unit masonry consists of small units, such as clay brick, concrete block, glassblock, or clay tile, held together by a cement such as mortar. Figure 1.5a shows awall built of concrete blocks.Panel walls consist of units much larger than unit masonry. Made of metal,concrete, glass, plastics, or preassembled bricks, a panel may extend from foun-dation to roof in single-story buildings, or from floor to floor or from windowheader in one story to window sill of floor above in multistory buildings. Largepanels may incorporate one or more windows. Figure 1.5c shows a concrete panelwith a window.Framed walls consist of slender, vertical, closely spaced structural members,tied together with horizontal members at top and bottom, and interior and exterior

facings. Thermal insulation may be placed between the components. Figure 1.5bshows a wood-framed exterior wall.Combination walls are constructed of several different materials. Metal, brick,concrete, or clay tile may be used as the exterior facing because of strength, durability,and water and fire resistance. These materials, however, are relatively expensive.Consequently, the exterior facing is made thin and backed up with a lessexpensive material. For example, brick may be used as an exterior facing with woodframing or concrete block as the backup.Exterior walls may be classified as curtain walls or bearing walls. Curtain wallsserve primarily as an enclosure. Supported by the structural system, such wallsneed to be strong enough to carry only their own weight and wind pressure on theexterior face. Bearing walls, in contrast, serve not only as an enclosure but also totransmit to the foundation loads from other building components, such as beams,floors, roofs, and other walls

Master List of Section Titles and Numbers

1. General Requirements2. Site Work3. Concrete4. Masonry5. Metals6. Woods and Plastics7. Thermal and Moisture Protection8. Doors and Windows9. Finishes10. Specialties11. Equipment12. Furnishings13. Special Construction14. Conveying Systems15. Mechanical

16. Electrical

WOOD

Wood is a building material made from trees. It is a natural polymer composed ofcells in the shape of long, thin tubes with tapered ends. The cell wall consists ofcellulose crystals, which are bonded together by a complex amorphous lignin composedof carbohydrates. Most of the cells in a tree trunk are oriented vertically.Consequently, properties of wood in the direction of cell axes, usually referred toas longitudinal, or parallel to grain, differ from those in the other (radial or circumferential) directions, or across the grain.

1.MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD

Because of its structure, wood has different strength properties parallel and perpendicularto the grain. Tensile, bending, and compressive strengths are greatestparallel to the grain and least across the grain, whereas shear strength is leastparallel to the grain and greatest across the grain. Except in plywood, the shearingstrength of wood is usually governed by the parallel-to-grain direction.

2. EFFECTS OF HYGROSCOPIC PROPERTIES OF WOOD

Because of its nature, wood tends to absorb moisture from the air when the relativehumidity is high, and to lose it when the relative humidity is low. Moisture imbibedinto the cell walls causes the wood to shrink and swell as the moisture contentchanges with the relative humidity of the surrounding air. The maximum amountof imbibed moisture the cell walls can hold is known as the fiber-saturation point,and for most species is in the vicinity of 25 to 30% of the oven-dry weight of thewood. Free water held in the cell cavities above the fiber-saturation point has noeffect upon shrinkage or other properties of the wood

3.COMMERCIAL GRADES OF WOOD

Lumber is graded by the various associations of lumber manufacturers having jurisdictionover various species. Two principal sets of grading rules are employed:(1) for softwoods, and (2) for hardwoods.Softwoods. Softwood lumber is classified as dry, moisture content 19% or less;and green, moisture content above 19%.According to the American Softwood Lumber Standard, softwoods are classifiedaccording to use as:Yard Lumber. Lumber of grades, sizes, and patterns generally intended for ordinaryconstruction and general building purposes.Structural Lumber. Lumber 2 in or more nominal thickness and width for usewhere working stresses are required.

Factory and Shop Lumber. Lumber produced or selected primarily for manufacturingpurposes.Softwoods are classified according to extent of manufacture as:Rough Lumber. Lumber that has not been dressed (surfaced) but has beensawed, edged, and trimmed.Dressed (Surfaced) Lumber. Lumber that has been dressed by a planning machine(for the purpose of attaining smoothness of surface and uniformity of size)on one side (S1S), two sides (S2S), one edge (S1E), two edges (S2E), or a combinationof sides and edges (S1S1E, S1S2, S2S1E, S4S).Worked Lumber. Lumber that, in addition to being dressed, has been matched,shiplapped or patterned:Matched Lumber. Lumber that has been worked with a tongue on one edge ofeach piece and a groove on the opposite edge.

Shiplapped Lumber. Lumber that has been worked or rabbeted on both edges,to permit formation of a close-lapped joint.Patterned Lumber. Lumber that is shaped to a pattern or to a molded form.Softwoods are also classified according to nominal size:Boards. Lumber less than 2 in in nominal thickness and 2 in or more in nominalwidth. Boards less than 6 in in nominal width may be classified as strips.Dimension. Lumber from 2 in to, but not including, 5 in in nominal thickness,and 2 in or more in nominal width. Dimension may be classified as framing, joists,planks, rafters, studs, small timbers, etc.Timbers. Lumber 5 in or more nominally in least dimension. Timber may beclassified as beams, stringers, posts, caps, sills, girders, purlins, etc.Actual sizes of lumber are less than the nominal sizes, because of shrinkage anddressing. In general, dimensions of dry boards, dimension lumber, and timber lessthan 2 in wide or thick are 1⁄4 in less than nominal; from 2 to 7 in wide or thick,1⁄2 in less, and above 6 in wide or thick, 3⁄4 in less. Green-lumber less than 2 inwide or thick is 1⁄32 in more than dry; from 2 to 4 in wide or thick, 1⁄16 in more, 5and 6 in wide or thick, 1⁄8 in more, and 8 in or above in width and thickness, 1⁄4in more than dry lumber. There are exceptions, however.Yard lumber is classified on the basis of quality as:Appearance. Lumber is good appearance and finishing qualities, often calledselect.Suitable for natural finishesPractically clearGenerally clear and of high qualitySuitable for paint finishesAdapted to high-quality paint finishesIntermediate between high-finishing grades and common grades, and partakingsomewhat of the nature of bothCommon. Lumber suitable for general construction and utility purposes, oftengiven various commercial designations.For standard construction use

Suitable for better-type construction purposesWell adapted for good standard constructionDesigned for low-cost temporary constructionFor less exacting purposesLow quality, but usable

Hardwoods. Because of the great diversity of applications for hardwood both inand outside the construction industry, hardwood grading rules are based on theproportion of a given piece that can be cut into smaller pieces of material clear onone or both sides and not less than a specified size. Grade classifications are thereforebased on the amount of clear usable lumber in a piece.Special grading rules of interest in the construction industry cover hardwoodinterior trim and moldings, in which one face must be practically free of imperfectionsand in which Grade A may further limit the amount of sapwood as well asstain. Hardwood dimension rules, in addition, cover clears, which must be clearboth faces; clear one face; paint quality, which can be covered with pain; core,which must be sound on both faces and suitable for cores of glued-up panels; andsound, which is a general-utility grade.Hardwood flooring is graded under two separate sets of rules: (1) for maple,birch, and beech; and (2) for red and white oak and pecan. In both sets of rules,color and quality classifications range from top-quality to the lower utility grades.Oak may be further subclassified as quarter-sawed and plain-sawed. In all grades,top-quality material must be uniformed in color, whereas other grades place nolimitation on color.Shingles are graded under special rules, usually into three classes: Number 1,2, and 3. Number 1 must be all edge grain and strictly clear, containing no sapwood.Numbers 2 and 3 must be clear to a distance far enough away from the butt to bewell covered by the next course of shingles.

PLYWOOD AND OTHER FABRICATED WOOD BOARDS

As ordinarily made, plywood consists of thin sheets, or veneers, of wood gluedtogether. The grain is oriented at right angles in adjacent plies. To obtain plywoodwith balance—that is, which will not warp, shrink, or twist unduly—the plies mustbe carefully selected and arranged to be mirror images of each other with respectto the central plane. The outside plies or faces are parallel to each other and are ofspecies that have the same shrinkage characteristics. The same holds true of thecross bands. As a consequence, plywood has an odd number of plies, the minimumbeing three.Principal advantages of plywood over lumber are its more nearly equal strengthproperties in length and width, greater resistance to checking, greatly reducedshrinkage and swelling, and resistance to splitting.

STEEL AND STEEL ALLOYS

Iron and its alloys are generally referred to as ferrous metals. Even small amountsof alloy change the properties of ferrous metals significantly. Also, the propertiescan be changed considerably by changing the atomic structure of these metals byheating and cooling.

TYPES OF IRONS AND STEELSSteel is a solution of carbon in iron. Various types of steel are produced by varyingthe percentage of carbon added to molten iron and controlling the cooling, whichaffects the atomic structure of the product, and hence its properties

Metals containing substantially no carbon (several hundredths of 1%) are calledirons, of which wrought iron, electrolytic iron, and ‘‘ingot’’ iron are examples.Wrought iron, whether made by the traditional puddling method or by mixingvery low carbon iron and slag, contains a substantial amount of slag. Because itcontains very little carbon, it is soft, ductile, and tough and, like low-carbon ferrousmetals generally, is relatively resistant to corrosion. It is easily worked. When broken,it shows a fibrous fracture because of the slag inclusions. ‘‘Ingot’’ iron is avery low carbon iron containing no slag, which is also soft, ductile, and tough.

PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEELSDuctility is measured in tension tests by percent elongation over a given gagelength—usually 2 or 8 in—or percent reduction of cross-sectional area. Ductilityis an important property because it permits redistribution of stresses in continuousmembers and at points of high local stresses.Poisson’s ratio, the ratio of transverse to axial strain, also is measured in tensiontests. It may be taken as 0.30 in the elastic range and 0.50 in the plastic range forstructural steels.Cold working of structural steels, that is, forming plates or structural shapesinto other shapes at room temperature, changes several properties of the steels. Theresulting strains are in the strain-hardening range. Yield strength increases but ductilitydecreases. (Some steels are cold rolled to obtain higher strengths.) If a steelelement is strained into the strain-hardening range, then unloaded and allowed toage at room or moderately elevated temperatures (a process called strain aging),yield and tensile strengths are increased, whereas ductility is decreased. Heat treatmentcan be used to modify the effects of cold working and strain aging.Residual stresses remain in structural elements after they are rolled or fabricated.They also result from uneven cooling after rolling. In a welded member,tensile residual stresses develop near the weld and compressive stresses elsewhere.Plates with rolled edges have compressive residual stresses at the edges, whereasflame-cut edges have tensile residual stresses. When loads are applied to such members,some yielding may take place where the residual stresses occur. Because ofthe ductility of steel, however, the effect on tensile strength is not significant butthe buckling strength of columns may be lowered.Strain rate also changes the tensile properties of structural steels. In the ordinarytensile test, load is applied slowly. The resulting data are appropriate for design of

structures for static loads. For design for rapid application of loads, such as impactloads, data from rapid tension tests are needed. Such tests indicate that yield andtensile strengths increase but ductility and the ratio of tensile strength to yieldstrength decrease.High temperatures too affect properties of structural steels. As temperaturesincrease, the stress-strain curve typically becomes more rounded and tensile andyield strengths, under the action of strain aging, decrease. Poisson’s ratio is notsignificantly affected but the modulus of elasticity decreases. Ductility is lowereduntil a minimum value is reached. Then, it rises with increase in temperature andbecomes larger than the ductility at room temperature.Low temperatures in combination with tensile stress and especially with geometricdiscontinuities, such as notches, bolt holes, and welds, may cause a brittlefailure. This is a failure that occurs by cleavage, with little indication of plasticdeformation. A ductile failure, in contrast, occurs mainly by shear, usually precededby large plastic deformation. One of the most commonly used tests for rating steelson their resistance to brittle fracture is the Charpy V-notch test. It evaluates notchtoughness at specific temperatures.Toughness is defined as the capacity of a steel to absorb energy; the greater thecapacity, the greater the toughness. Determined by the area under the stress-straincurve, toughness depends on both strength and ductility of the metal. Notch toughnessis the toughness in the region of notches or other stress concentrations. Aquantitative measure of notch toughness is fracture toughness, which is determinedby fracture mechanics from relationships between stress and flaw size.

STEEL ALLOYSPlain carbon steels can be given a great range of properties by heat treatment andby working; but addition of alloying elements greatly extends those properties ormakes the heat-treating operations easier and simpler. For example, combined hightensile strength and toughness, corrosion resistance, high-speed cutting, and manyother specialized purposes require alloy steels. However, the most important effectof alloying is the influence on hardenability.Effects of Alloying ElementsImportant alloying elements from the standpoint of building, and their principaleffects, are summarized below:Aluminum restricts grain growth during heat treatment and promotes surfacehardening by nitriding.Chromium is a hardener, promotes corrosion resistance (see Art. 4.44.2), andpromotes wear resistance.Copper promotes resistance to atmospheric corrosion and is sometimes combinedwith molybdenum for this purpose in low-carbon steels and irons. It strengthenssteel and increases the yield point without unduly changing elongation or reductionof area.Manganese in low concentrations promotes hardenability and nondeforming,nonshrinking characteristics for tool steels. In high concentrations, the steel is austeniticunder ordinary conditions, is extremely tough, and work-hardens readily. It

is therefore used for teeth of power-shovel dippers, railroad frogs, rock crushers,and similar applications.Molybdenum is usually associated with other elements, especially chromiumand nickel. It increases corrosion resistance, raises tensile strength and elastic limitwithout reducing ductility, promotes casehardening, and improves impact resistance.Nickel boosts tensile strength and yield point without reducing ductility; increaseslow-temperature toughness, whereas ordinary carbon steels become brittle;promotes casehardening; and in high concentrations improves corrosion resistanceunder severe conditions. It is often used with chromium (see Art. 4.44.2). Invarcontains 36% nickel.Silicon strengthens low-alloy steels; improves oxidation resistance; with lowcarbon yields transformer steel, because of low hysteresis loss and high permeability;in high concentrations provides hard, brittle castings, resistant to corrosivechemicals, useful in plumbing lines for chemical laboratories.Sulfur promotes free machining, especially in mild steels.Titanium prevents intergranular corrosion of stainless steels by preventing grainboundarydepletion of chromium during such operations as welding and heat treatment.Tungsten, vanadium, and cobalt are all used in high-speed tool steels, becausethey promote hardness and abrasion resistance. Tungsten and cobalt also increasehigh-temperature hardness.

ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM-BASED ALLOYS

Pure aluminum and aluminum alloys are used in buildings in various forms. Highpurityaluminum (at least 99% pure) is soft and ductile but weak. It has excellentcorrosion resistance and is used in buildings for such applications as bright foil forheat insulation, roofing, flashing, gutters and downspouts, exterior and interior architecturaltrim, and as pigment in aluminum-based paints. Its high heat conductivityrecommends it for cooking utensils. The electrical conductivity of the electricalgrade is 61% of that of pure copper on an equal-volume basis and 201% on anequal-weight basis.Aluminum alloys are generally harder and stronger than the pure metal. Furthermore,pure aluminum is difficult to cast satisfactorily, whereas many of thealloys are readily cast.Pure aluminum is generally more corrosion resistant than its alloys. Furthermore,its various forms—pure and alloy—have different solution potentials; that is, theyare anodic or cathodic to each other, depending on their relative solution potentials.A number of alloys are therefore made with centers or ‘‘cores’’ of aluminum alloys,overlaid with layers of metal, either pure aluminum or alloys, which are anodic tothe core. If galvanic corrosion conditions are encountered, the cladding metal protectsthe core sacrifically.

PLASTICS

The synonymous terms plastics and synthetic resins denote synthetic organic highpolymers, all of which are plastic at some stage in their manufacture. Plastics fallinto two large categories—thermoplastic and thermosetting materials.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF PLASTICSThermoplastics may be softened by heating and hardened by cooling any numberof times. Thermosetting materials are either originally soft or liquid, or they softenonce upon heating; but upon further heating, they harden permanently. Somethermosetting materials harden by an interlinking mechanism in which water orother by-product is given off, by a process called condensation; but others,like the unsaturated polyesters, harden by a direct interlinking of the basic moleculeswithout release of a by-product. Most plastics are modified with plasticizers,fillers, or other ingredients. Consequently, each base material forms the nucleus for a large number of products having a wide variety of properties.This section can only indicate generally the range of properties to be expected.Because plastics are quite different in their composition and structure fromother materials, such as metals, their behavior under stress and under other conditionsis likely to be different from other materials. Just as steel and lead aremarkedly different and are used for different applications, so the various plastics materials—some hard and brittle, others soft and extensible—must be designedon different bases and used in different ways. Some plastics show no yield point,because they fail before a yield point can be reached. Others have a moderatelyhigh elastic range, followed by a highly plastic range.

PAINTS AND OTHER COATINGS

Protective and decorative coatings generally employed in building are the following:Oil Paint. Drying-oil vehicles or binders plus opaque and extender pigments.Water Paint. Pigments plus vehicles based on water, casein, protein, oil emulsions,and rubber or resin latexes, separately or in combination.Calcimine. Water and glue, with or without casein, plus powdered calcium carbonateand any desired colored pigments.Varnish. Transparent combination of drying oil and natural or synthetic resins.Enamel. Varnish vehicle plus pigments.Lacquer. Synthetic-resin film former, usually nitrocellulose, plus plasticizers, volatilesolvents, and other resins.Shellac. Exudations of the lac insect, dissolved in alcohol.Japan. Solutions of metallic salts in drying oils, or varnishes containing asphalt

and opaque pigments.Aluminum Paint. Fine metallic aluminum flakes suspended in drying oil plusresin, or in nitrocellulose. VEHICLES OR BINDERSFollowing are descriptions of the most commonly used vehicles and binders forpaint:Natural Drying Oils. Drying oils harden by absorbing oxygen. The most importantnatural oils are linseed from flax seed (for many years the standard paintvehicle), tung oil (faster drying, good compatibility with varnish), oiticica oil (similarto tung), safflower (best nonyellowing oil), soybean (flexible films), dehydratedcaster (good adhesion, fast drying), and fish oil (considered inferior but cheap).Alkyds. These, the most widely used paint vehicles, are synthetic resins that aremodified with various vegetable oils to produce clear resins that are harder thannatural oils. Properties of the film depend on relative proportions of oil and resin.The film is both air drying and heat hardening.Latexes. Latex paints are based on emulsions of various polymers including acrylics,polyvinyl acetate, styrene-butadiene, polyvinyl chloride, and rubber. They areeasy to apply, dry quickly, have no solvent odor, and application tools are easilycleaned with soap and water. The films adhere well to various surfaces, have goodcolor retention, and have varying degrees of flexibility.Epoxy and Epoxy-Polyester. Catalyzed two-part, all-epoxy coatings are formedby addition of a catalyst to the liquid epoxy just before application (pot life a fewminutes to a day). Films are as hard as many baked-on coatings and are resistantto solvents and traffic. Oil-modified epoxy esters, in contrast, harden on oxidationwithout a catalyst. They are less hard and chemically resistant than catalyzed epoxies,but dry fast and are easily applied. Epoxy-polyesters mixed just before useproduce smooth finishes suitable for many interior surfaces and are chemicallyresistant.Polyurethanes. These produce especially abrasion-treatment, fast-hardening coatings.Two-component formulations, of variable pot life, are mixed just before use.One-component formulations cure by evaporation and reaction with moisture in air(30 to 90% relative humidity). Oils and alkyds may be added.Vinyl Solutions. Solutions of polyvinyl chloride and vinyl esters dry rapidly andare built up by successive, sprayed thin coatings. They characteristically have lowgloss, high flexibility, and inertness to water but are sensitive to some solvents.Adhesion may be a problem. Weather resistance is excellent.Dryers. These are catalysts that hasten the hardening of drying oils. Most dryersare salts of heavy metals, especially cobalt, manganese, and lead, to which salts ofzinc and calcium may be added. Iron salts, usable only in dark coatings, acceleratehardening at high temperatures. Dryers are normally added to paints to hastenhardening, but they must not be used too liberally or they cause rapid deteriorationof the oil by overoxidation.

Thinners. These are volatile constituents added to coatings to promote theirspreading qualities by reducing viscosity. They should not react with the otherconstituents and should evaporate completely. Commonly used thinners are turpentineand mineral spirits, i.e., derivatives of petroleum and coal tar.

SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONSSoil mechanics is defined as the application of the laws and principles of mechanicsand hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with soil as an engineering material.Soil has many different meanings, depending on the field of study. For example,in agronomy (application of science to farming), soil is defined as a surface depositthat contains mineral matter that originated from the original weathering of rockand also contains organic matter that has accumulated through the decompositionof plants and animals. To an agronomist, soil is that material that has been sufficientlyaltered and supplied with nutrients that it can support the growth of plantroots. But to a geotechnical engineer, soil has a much broader meaning and caninclude not only agronomic material, but also broken-up fragments of rock, volcanicash, alluvium, aeolian sand, glacial material, and any other residual or transportedproduct of rock weathering. Difficulties naturally arise because there is not a distinctdividing line between rock and soil. For example, to a geologist a given materialmay be classified as a formational rock because it belongs to a definite geologicenvironment, but to a geotechnical engineer it may be sufficiently weathered orfriable that it should be classified as a soil.

Rock mechanics is defined as the application of the knowledge of the mechanicalbehavior of rock to engineering problems dealing with rock. To the geotechnicalengineer, rock is a relatively solid mass that has permanent and strong bonds betweenthe minerals. Rocks can be classified as being either sedimentary, igneous,or metamorphic. There are significant differences in the behavior of soil versusrock, and there is not much overlap between soil mechanics and rock mechanics.

FIELD EXPLORATIONThe purpose of the field exploration is to obtain the following

1. Knowledge of the general topography of the site as it affects foundation designand construction, e.g., surface configuration, adjacent property, the presence ofwatercourses, ponds, hedges, trees, rock outcrops, etc., and the available accessfor construction vehicles and materials.2. The location of buried utilities such as electric power and telephone cables,water mains, and sewers.3. The general geology of the area, with particular reference to the main geologicformations underlying the site and the possibility of subsidence from mineralextraction or other causes.4. The previous history and use of the site, including information on any defectsor failures of existing or former buildings attributable to foundation conditions.5. Any special features such as the possibility of earthquakes or climate factorssuch as flooding, seasonal swelling and shrinkage, permafrost, and soil erosion.

6. The availability and quality of local construction materials such as concreteaggregates, building and road stone, and water for construction purposes.7. For maritime or river structures, information on tidal ranges and river levels,velocity of tidal and river currents, and other hydrographic and meteorologicaldata.8. A detailed record of the soil and rock strata and groundwater conditions withinthe zones affected by foundation bearing pressures and construction operations,or of any deeper strata affecting the site conditions in any way.9. Results of laboratory tests on soil and rock samples appropriate to the particularfoundation design or construction problems.10. Results of chemical analyses on soil or groundwater to determine possibledeleterious effects of foundation structures.

Subsurface ExplorationIn order for a detailed record of the soil and rock strata and groundwater conditionsat the site to be determined, subsurface exploration is usually required. There aredifferent types of subsurface exploration, such as borings, test pits, and trenches.investigating subsurface conditions, performing field tests, and obtaining soil,rock, or groundwater specimens for testing. Borings can be excavated by hand (e.g.,with a hand auger), although the usual procedure is to use mechanical equipmentto excavate the borings.Many different types of equipment are used to excavate borings. Typical typesof borings are listed in Table 6.3 and include:Auger Boring. A mechanical auger is a very fast method of excavating a boring.The hole is excavated by rotating the auger while at the same time applying adownward pressure on the auger to help obtain penetration of the soil or rock.There are basically two types of augers: flight augers and bucket augers. Commonavailable diameters of flight augers are 5 cm to 1.2 m (2 in to 4 ft) and ofbucket augers are 0.3 m to 2.4 m (1 ft to 8 ft). The auger is periodically removedfrom the hole, and the soil lodged in the groves of the flight auger or containedin the bucket of the bucket auger is removed. A casing is generally not used forauger borings, and the hole may cave-in during the excavation of loose or softsoils or when the excavation is below the groundwater table. Augers are probablythe most common type of equipment used to excavate borings.Hollow-Stem Flight Auger. A hollow-stem flight auger has a circular hollowcore which allows for sampling down the center of the auger. The hollow-stemauger acts like a casing and allows for sampling in loose or soft soils or whenthe excavation is below the groundwater table.Wash-Type Borings. Wash-type borings use circulating drilling fluid, whichremoves cuttings from the borehole. The cuttings are created by the chopping,twisting, and jetting action of the drill bit, which breaks the soil or rock intosmall fragments. Casings are often used to prevent cave-in of the hole. Becausedrilling fluid is used during the excavation, it can be difficult to classify the soiland obtain uncontaminated soil samples.

Rotary Coring. This type of boring equipment uses power rotation of the drillingbit as circulating fluid removes cuttings from the hole. Table 6.3 lists varioustypes of rotary coring for soil and rock.Percussion Drilling. This type of drilling equipment is often used to penetratehard rock, for subsurface exploration or for the purpose of drilling wells. Thedrill bit works much like a jackhammer, rising and falling to break up and crushthe rock material.In addition to borings, other methods for performing subsurface exploration includetest pits and trenches. Test pits are often square in plan view, with a typicaldimension of 1.2 m by 1.2 m (4 ft by 4 ft). Trenches are long and narrow excavationsusually made by a backhoe or bulldozer. Table 6.4 presents the uses, capabilities,and limitations of test pits and trenches.Test pits and trenches provide for a visual observation of subsurface conditions.They can also be used to obtain undisturbed block samples of soil. The processconsists of carving a block of soil from the side or bottom of the test pit or trench.Soil samples can also be obtained from the test pits or trenches by manually drivingShelby tubes, drive cylinders, or other types of sampling tubes into the ground.(See Art. 6.2.3.)Backhoe trenches are an economical means of performing subsurface exploration.The backhoe can quickly excavate the trench, which can then be used toobserve and test the in-situ soil. In many subsurface explorations, backhoe trenchesare used to evaluate near-surface and geologic conditions (i.e., up to 15 ft deep),with borings being used to investigate deeper subsurface conditions.

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTIONEconomical, durable construction with concrete requires a thorough knowledge ofits properties and behavior in service, of approved design procedures, and of recommendedfield practices. Not only is such knowledge necessary to avoid disappointingresults, especially when concrete is manufactured and formed on the buildingsite, but also to obtain maximum benefits from its unique properties.To provide the needed information, several organizations promulgate standards,specifications, recommended practices, guides, and reports. Reference is made tothese where appropriate throughout this section. Information provided herein isbased on the latest available editions of the documents. In as much as they are revised

frequently, the latest editions should be used for current design and construction.aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water, with or without admixtures.Admixture is a material other than hydraulic cement, aggregate, or water, usedas an ingredient of concrete and added to concrete before or during its mixing tomodify its properties.In this section, unless indicated otherwise, these definitions apply to the termsconcrete and admixture.

Addition to a concrete mix of fly ash, silica fume, or slag decreases permeability,protects reinforcement, and increases strength. Concrete made with polymers,plastics with long-chain molecules, can have many qualities much superiorto those of ordinary concrete.

CEMENTSAlthough all the preceding cements can be used for concrete, they are not interchangeable.Note that both tensile and compressive strengths vary considerably,at early ages in particular, even for the five types of basic portland cement.

PROPORTIONING CONCRETE MIXESPrinciples for proportioning concrete to achieve a prescribed compressive strengthafter a given age under standard curing are simple.1. The strength of a hardened concrete mix depends on the water-cementitiousmaterials ratio (ratio of water to cementitious materials, by weight). The water andcementitious materials form a paste. If the paste is made with more water, it becomesweaker2. The ideal minimum amount of paste is that which will coat all aggregateparticles and fill all voids.3. For practical purposes, fresh concrete must possess workability sufficient forthe placement conditions. For a given strength and with given materials, the cost

of the mix increases as the workability increases. Additional workability is providedby more fine aggregate and more water, but more cementitious materials must alsobe added to keep the same water-cementitious materials ratio.

Questions often arise between concrete suppliers and buyers regarding ‘‘yield,’’ orvolume of concrete supplied. A major reason for this is that often the actual yieldmay be less than the yield calculated from the volumes of ingredients. For example,if the mix temperature varies, less air may be entrained; or if the sand becomesdrier and no corrections in batch weights are made, the yield will be under thatcalculated.If the specific gravity (sp. gr.) and absorption (abs.) of the aggregates have beendetermined in advance, accurate, yield calculations can be performed as often asnecessary to adjust the yield for control of the concrete.

PROPERTIES AND TESTS OF FRESH (PLASTIC) CONCRETEWorkability. Although concrete technologists define and measure workability andconsistency separately and in various ways, the practical user specifies only one—slump (technically a measure of consistency). The practical user regards workabilityrequirements simply as provision of sufficient water to permit concrete to be placedand consolidated without honeycomb or excessive water rise; to make concrete‘‘pumpable’’ if it is to be placed by pumps; and for slabs, to provide a surface thatcan be finished properly. These workability requirements vary with the project andthe placing, vibration, and finishing equipment used.Slump is tested in the field very quickly. An open-ended, 12-in-high, truncatedmetal cone is filled in three equal-volume increments and each increment is consolidated

separately, all according to a strict standard procedure (ASTM C143,‘‘Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete’’). Slump is the sag of the concrete, in,after the cone is removed. The slump should be measured to the nearest 1⁄4 in whichis about the limit of accuracy reproducible by expert inspectors.Unless the test is performed exactly in accordance with the standard procedure,the results are not comparable and therefore are useless.The slump test is invalidated if: the operator fails to anchor the cone down bystanding on the base wings; the test is performed on a wobbly base, such as formworkcarrying traffic or a piece of metal on loose pebbles; the cone is not filled byinserting material in small amounts all around the perimeter, or filled and tampedin three equal increments; the top two layers are tamped deeper than their depthplus about 1 in; the top is pressed down to level it; the sample has been transportedand permitted to segregate without remixing; unspecified operations, such as tap=ping the cone, occur; the cone is not lifted up smoothly in one movement; the conetips over because of filling from one side or pulling the cone to one side; or if themeasurement of slump is not made to the center vertical axis of the cone.Various penetration tests are quicker and more suitable for untrained personnelthan the standard slump test. In each case, the penetration of an object into a flatsurface of fresh concrete is measured and related to slump. These tests include useof the patented ‘‘Kelley ball’’ (ASTM C360, ‘‘Ball Penetration in Freshly MixedHydraulic Cement Concrete’’) and a simple, standard tamping rod with a bulletnose marked with equivalent inches of slump.Air Content. A field test frequently required measures the air entrapped and entrainedin fresh concrete. Various devices (air meters) that are available give quick,convenient results. In the basic methods, the volume of a sample is measured, then

the air content is removed or reduced under pressure, and finally the remainingvolume is measured. The difference between initial and final volume is the aircontent.Cement Content. Tests on fresh concrete sometimes are employed to determinethe amount of cement present in a batch. Although performed more easily thantests on hardened concrete, tests on fresh concrete nevertheless are too difficult forroutine use and usually require mobile laboratory equipment.

MEASURING AND MIXING CONCRETE INGREDIENTS

Methods of measuring the quantities and mixing the ingredients for concrete, andthe equipment available, vary greatly. For very small projects where mixing isperformed on the site, the materials are usually batched by volume. Under theseconditions, accurate proportioning is very difficult. To achieve a reasonable minimumquality of concrete, it is usually less expensive to prescribe an excess ofcement than to employ quality control. The same conditions make use of airentraining cement preferable to separate admixtures. This practical approach is preferablealso for very small projects to be supplied with ready-mixed concrete. Economywith excess cement will be achieved whenever volume is so small that thecost of an additional sack of cement per cubic yard is less than the cost of a singlecompression test.For engineered construction, some measure of quality control is always employed.In general, all measurements of materials including the cement and watershould be by weight.Mixing and delivery of structural concrete may be performed by a wide varietyof equipment and procedures:

Site mixed, for delivery by chute, pump, truck, conveyor, or rail dump cars.(Mixing procedure for normal-aggregate concretes and lightweight-aggregateconcretes to be pumped are usually different, because the greater absorption ofsome lightweight aggregates must be satisfied before pumping.)Central-plant mixed, for delivery in either open dump trucks or mixer trucks.Central-plant batching (weighing and measuring), for mixing and delivery bytruck (‘‘dry-batched’’ ready mix).Complete portable mixing plants are available and are commonly used for largebuilding or paving projects distant from established sources of supply.Generally, drum mixers are used. For special purposes, various other types ofmixers are required. These special types include countercurrent mixers, in whichthe blades revolve opposite to the turning of the drum, usually about a vertical axis,for mixing very dry, harsh, nonplastic mixes. Such mixes are required for concretemasonry or heavy-duty floor toppings. Dry-batch mixers are used for dry shotcrete(sprayed concrete), where water and the dry-mixed cement and aggregate areblended between the nozzle of the gun and impact at the point of placing.

ADMIXTURESAir Entrainment. Air-entraining admixtures may be intergroundas additives with the cement at the mill or added separately at the concrete mixingplant, or both. Where quality control is provided, it is preferable to add such admixturesat the concrete plant so that the resulting air content can be controlled forchanges in temperature, sand, or project requirementsOne common misconception relative to air entrainment is the fear that it has adeleterious effect on concrete strength. Air entrainment, however, improves workability.This will usually permit some reduction in water content. For lean, lowstrength

mixes, the improved workability permits a relatively large reduction inwater content, sand content, and water-cementitious materials ratio, which tends toincrease concrete strength. The resulting strength gain offsets the strength-reducingeffect of the air itself, and a net increase in concrete strength is achieved. For rich,high-strength mixes, the relative reduction in the ratio of water to cementitiousmaterials, water-cementitious materials ratio, is lower and a small net decrease instrength results, about on the same order of the air content (4 to 7%). The improveddurability and reduction of segregation in handling, because of the entrained air,usually make air entrainment desirable, however, in all concrete except extremelyhigh-strength mixtures, such as for lower-story interior columns or heavy-duty interiorfloor toppings for industrial wear.Accelerators. Calcium chloride for accelerating the rate of strength gain in concrete is perhaps the oldest application of admixtures. Old specificationsfor winter concreting or masonry work commonly required use of a maximumof 1 to 3% CaCl2 by weight of cement for all concrete. Proprietary admixtures nowavailable may include accelerators, but not necessarily CaCl2. The usual objectivefor use of an accelerator is to reduce curing time by developing 28-day strengthsin about 7 days .In spite of users’ familiarity with CaCl2, a number of misconceptions about itseffect persist. It has been sold (sometimes under proprietary names) as an accelerator,a cement replacement, an ‘‘antifreeze,’’ a ‘‘waterproofer,’’ and a ‘‘hardener.’’It is simply an accelerator; any improvement in other respects is pure serendipity.Experience, however, indicates corrosion damage from indiscriminate use of chloride-containing material in concrete exposed to stray currents, containing dissimilarmetals, containing prestressing steel subject to stress corrosion, or exposed to severe

wet freezing or salt water. The Building Code prohibits the use of calciumchloride or admixtures containing chloride from other than impurities from admixtureingredients in prestressed concrete, in concrete containing embedded aluminum,or in concrete cast against stay-in-place galvanized forms. The Code alsoprohibits the use of calcium chloride as an admixture in concrete that will beexposed to severe or very severe sulfate-containing solutions.Retarders. Unless proper precautions are taken, hot-weather concreting may cause‘‘flash set,’’ plastic shrinkage, ‘‘cold joints,’’ or strength loss. Admixtures that providecontrolled delay in the set of a concrete mix without reducing the rate ofstrength gain during subsequent curing offer inexpensive prevention of many hotweatherconcreting problems. These (proprietary) admixtures are usually combinedwith water-reducing admixtures that more than offset the loss in curing time dueto delayed set Superplasticizers. These admixtures, which are technically known as ‘‘high-rangewater reducers,’’ produce a high-slump concrete without an increase in mixing water.Slumps of up to 10 in. for a period of up to 90 min can be obtained. Thisgreatly facilitates placing concrete around heavy, closely spaced reinforcing steel,or in complicated forms, or both, and reduces the need for vibrating the concrete.It is important that the slump of the concrete be verified at the jobsite prior to theaddition of the superplasticizer. This ensures that the specified water-cementitiousmaterials ratio required for watertight impermeable concrete is in fact beingachieved. The superplasticizer is then added to increase the slump to the approvedlevel.Waterproofing. A number of substances, such as stearates and oils, have been

used as masonry-mortar and concrete admixtures for ‘‘waterproofing.’’ Indiscriminateuse of such materials in concrete without extremely good quality control usuallyresults in disappointment. The various water-repellent admixtures are intendedto prevent capillarity, but most severe leakage in concrete occurs at honeycombs,cold joints, cracks, and other noncapillary defects. Concrete containing waterrepellentadmixtures also requires extremely careful continuous curing, since it willbe difficult to rewet after initial drying.Waterproof concrete can be achieved by use of high-strength concrete with alow water-cementitious materials ratio to reduce segregation and an air-entrainingagent to minimize crack width. Also, good quality control and inspection is essentialduring the mixing, placing, and curing operations. Surface coatings can be used toimprove resistance to water penetration of vertical or horizontal surfaces. Cement Replacement. The term ‘‘cement replacement’’ is frequently misused inreference to chemical admixtures intended as accelerators or water reducers.Strictly, a cement replacement is a finely ground material, usually weakly cementitious, which combines into a cementlike paste replacing some of thecement paste to fill voids between the aggregates. The most common applicationsof these admixtures are for low-heat, low-strength mass concrete or for concretemasonry. In the former, they fill voids and reduce the heat of hydration; in the latter,they fill voids and help to develop the proper consistency to be self-standing as themachine head is lifted in the forming process. Materials commonly used are flyash, silica fume, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, hydraulic lime, natural cement,and pozzolans.Special-Purpose Admixtures. The list of materials used from earliest times as

admixtures for various purposes includes almost everything from human blood tosynthetic coloring agents.Admixtures for coloring concrete are available in all colors. The oldest andcheapest is perhaps carbon black.Admixtures causing expansion for use in sealing cracks or under machine bases,etc., include powdered aluminum and finely ground iron.Special admixtures are available for use where the natural aggregate is alkalireactive, to neutralize this reaction.Proprietary admixtures are available that increase the tensile strength or bondstrength of concrete. They are useful for making repairs to concrete surfaces.

For all these special purposes, a thorough investigation of admixtures proposedis recommended. Tests should be made on samples containing various proportionsfor colored concrete. Strength and durability tests should be made on concrete tobe exposed to sunlight, freezing, salt, or any other job condition expected, andspecial tests should be made for any special properties required, as a minimumprecaution.

REINFORCEMENTThe term deformed steel bars for concrete reinforcement is commonly shortenedto rebars. The short form will be used in this section.Standard rebars are produced in 11 sizes, designated on design drawings and inproject specifications by a size number.

CONCRETE PLACEMENT

The principles governing proper placement of concrete are:

Segregation must be avoided during all operations between the mixer and thepoint of placement, including final consolidation and finishing.

The concrete must be thoroughly consolidated, worked solidly around all embeddeditems, and should fill all angles and corners of the forms.Where fresh concrete is placed against or on hardened concrete, a good bondmust be developed.Unconfined concrete must not be placed under water.The temperature of fresh concrete must be controlled from the time of mixingthrough final placement, and protected after placement.

METHODS OF PLACINGConcrete may be conveyed from a mixer to point of placement by any of a varietyof methods and equipment, if properly transported to avoid segregation. Selectionof the most appropriate technique for economy depends on jobsite conditions, especiallyproject size, equipment, and the contractor’s experience. In building construction,concrete usually is placed with hand- or power-operated buggies; dropbottombuckets with a crane; inclined chutes; flexible and rigid pipe by pumping;shotcrete, in which either dry materials and water are sprayed separately or mixedconcrete is shot against the forms; and for underwater placing, tremie chutes (closedflexible tubes). For mass-concrete construction, side-dump cars on narrow-gagetrack or belt conveyers may be used. For pavement, concrete may be placed bybucket from the swinging boom of a paving mixer, directly by dump truck or mixertruck, or indirectly by trucks into a spreader.A special method of placing concrete suitable for a number of unusual conditionsconsists of grout-filling preplaced coarse aggregate. This method is particularlyuseful for underwater concreting, because grout, introduced into the aggregatethrough a vertical pipe gradually lifted, displaces the water, which is lighter than

the grout. Because of bearing contact of the aggregate, less than usual overallshrinkage is also achieved.

EXCESS WATEREven within the specified limits on slump and water-cementitious materials ratio,excess water must be avoided. In this context, excess water is present for the conditions of placing if evidence of water rise (vertical segregation) or water flow(horizontal segregation) occurs. Excess water also tends to aggravate surface defectsby increased leakage through form openings. The result may be honeycomb, sandstreaks,variations in color, or soft spots at the surface.In vertical formwork, water rise causes weak planes between each layer deposited.In addition to the deleterious structural effect, such planes, when hardened,contain voids through which water may pass.In horizontal elements, such as floor slabs, excess water rises and causes a weaklaitance layer at the top. This layer suffers from low strength, low abrasion resistance,high shrinkage, and generally poor quality.

CONSOLIDATION

The purpose of consolidation is to eliminate voids of entrapped air and to ensureintimate complete contact of the concrete with the surfaces of the forms and thereinforcement. Intense vibration, however, may also reduce the volume of desirableentrained air; but this reduction can be compensated by adjustment of the mixproportions.Powered internal vibrators are usually used to achieve consolidation. For thinslabs, however, high-quality, low-slump concrete can be effectively consolidated,without excess water, by mechanical surface vibrators. For precast elements in rigid,

watertight forms, external vibration (of the form itself) is highly effective. Externalvibration is also effective with in-place forms, but should not be used unless theformwork is specially designed for the temporary increase in internal pressures tofull fluid head plus the impact of the vibrator .Except in certain paving operations, vibration of the reinforcement should beavoided. Although it is effective, the necessary control to prevent overvibration isdifficult. Also, when concrete is placed in several lifts of layers, vibration of verticalrebars passing into partly set concrete below may be harmful. Note, however, thatrevibration of concrete before the final set, under controlled conditions, can improveconcrete strength markedly and reduce surface voids (bugholes). This technique istoo difficult to control for general use on field-cast vertical elements, but it is veryeffective in finishing slabs with powered vibrating equipment.Manual spading is most efficient for removal of entrapped air at form surfaces.This method is particularly effective where smooth impermeable form material isused and the surface is upward sloping.On the usual building project, different conditions of placement are usually encounteredthat make it desirable to provide for various combinations of the techniquesdescribed. One precaution generally applicable is that the vibrators not beused to move the concrete laterally.

CONCRETING VERTICAL ELEMENTSThe interior of columns is usually congested; it contains a large volume of reinforcingsteel compared with the volume of concrete, and has a large height com-pared with its cross-sectional dimensions. Therefore, though columns should becontinuously cast, the concrete should be placed in 2- to 4-ft-deep increments andconsolidated with internal vibrators. These should be lifted after each increment

has been vibrated. If delay occurs in concrete supply before a column has beencompleted, every effort should be made to avoid a cold joint. When the remainderof the column is cast, the first increment should be small, and should be vibratedto penetrate the previous portion slightly.In all columns and reinforced narrow walls, concrete placing should begin with2 to 4 in of grout. Otherwise, loose stone will collect at the bottom, resulting inthe formation of honeycomb. This grout should be proportioned for about the sameslump as the concrete or slightly more, but at the same or lower water-cementitiousmaterial ratio. (Some engineers prefer to start vertical placement with a mix havingthe same proportions of water, cement, and fine aggregate, but with one-half thequantity of coarse aggregate, as in the design mix, and to place a starting layer 6to 12 in deep.)When concrete is placed for walls, the only practicable means to avoid segregationis to place no more than a 24-in layer in one pass. Each layer should bevibrated separately and kept nearly level.For walls deeper than 4 ft, concrete should be placed through vertical, flexibletrunks or chutes located about 8 ft apart. The trunks may be flexible or rigid, andcome in sections so that they can be lifted as the level of concrete in place rises.The concrete should not fall free, from the end of the trunk, more than 4 ft orsegregation will occur, with the coarse aggregate ricocheting off the forms to lodgeon one side. Successive layers after the initial layer should be penetrated by internalvibrators for a depth of about 4 to 6 in to ensure complete integration at the surfaceof each layer. Deeper penetration can be beneficial (revibration), but control undervariable jobsite conditions is too uncertain for recommendation of this practice forgeneral use.

The results of poor placement in walls are frequently observed: sloping layerlines; honeycombs, leaking, if water is present; and, if cores are taken at successiveheights, up to a 50% reduction in strength from bottom to top. Some precautionsnecessary to avoid these ill effects are:Place concrete in level layers through closely spaced trunks or chutes.Do not place concrete full depth at each placing point.Do not move concrete laterally with vibrators.For deep, long walls, reduce the slump for upper layers 2 to 3 in below theslump for the starting layer.On any delay between placing of layers, vibrate the concrete thoroughly at theinterface.If concreting must be suspended between planned horizontal construction joints,level off the layer cast, remove any laitance and excess water, and make astraight, level construction joint, if possible, with a small cleat attached to theform on the exposed face

CONCRETING HORIZONTAL ELEMENTS

For concrete slabs, careless placing methods result in horizontal segregation,with desired properties in the wrong location, the top consisting of excess waterand fines with low abrasion and weather resistance, and high shrinkage. For a goodsurface in a one-course slab, low-slump concrete and a minimum of vibration andfinishing are desirable. Immediate screeding with a power-vibrated screed is helpfulin distributing low-slump, high-quality concrete. No further finishing should beundertaken until free water, if any, disappears. A powered, rotary tamping float cansmooth very-low-slump concrete at this stage. Final troweling should be delayed,if necessary, until the surface can support the weight of the finisher.When concrete is placed for deep beams that are monolithic with a slab, the

beam should be filled first. Then, a short delay for settlement should ensue beforeslab concrete is cast. Vibration through the top slab should penetrate the beamconcrete sufficiently to ensure thorough consolidation.When a slab is cast, successive batches of concrete should be placed on theedge of previous batches, to maintain progressive filling without segregation. Forslabs with sloping surfaces, concrete placing should usually begin at the lower edge.For thin shells in steeply sloping areas, placing should proceed downslope.Slump should be adjusted and finishing coordinated to prevent restraint by horizontalreinforcing bars from causing plastic cracking in the fresh concrete

BONDING TO HARDENED CONCRETEThe surface of hardened concrete should be rough and clean where it is to bebonded with fresh concrete.Vertical surfaces of planned joints may be prepared easily by wire brushingthem, before complete curing, to expose the coarse aggregate. (The timing can beextended, if desired, by using a surface retarder on the bulkhead form.) For surfacesfully cured without earlier preparation, sandblasting, bush hammering, or acidwashes (thoroughly rinsed off) are effective means of preparation for bonding newconcrete.

JOINTS IN CONCRETE

Several types of joints may occur or be formed in concrete structures:Construction joints are formed when fresh concrete is placed against hardenedconcrete.Expansion joints are provided in long components to relieve compressivestresses that would otherwise result from a temperature rise.

Contraction joints (control joints) are provided to permit concrete to contractduring a drop in temperature and to permit drying shrinkage without resultinguncontrolled random cracking.

DEVELOPMENT, ANCHORAGE, AND SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT

Steel reinforcement must be bonded to the concrete sufficiently so that the steelwill yield before it is freed from the concrete. Despite assumptions made in thepast to the contrary, bond stress between concrete and reinforcing bars is not uniformover a given length, not directly related to the perimeter of the bars, not equalin tension and compression, and may be affected by lateral confinement.

WALLS

Generally, any vertical member whose length and height are both much larger thanthe thickness may be treated as a wall. Walls subjected to vertical loads are calledbearing walls. Walls subjected to no loads other than their own weight, such aspanel or enclosure walls, are called nonbearing walls. Walls with a primary functionof resisting lateral loads are called shear walls. They also may serve as bearingwalls.

BEARING WALLSReinforced concrete bearing walls may be designed as eccentrically loaded columnsor by an empirical method.Length. The effective length of wall for concentrated loads may be taken as thecenter-to-center distance between loads, but not more than the width of bearingplus 4 times the wall thickness.

Thickness. The minimum thickness of bearing walls for which Eq. (9.82) is applicableis one-twenty-fifth of the least distance between supports at the sides ortop, but not less than 4 in. Exterior basement walls and foundation walls should beat least 71⁄2 in thick. Minimum thickness and reinforcement requirements may bewaived, however, if justified by structural analysis.Reinforcement. The area of horizontal steel reinforcement should be at leastA _ 0.0025A (9.83) h wvwhere Awv _ gross area of the vertical cross-section of wall.Area of vertical reinforcement should be at leastAv _ 0.0015Awh (9.84)where Awh _ gross area of the horizontal cross-section of wall. For Grade 60 bars,No. 5 or smaller, or for welded-wire fabric, these steel areas may be reduced to0.0020Awv and 0.0012Awh, respectively.

NONBEARING WALLSNonbearing reinforced-concrete walls, frequently classified as panels, partitions, orcross walls, may be precast or cast in place. Panels serving merely as exteriorcladding, when precast, are usually attached to the columns or floors of a frame,supported on grade beams, or supported by and spanning between footings, servingas both grade beams and walls. Cast-in-place cross walls are most common insubstructures. Less often, cast-in-place panels may be supported on grade beamsand attached to the frame.In most of these applications for nonbearing walls, stresses are low and alternativematerials, such as unreinforced masonry, when supported by beams abovegrade, or panels of other materials, can be used. Consequently, unless esthetic requirementsdictate reinforced concrete, low-stressed panels of reinforced concretemust be designed for maximum economy. Minimum thickness, minimum reinforcement,

full benefits of standardization for mass-production techniques, and designfor double function as both wall and deep beam must be achieved.Thickness of nonbearing walls of reinforced concrete should be at least onethirtieththe distance between supports

FOUNDATIONSBuilding foundations should distribute wall and column loads to the underlying soiland rock within acceptable limits on resulting soil pressure and total and differentialsettlement. Wall and column loads consist of live load, reduced in accordance withthe applicable general building code, and dead load, combined, when required, withlateral loads of wind, earthquake, earth pressure, or liquid pressure. These loadscan be distributed to the soil near grade by concrete spread footings, or to the soilat lower levels by concrete piles or drilled piers.

GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR FOUNDATIONS

The area of spread footings, the number of piles, or the number of drilled piers areselected by a designer to support actual unfactored building loads without exceedingsettlement limitations, a safe soil pressure qa, or a safe pile or drilled-pier load. Afactor of safety from 2 to 3, based on the ultimate strength of the soil and itssettlement characteristics, is usually used to determine the safe soil pressure or safepile or drilled-pier load

Soil Pressures. After the area of the spread footing or the number and spacingof piles or drilled piers has been determined, the spread footing, pile-cap footing,or drilled pier can be designed.

Reinforcement for Bearing. The bearing stress on the interface between a columnand a spread footing, pile cap, or drilled pier should not exceed the allowable stress

Footing Thickness Concrete Cover.

WALL PANELSPrecast-concrete wall panels include plain panels, decorative panels, natural stonefacedpanels, sandwich panels, solid panels, ribbed panels, tilt-up panels, loadbearingand non-load-bearing panels, and thin-section panels. Prestressing, whenused with such panels, makes it possible to handle and erect large units and thinsections without cracking.

LOSSES IN PRESTRESSElastic Shortening of Concrete. In pretensioned members, when the tendons arereleased from fixed abutments and the steel stress is transferred to the concrete bybond, the concrete shortens under the compressive stress. The decrease in unit stressin the tendons equals PsEs /AcEc _ nƒc, where Es is the modulus of elasticity ofthe steel, psi; Ec the modulus of elasticity of the concrete psi; n the modular ratio,Es /Ec; ƒc the unit stress in the concrete, psi; Ps the prestressing force applied bythe tendons; and Ac the cross-sectional area of the member.In posttensioned members, the loss due to elastic shortening can be eliminatedby using the members as a reaction in tensioning the tendons.Frictional Losses. In posttensioned members, there may be a loss of prestresswhere curved tendons rub against their enclosure. The loss may be computed interms of a curvature-friction coefficient _. Losses due to unintentional misalignmentmay be calculated from a wobble-friction coefficient K (per lin ft). Since the coefficientsvary considerably, they should, if possible, be determined experimentally.

Slip at Anchorages. For posttensioned members, prestress loss may occur at theanchorages during the anchoring. For example, seating of wedges may permit someshortening of the tendons. If tests of a specific anchorage device indicate a shortening_L, the decrease in unit stress in the prestressing steel is equal to Es_L/L,where L is the length of the tendon. This loss can be reduced or eliminated byovertensioning initially by an additional strain equal to the estimated shortening.Shrinkage of Concrete. Change in length of a member caused by concrete shrinkageresults in a prestress loss over a period of time. This change can be determinedfrom tests or experience. Generally, the loss is greater for pretensioned membersthan for posttensioned members, which are prestressed after much of the shrinkagehas occurred. Assuming a shrinkage of 0.0002 in / in of length for a pretensionedmember, the loss in tension in the tendons is 0.0002Es _ 0.0002 _ 30 _ 106 _6000 psi.Creep of Concrete. Change in length of concrete under sustained load induces aprestress loss proportional to the load over a period of time depending greatly onthe aggregate used. This loss may be several times the elastic shortening. An estimateof this loss may be made with an estimated creep coefficient Ccr equal tothe ratio of additional long-time deformation to initial elastic deformation determinedby test. The loss in tension for axial prestress in the steel is, therefore, equalto Ccrnƒc. Values ranging from 1.5 to 2.0 have been recommended for Ccr.Relaxation of Prestressing Steel. A decrease in stress under constant high strainoccurs with some prestressing steels. Steel tensioned to 60% of its ultimate strengthmay relax and lose as much as 3% of the prestressing force. This type of loss may

be reduced by temporary overtensioning, which artificially accelerates relaxation,reducing the loss that will occur later at lower stresses.

WOOD CONSTRUCTIONWood is the only renewable source for building materials. It comes from foreststhat are continually being replanted as they are harvested. This practice ensures aplentiful supply of wood for construction and for a myriad of other uses.Compared to other building materials, wood has a very high ratio of strength toweight. This makes it very economical for use in all types of construction. Woodalso has an aesthetic quality and natural warmth unequalled by other building materials.Wood has inherent characteristics with which construction users should be familiar.For example, as a consequence of its biological origin, it is nonhomogeneous.Also, properties of pieces of wood from different species of tree may beconsiderably different, and even properties of pieces of wood from the same treemay differ. In the past, determination of engineering properties depended heavilyon visual inspection, keyed to averages, of wood pieces. Research, however, hasmade possible better estimates of these properties. It is no longer necessary to relyso heavily on visual inspection. Greater accuracy in determination of engineeringproperties has been made possible by mechanical grading procedures.Improvements in adhesives for wood also have contributed to the betterment ofwood construction. These advances in adhesion technology combined with a desireto utilize more efficiently available wood-fiber resources have led to increasing useof such products as oriented strand board (OSB), glued-laminated timber (glulam),wood I joists, and structural composite lumber (SCL).

Lumber

Glued-Laminated TimberWet Service FactorTemperature FactorSize FactorBeam Stability FactorVolume FactorFlat-Use FactorForm Factor

STRUCTURAL PANELSWood-based structural panels are thin, flat, composite materials capable of resistingapplied loads in specific applications. Structural panels fall into three basic categoriesbased on the manufacturing process used: plywood, mat-formed panels (orientedstrand board, or OSB), and composite panels.Plywood—a flat panel built up of sheets of veneer, called plies. These are unitedunder pressure by a bonding agent. The adhesive bond between plies is as strongas or stronger than solid wood. Plywood is constructed of an odd number of layerswith the grain of adjacent layers perpendicular. Layers may consist of a single plyor two or more plies laminated with parallel grain direction. Outer layers and allodd-numbered layers generally have the grain direction oriented parallel to the longdimension of the panel. The odd number of layers with alternating grain directionequalizes strains, reduces splitting, and minimizes dimensional change and warpingof the panel.Mat-formed panel—any wood-based panel that does not contain veneer but isconsistent with the definition of structural-use panels, including products such aswaferboard and oriented strand board.Oriented strand board—an engineered structural wood panel composed ofcompressed wood strands arranged in layers at right angles to one another andbonded with fully waterproof adhesive.Composite panel—any panel containing a combination of veneer and other

wood-based materials.

Exterior—panels that are suitable for permanent exposure to weather or moisture.Exposure 1—panels that are suitable for uses not permanently exposed to theweather but may be used where exposure durability to resist effects of moisturedue to construction delays, high humidity, water leakage, or other conditions ofsimilar severity is required.Exposure 2—panels that are suitable for interior use where exposure durabilityto resist effects of high humidity and water leakage is required.Interior—panels that are suitable for interior use where they will be subjectedto only temporary, minor amounts of moisture.

DESIGN VALUES FOR MECHANICAL CONNECTIONSNails, staples, spikes, wood screws, bolts, and timber connectors, such as shearplates and split rings, are used for connections in wood construction. Because determination of stress distribution in connections made with wood and metal is complicated, information for design of joints has been developed from tests and experience. The data indicate that design values and methods of design for mechanicalconnections are applicable to both solid sawn lumber and laminated members

WALL, FLOOR, AND CEILINGSYSTEMSMASONRY WALLSMasonry comprises assemblages of nonmetallic, incombustible materials, such asstone, brick, structural clay tile, concrete block, glass block, gypsum block, or adobebrick. Unit masonry consists of pieces of such materials, usually between 4 and 24

in in length and height and between 4 and 12 in in thickness. The units are bondedtogether with mortar or other cementitious materials.Walls and partitions are classified as load-bearing and non-load-bearing. Differentdesign criteria are applied to the two types.

MASONRY DEFINITIONSFollowing are some of the terms most commonly encountered in masonry construction:Architectural Terra Cotta. (See Ceramic Veneer.)Ashlar Masonry. Masonry composed of rectangular units usually larger in sizethan brick and properly bonded, having sawed, dressed, or squared beds. It islaid in mortar.Bearing Walls. (See Load-Bearing Wall.)Bonder. (See Header.)Brick. A rectangular masonry building unit, not less than 75% solid, made fromburned clay, shale, or a mixture of these materials.Buttress. A bonded masonry column built as an integral part of a wall and decreasingin thickness from base to top, though never thinner than the wall. It isused to provide lateral stability to the wall.Ceramic Veneer. Hard-burned, non-load-bearing, clay building units, glazed orunglazed, plain or ornamental.Chase. A continuous recess in a wall to receive pipes, ducts, conduits.Column. A compression member with width not exceeding 4 times the thickness,and with height more than 3 times the least lateral dimension.Concrete Block. A machine-formed masonry building unit composed of portlandcement, aggregates, and water.Coping. A cap or finish on top of a wall, pier, chimney, or pilaster to preventpenetration of water to masonry below.Corbel. Successive course of masonry projecting from the face of a wall to increaseits thickness or to form a shelf or ledgeCourse. A continuous horizontal layer of masonry units bonded together (Fig.11.3).Cross-Sectional Area. Net cross-sectional area of a masonry unit is the gross

cross-sectional area minus the area of cores or cellular spaces. Gross crosssectionalarea of scored units is determined to the outside of the scoring, but thecross-sectional area of the grooves is not deducted to obtain the net area.Eccentricity. The normal distance between the centroidal axis of a member andthe component of resultant load parallel to that axis.Effective Height. The height of a member to be assumed for calculating theslenderness ratio.Effective Thickness. The thickness of a member to be assumed for calculatingthe slenderness ratio.Grout. A mixture of cementitious material, fine aggregate, and sufficient waterto produce pouring consistency without segregation of the constituents.Grouted Masonry. Masonry in which the interior joints are filled by pouringgrout into them as the work progresses.Header (Bonder). A brick or other masonry unit laid flat across a wall with endsurface exposed, to bond two wythes (Fig. 11.1b).Height of Wall. Vertical distance from top of wall to foundation wall or otherintermediate support.Hollow Masonry Unit. Masonry with net cross-sectional area in any plane parallelto the bearing surface less than 75% of its gross cross-sectional area measuredin the same plane.Lateral Support. Members such as cross walls, columns, pilasters, buttresses,floors, roofs, or spandrel beams that have sufficient strength and stability to resisthorizontal forces transmitted to them may be considered lateral supports.Load-Bearing Wall. A wall that supports any vertical load in addition to its ownweight.Masonry. A built-up construction or combination of masonry units bonded togetherwith mortar or other cementitious material.Mortar. A plastic mixture of cementitious materials, fine aggregates, and water.

Partition. An interior non-bearing wall one story or less in height.Pier. An isolated column of masonry. A bearing wall not bonded at the sides intoassociated masonry is considered a pier when its horizontal dimension measuredat right angles to the thickness does not exceed 4 times its thickness.Pilaster. A bonded or keyed column of masonry built as part of a wall, but thickerthan the wall, and of uniform thickness throughout its height. It serves as avertical beam, column, or both.Prism. An assemblage of brick and mortar for the purpose of laboratory testingfor design strength, quality control of materials, and workmanship. Minimumheight for prisms is 12 in, and the slenderness ratio should lie between 2 and 5.Rubble:Coursed Rubble. Masonry composed of roughly shaped stones fitting approximatelyon level beds, well bonded, and brought at vertical intervals to continuouslevel beds or courses.

Random Rubble. Masonry composed of roughly shaped stones, well bonded andbrought at irregular vertical intervals to discontinuous but approximately levelbeds or courses.Rough or Ordinary Rubble. Masonry composed of nonshaped field stones laidwithout regularity of coursing, but well bonded.Slenderness Ratio. Ratio of the effective height of a member to its effectivethickness.Solid Masonry Unit. A masonry unit with net cross-sectional area in every planeparallel to the bearing surface 75% or more of its gross cross-sectional areameasured in the same plane.Solid Masonry Wall. A wall built of solid masonry units laid contiguously, withjoints between units filled with mortar or grout.Stretcher. A masonry unit laid with length horizontal and parallel with the wallface (Fig. 12.3).

Veneer. A wythe securely attached to a wall but not considered as sharing loador adding strength to it Virtual Eccentricity. The eccentricity of resultant axial loads required to produceaxial and bending stresses equivalent to those produced by applied axial andtransverse loads.Wall. Vertical or near-vertical construction, with length exceeding three times thethickness, for enclosing space or retaining earth or stored materials.Bearing Wall. A wall that supports any vertical load in addition to its own weight.Cavity Wall. (See Hollow Wall below.)Curtain Wall. A non-load-bearing exterior wall.Faced Wall. A wall in which the masonry facing and the backing are of differentmaterials and are so bonded as to exert a common reaction under load.Hollow Wall. A wall of masonry so arranged as to provide an air space withinthe wall between the inner and outer wythes A cavitywall is built of masonry units or plain concrete, or of a combination of thesematerials, so arranged as to provide an airspace within the wall, which may befilled with insulation, and in which inner and outer wythes are tied together withmetal ties Nonbearing Wall. A wall that supports no vertical load other than its own weight.Party Wall. A wall on an interior lot line used or adapted for joint service betweentwo buildings.Shear Wall. A wall that resists horizontal forces applied in the plane of the wall.Spandrel Wall. An exterior curtain wall at the level of the outside floor beams inmultistory buildings. It may extend from the head of the window below the floorto the sill of the window above.Veneered Wall. A wall having a facing of masonry or other material securelyattached to a backing, but not so bonded as to exert a common reaction underload

Wythe. Each continuous vertical section of a wall one masonry unit in thickness

Materials for Masonry ConstructionStrength (compressive, shearing, and transverse) of brick structures is affected bythe properties of the brick and the mortar in which they are laid. In compression,strength of brick has the greater effect. Although mortar is also a factor in compressivestrength, its greater effect is on the transverse and shearing strengths ofmasonry. For these reasons, there are specific design requirements for and limitationson materials used in engineered brick structures.Brick.In addition, brick used in load-bearing or shear walls must comply with the dimension and distortion tolerances.Mortar. Most of the test data on which allowable stresses for engineered brickmasonry are based were obtained for specimens built with portland cement-hydratedlime mortars.

Bond between Wythes in Masonry Walls

Grouted MasonryConstruction of walls requiring two or more wythes of brick or solid concrete block,similar to the wall shown in Fig. 11.3a, may be speeded by pouring grout betweenthe two outer wythes, to fill the interior joints. Building codes usually require that,for the wythes, the mortar be type M or S, consisting of portland cement, lime,and aggregate (Art. 4.16). Also, they may require that, when laid, burned-clay brickand sand-lime units should have a rate of absorption of not more than 0.025 oz/in2 over a 1-mm period in the standard absorption test (ASTM C67). All units inthe two outer wythes should be laid with full head and bed joints.Low-Lift Grouting. The vertical spaces between wythes that are to be grouted

should be at least 3⁄4 in wide. Masonry headers should not project into the gap.One of the outer wythes may be carried up 18 in before grout is poured. The otherouter wythe is restricted to a height up to 6 times the grouting space, but not morethan 8 in, before grout is poured. Thus, in this type of construction, grout is pouredin lifts not exceeding 8 in. The grout should be puddled with a grout stick immediatelyafter it has been poured. If work has to be stopped for an hour or more,horizontal construction joints should be formed by raising all wythes to the samelevel and leaving the grout 1 in below the top. A suitable grout for this type ofconstruction consists of 1 part portland cement, 0.1 part hydrated lime or lime putty,and 21⁄4 to 3 parts sand.High-Lift Grouting. This type of construction is often used where steel reinforcementis to be inserted in the vertical spaces between wythes; for example, in thecavity of the wall shown in Fig. 11.3e. Grout is poured continuously in lifts up to6 ft high and up to 30 ft long in the vertical spaces. (Vertical barriers, or dams, ofsolid masonry may be built in the grout space to control the horizontal flow ofgrout.) Building codes may require each lift to be completed within one day. Thegrout should be consolidated by puddling or mechanical vibrating as it is placedand reconsolidated after excess moisture has been absorbed but before plasticityhas been lost. A suitable grout for gaps 2 or more inches wide consists of 1 partportland cement, 0.1 part hydrated lime or lime putty, 2 to 3 parts sand, and notmore than 2 parts gravel, by volume.In construction of the wall, the wythes should be kept at about the same level.No wythe should lay behind the others more than 16 in in height. The masonryshould be allowed to cure for at least 3 days, to gain strength, before grout is

poured. The grout space should be at least 2 in wide. If, however, horizontal reinforcementis to be placed in the gap, it should be wide enough to provide 1⁄4 inclearance around the steel, but not less than 3 in wide.

SANDWICH PANELSWalls may be built of prefabricated panels that are considerably larger in size thanunit masonry and capable of meeting requirements of appearance, strength, durability,insulation, acoustics, and permeability. Such panels generally consist of aninsulation core sandwiched between a thin lightweight facing and backing.When the edges of the panels are sealed, small holes should be left in the seal.Otherwise, heat of the sun could set up sizable vapor pressure, which could causeTrouble.

Plaster MixesPlaster DryingGypsum Bases for PlasterMasonry Bases for PlasterGypsum partition tile has scored faces to provide a mechanical bond as well as thenatural bond of gypsum to gypsum plaster. The 12 _ 30-in faces of the tile presentan unwarped plastering surface because the tile is dried without burning. This isdone so that a mechanic can lay a straighter wall than with other types of units.

Mortars and Adhesives

Portland-Cement Mortar. This is suitable for most surfaces and ordinary installations.For floors, the mix may be 1 part portland cement and about 6 parts sand.For walls, about 1⁄2 part of hydrated lime may be added to the floor mix. The bedmay be 3⁄4 to 11⁄4 in thick. Tiles may be set into the bed while the mortar is stillplastic (ANSI A108.1). Or, after the mortar has cured, the tiles may be bonded to

the mortar bed with a 1⁄16-in-thick coat of dry-set or latex portland-cement mortaror with neat cement. If a neat-cement bond coat is used and the tile is absorptive,it should be soaked before being set.Dry-Set Mortar. This is a mix of portland cement and sand, with additives thatimpart water retentivityLatex Portland-Cement Mortar. This is a mix containing portland cement, sand,and a latex additive.Organic Adhesive. This is an organic material that cures or sets by evaporation.Epoxy Mortar. Suitable for use where chemical resistance, high bond strength, orhigh impact resistance is needed, this mortar contains epoxy resin and hardener

TOOLS

Contents

Welcome to the 'Tools' resource. You will learn about:

different tools tool usage.

Tool tips

Whatever the type or purpose of the tools you are using, you must keep them in good repair and safely stored.

1. Keep tools clean. Wash off any materials or dirt at the end of each day.2. Maintain tools carefully - especially electrically-driven tools. These should be

inspected and tagged by an electrician every three months.3. Lock tools away at the end of the day - especially those that are dangerous.

Applying and flattening

Raking tool Round iron jointer Trowel - Large Trowel - Pointing Trowel - Finger Caulking gun Filling blade Flat brushes Paint pot

Paint roller Paint roller tray Paint stirrer Sash cutter brush Trowel - Rubber squeegee Trowel - Notched or serrated Trowel - Double ended pointing Bullnose template Floats Floats - Fining Floats - Long Floats - Mitre Trowel - Floating Trowel - Gauging Angle tools Trowel - Laying Metal scratcher Plasterer's hawk Trowel - Setting Water brush Automatic taper Broad knives Corner finisher/ Corner rollers Corner tools Mechanical tools Mechanical tools Small tools Trowel - Straight edge Trowel - Wais

Cleaning and protecting

Broom Soft hand broom Vacuum cleaner Drop sheet Masking machine Scraper Wire brush

Cutting and shaping tools

Bolster Brick hammer Masonry saw Hand sanding block Tungsten tipped scribe Nipper cutters Hand tile cutter Hole cutter Cold chisel Lump hammer Mash hammer Angle grinders Bolt cutters Cutting knife Reciprocating saw Wire cutters Crosscut or hand saw Coping saw Drop saw Electric drills Mitre box Panel saw Power sander Sanders hand/ pole Tin snips Trimming knife

Digging and demolishing

Crowbar/ Fencing bar Earth moving equipment Jackhammer Pinch bar/ Wrecking bar Pneumatic chisel Rock breaker/ Pneumatic pick Shovels and spades

Elevating and holding

Scaffolding Adjustable props Elevated work platforms Ladder Lifting systems Trestles

General equipment

Concrete mixer Extension/ power leads Hoses Wheelbarrow Mortar board Air compressor Ropes, cables, chains Saw stool/horse

Hammering and fixing

Screwdrivers Nail punch Comb hammer Nail gun Pliers Sledge hammer Spanner Stapler Plumber's wrench Nail gun Explosive powered fastener (Hilti gun) Claw hammer Power/battery screwdriver or screwgun Screw gun Scutch hammer

Measuring, aligning and levelling

One metre folding rule Gauge rod Bevel Steel compass Spirit level Long straight edge Large wooden square Plumb rule and bob Line pins and lines Line blocks Steel square Metal joint rule Straight edge Combination square Chalk line reel Steel tape Tee square/ T-square

Raking tool

This has an adjustable pin on two small wheels and you use it to rake out joints. The adjustable pin means you can rake to a specific depth.

Round iron jointer

These jointers leave a recessed (concave) joint. They are used for facing concrete blocks.

Trowel - Large

These have steel blades and wooden handles. They are available in many shapes and sizes and are used by bricklayers, plasterers and masons. This is a very useful tool. It can be used for spreading mortar or plaster, tapping things into place and pointing.

Trowel - Pointing

Pointing trowels also come in various sizes. They are used for quality pointing work.

Trowel - Finger

This is a thin, narrow trowel (also called a caulking trowel) with a steel blade and a wooden handle. It is used to smooth out joints and for caulking and filling mortar joints.

Bolster

A bolster is made of steel and is usually 100 mm wide. It is used with a lump hammer to cut masonry and bricks accurately.

It is also used for removing tiles and bricks.

Check that the shaft and blade are straight and clean.

Brick hammer

This is a small hammer that has a sharp end (as well as the striking end). The sharp end is used by masons and bricklayers to cut masonry and bricks roughly.

Masonry saw

This is a motor-driven power tool. It is especially useful for making accurate cuts in masonry and bricks.

Tinsnips

Tinsnips are like strong scissors. They are used for cutting thin strips or sheets of metal.

One metre folding rule

This handy rule is used to measure short distances. It is sometimes called a 'zigzag' rule. It is made of plastic or boxwood and folds to a length of 250 mm.

Steel tape

A steel tape can be three to thirty metres long. It used to measure larger distances, such as a wall and other building areas.

Gauge rod

This is used by bricklayers to work out courses. It is usually two to three metres long and is made of timber or aluminium. It is marked off in required vertical measurements, such as the height of window sills or door heads. It can be used, for example to make sure the courses are a regular height at the main corners of a building.

Bevel

A bevel has a 250 mm adjustable blade, which is useful if you have to cut materials at an angle other than 90º.

Steel compass

This is used to mark off a series of measurements.

Spirit level

A spirit level is used to check the level of a horizontal or vertical surface. For example, it can be used to make sure corners and walls are aligned vertically. Spirit levels are 450 to 1200 mm long.

 

Long straight edge

These vary in size. A typical one might be three metres long. You use them with spirit levels to check levels. It is usually used in building trades for setting out.

Large wooden square

You can use this tool to set out the right angle corners, especially of a large structure like a building. It is made of battens 75 x 25 mm with sides around 1200 mm long.

Plumb rule and bob

This is a string with a weight on the end. The weight is usually about 1.3 kg. It is used to show the direction of the vertical. You use the plumb and bob to check the vertical alignment of walls and so on.

Line pins and lines

These are used by bricklayers to align the brick courses. The line is stretched tight between the pins, which are held in the mortar joints. The bricks are laid to the line.

Line blocks

These are used by bricklayers as an alternative to pins to hold the lines. They are made of wood or plastic and attach the line to the corner of the profile. (A profile is a temporary structure that helps the bricklayer align the bricks.)

Steel square

A steel square can be used to set out or test small right angle corner

Broom

A broom is an essential piece of equipment. A tidy worksite involves keeping areas swept clean of mud, dirt and rubble.

Soft hand broom

A small soft broom is used for sweeping extra materials off surfaces such as timber and bricks.

Scaffolding

Scaffolding allows workers to work at height safely. Scaffolding above four metres can only be erected or dismantled by a person who has a scaffolding certificate.

Concrete mixer

This may be electric or petrol-driven. It is used to mix large amounts of material such as mortar or concrete.

Extension/power leads

These are used to connect electrically-driven power tools to the power source. They must be regularly inspected to make sure they are safe and serviceable.

Hoses

Hoses can of course be used for cleaning but are also needed for connecting to clean water supplies for mixing some materials.

Wheelbarrow

Wheelbarrows are used for moving heavy materials, removing debris and for mixing smaller quantities of things such as mortar and concrete.

Check:

the wheelbarrow is big enough and strong enough for the job (it can tip over if the things you carry in it are too big)

the wheel is turning correctly and the tyre is inflated.

Mortar board

Mortar boards are used by bricklayers for 'working' the already mixed mortar before laying the bricks.

Caulking gun

A caulking gun can be used to apply sealant in cracks between wood and plaster surfaces. The tube of sealant is attached to the gun, which squeezes the sealant out of the tube.

Filling blade

This is used to apply small amounts of plaster or oil-based filler to small gaps or cracks in a surface you are going to coat.

Flat brushes

   

Variously sized flat brushes are used to coat large areas such as walls, ceilings, weatherboards, and masonry. The most common are the 100 mm, 75 mm and 50 mm brushes. For example, a 75 mm flat brush is used for coating such things as cornices and downpipes.

Paint pot

Small amounts of paint are poured from large paint containers into a paint pot. This pot is usually used when you are painting with a brush.

Paint roller

Paint rollers are used for painting large surfaces. They come with short handles and with extension poles for reaching high surfaces.

Paint roller tray

These hold the paint when you are working with a paint roller. You roll the roller up and down in the tray to cover it evenly with paint.

Paint stirrer

This is a broad, flat wooden stick. You use it to mix the paint while it is still in the container. You mix until the paint is a consistent texture and colour.

Sash cutter brush

These are sometimes called 'fitches'. They come in various sizes, from very narrow to 75 mm wide. Sash cutters have long handles of about 200 mm, which means you can reach into high or narrow, difficult to reach spaces.

Vacuum cleaner

Vacuum cleaners are useful for cleaning away dust. Unlike brooms, they do not spread dust as they clean.

Check:

electric leads are in good condition the dust collecting bag is emptied regularly.

Drop sheet

These can be fabric or plastic. You use these to cover large surfaces, such as floors, cupboards or furniture to protect them from such things as paint, dust, or plaster.

Masking machine

You can use a masking machine to apply masking tape and plastic or paper, if you have large surfaces to cover for protection.

Scraper

You can use a scraper to remove flaking paint spots when the rest of the surface is in reasonable repair.

Power sander

Several kinds of power sanders are available. They are generally used for removing old coatings of paint. Such power tools include disc sanders, orbital-rotating sanders, and belt sanders. Like all power tools they can be dangerous if not used carefully.

Power-driven sanders vary in their specific purpose and in how they are used. You must be trained in their use and follow the safety requirements.

Hand sanding block

A hand sanding block is often made of cork. Some have handles. You wrap sandpaper (abrasive paper) around the block and sand in a circular or up and down motion.

Claw hammer

The 'claw' is used to grip nails and then lever them out.

The claw hammer can also be used for hammering nails and hitting other tools (eg chisels and bolsters) lightly.

Check:

the head is strongly fixed on and can't fly off the handle isn't splintered or broken.

Screwdrivers

Screwdrivers are used for inserting and removing screws. Flat tipped screwdrivers can be used for prising small objects away from surfaces.

Check:

you have the correct screwdrivers for the job - the wrong size or type can burr the head of the screw

the shaft of each screwdriver is straight the tip is square and not worn.

Nail punch

This small tool is used with a hammer to hit nails so that they do not protrude from a surface.

Ladders

 

There are different ways ladders can be used:

1. extension ladder - leans against something solid like a wall2. freestanding3. trestles and planks to form a raised platform.

Check:

no treads are bent or broken the ladder opens out and locks in position to support itself the locking mechanism on the legs works correctly.

Wire brush

This is used to brush down hard, rough, very dirty or flaking surfaces. It can also be used for cleaning brushes.

Trowel - Rubber squeegee

This trowel is particularly useful to tilers. The pointed blade means the grouting can be forced into angles and around the edges of tiles.

Trowel - Notched or serrated

One version of this trowel has grooves around the edge and flat tips. Another has serrations, that is, sharp points. This trowel is used to spread a thin bed of adhesive onto a wall. It leaves the adhesive in a series of grooves at an even height.

Trowel - Double ended pointing

This small trowel is very useful for fine pointing and grouting work.

Tungsten-tipped scribe

This is a simple kind of cutting tool. It is used by tradespeople such as tilers. You draw the hard steel tip across the face of the tile and then snap the tile along the cutting line.

This is how it is done.

Using a square and tungsten-tipped scribe to cut a tile.

Nipper cutters

These are called nippers because of the nipping action you use with them. There are two main types.

They are not scissors! You grip the tile and break it with a levering action, not just a squeeze. You can nip out a curve like this.

Hand tile cutter

This has a flat bed where the tile is laid and measured for cutting, and a draw bar on which the handle and cutting wheel ride. There is an adjustable gauge so that you can easily cut a number of tiles to the same size.

After you have scored a line on the face of the tile with the wheel, you place the handle assembly on the lower part of the tile. Then with a steady pressure you break the tile by bending backwards along the cut.

Hole cutter

There are many kinds of hole cutters. In tiling, they may be needed to cut a hole to tile around some kind of fitting. One common way to cut a hole in a tile is with a masonry drill and bit. It must be kept wet or you may damage the bit or discolour the tile. You drill the tile from the back.

Cold chisel

These come in various sizes and have many uses in the construction industry. They are often used to chip rough material such as concrete. Tilers also use them, for example, to lift old tiles.

Comb hammer

A comb hammer has a serrated edge. You use it for chipping off unwanted material such as old mortar or tiles, or for roughing up parts of a surface to be solid plastered.

Lump hammer or Mash hammer

This solid hammer is used with cutting tools like bolsters and chisels.

Check:

the head is strongly fixed on and can't fly off

the handle isn't splintered or broken.

 

Bullnose template

A frame of thin metal or wooden board with a rounded (bullnose) angle used as a guide for forming work to be done. Used in plastering to give an even and accurate radius to an external bullnose on floated walls.

Different templates are needed to give different radii. They are usually made by the plasterer.

Floats

Wooden float Plastic float

Floats are generally used for smoothing of walls 'floating' to provide a flat, even surface. They come in a range of sizes. In mould work there are a lot of different shapes to float up, so moulding floats are often made to suit a particular job or mould profile.

Small delicate floats should be stored separately from heavy tools to avoid damage.

Floats are mostly made from timber but can be made from plastic or composite materials. See also Floats - Fining, Floats - Long and Floats - Mitre.

Warning!Never scrape timber tools clean. They should always be washed with a brush. They should also be stored out of the sun when not being used.

Floats - Fining

These are fine surfaced, small to medium sized floats that are used to bring up a fine cement finish.

Floats - Long

Long floats are used in narrow areas or for applying and straightening setting coats. They are also used in floating concrete. Long floats can be made from aluminium or timber.

Floats - Mitre

The ends of these floats are cut at 45° angles to allow access to awkward areas. They are mostly used in mould work.

Trowel - Floating

These have flat steel blades with a mounted wooden or plastic handle. Standard blade size is 120 x 280 mm.

A floating trowel is used to spread and flatten mortar on walls, ceilings or other areas. It is also used to apply render and float coats.

Other uses include scraping walls and floors, cleaning mortar boards, tools and equipment and mixing mortar on the board.

Trowel - Gauging

A tool used to apply cement mortar or plaster in awkward areas where a floating or setting trowel cannot be used. Often used when doing mould work.

Gauging trowels are like a smaller version of the large trowel used in bricklaying but with a rounded end. They come in sizes from 100 mm to 225 mm.

Angle tools

External angle tool Internal angle tool

These are a type of trowel with angular metal blades used to smooth internal and external corners. They come in a range of sizes with each tool set to a different radius, so often a number of different sized tools are needed.

Smaller radius Larger radius

Metal scratcher

A tool made from a piece of sheet metal (approximately 200 mm by 150 mm) with large teeth cut into one edge. It is used to scratch render or float coats to provide a key for the next coat of mortar.

Plasterer's hawk

A square of aluminium or wood (300 mm x 300 mm) with a wooden handle underneath which can be padded.

The hawk is used together with a trowel or float to transfer plaster or mortar from the mortar board to the surface to be plastered.

Trowel - Setting

A setting trowel is used by plasterers to apply and finish setting and finishing coats.

Setting trowels should be stored in a protective sleeve (sheath) made from plywood or sheet metal when not in use. This protects the fine edges from damage. Damaged edges on trowels leave marks on finished work.

Small tools

These tools come in a range of shapes and sizes. They are made from steel. They are used in fine ornamental work like stopping up and finishing cornices and mould work.

Water brush

A water brush is used to wet down walls when applying the set coat. The better the quality of the bristles the more water the brush can hold.

Metal joint rule

Joint rules are used to extend internal and external members of cement and plaster mould work. They are also useful where a short straight edge is needed. They come in a range of sizes from 100 mm to 600 mm. Although some metal joint rules are available commercially, many plasterers will get them made.

Straight edge

These vary in size from 1.5 m to 3.6 m. In plastering they are used to screed off mortar or in some cases to straighten setting work.

Warning!Wooden straight edges used for plastering should be cleaned with a water brush and hung in a covered area to dry. They should also be stored out of the sun when not being used.

Adjustable props

These supports can be adjusted to the height that is needed. They are used, for example, to support the roof over a load bearing wall that is going to be demolished.

Check:

that you have enough props for the job

that the base and top plates, and winding mechanisms, are in good order.

Air compressor

This is used to power pneumatic tools like nail guns or screw guns. It should not be used to blow away dust - this just makes dust pollution.

Check:

the compressor is on flat, dry ground the power lead is in good condition and connected safely to a power outlet hoses and fittings are in good condition and not leaking.

Angle grinders

The spinning disk on an angle grinder cuts through metal bars and pipes.

Warning!

You should always wear eye protection when using an angle grinder.

Bolt cutters

These are used for cutting metal rods and bolts.

Crowbar/Fencing bar

Crowbar 

Fencing bar

These long, solid steel poles have a point or chisel at one end. They are used to break up ground when digging holes for posts. They can also be used as a lever.

Cutting knife

Cutting knife or trimming knife

This knife is used for cutting or trimming materials such as plasterboard, wallpaper, vinyl and cardboard. The blade may be replaceable or retractable. When a retractable blade becomes blunt, the end section is snapped off to leave a new sharp section.

Warning: Trimming knives are very sharp.

Never cut towards yourself or anyone else. The blade should be fully retracted when it is not being used.

Earth moving equipment

 

Excavator Bobcat

 

Front end loader Bulldozer

These machines are used for digging and moving earth.

Note that special requirements apply to trenches over 1.5 metres deep. Refer to the code of practice for safety precautions in trenching operations.

Elevated work platforms

These raised platforms are used to make it easier and safer to work in high places.

Jackhammer

A jackhammer is a power tool that is used to break up small areas of concrete or asphalt. With different bits attached, it becomes a pneumatic chisel, pneumatic pick or rockbreaker.

Check the power cord is in good condition and connected safely to a power outlet.

Ladder

Freestanding

  Extension ladder - leans against something solid like a wall

  Trestles and planks form a raised platform

     

There are several different types of ladders.

Check:

no treads are bent or broken the ladder opens out and locks in position to support itself the locking mechanism on the legs works correctly.

 

Lifting systems

Hoists and cranes are used to lift large or heavy materials into or out of a worksite.

Nail gun

This pneumatic tool inserts nails when a trigger is pressed. It drives in small or large nails much faster than hand nailing.

Pinch bar/Wrecking bar

This is a length of steel with a claw at one end bent into a U-shape, and a chisel at the other end. It is used when more force is needed to claw nails, fastenings and panels.

Pliers

Pliers are useful for gripping rods or bolts. They also have small cutting blades that can be used to cut thin wire. Pliers can also be used for squeezing and bending soft metals.

Ropes, cables, chains

These are used:

to attach to structures that are being pulled down to stabilise a wall during demolition to attach materials to hoists or cranes.

Reciprocating saw

This power driven saw works with a backwards and forwards motion, and is useful for sawing through materials that are difficult to reach, particularly when accurate cutting is not needed (eg in demolition).

Shovels and spades

Spades have flat blades are used for digging

tend to have shorter handles.

Shovels

have shaped blades for scooping and moving materials

tend to have longer handles, which have greater reach, are better for leverage and are easier on the back.

Sledgehammer

This large and heavy hammer is used for hitting heavy fixed objects like brick walls and timber frames to demolish them.

Check:

the head is strongly fixed on and can't fly off the handle isn't splintered or broken.

Spanner

Ring spanner

 

Open end spanner

 

Adjustable spanner

Spanners are used for tightening and loosening bolts. You need to choose the size of spanner that fits the bolt you are working on, or else use an adjustable spanner.

Stapler

A stapler is used for attaching materials such as plywood or thin sheeting cloth to wood.

Wire cutters

These are used for cutting fencing wire and other kinds of wire.

Check that the blades are sharp and the tool is in generally good condition.

Plumber's wrench

This tool is good for gripping round objects (eg pipe fittings) so they can be turned. It is used for tightening and loosening plumbing fittings.

Panel saw

This is a hand saw with a blade between 450 and 500 mm long. It has small fine teeth that allow you to cut very accurately and smoothly. You can use it to cut small to medium sections of timber or plywood.

Crosscut saw

The crosscut saw is a hand tool with a blade between 500 and 700 mm long. The tooth size is larger than a panel saw. You can use the crosscut saw to cut structural and finishing timbers. Crosscut blades do not rip well. (Ripping means cutting along the grain.)

Coping saw

A coping saw has a thin blade like a file only about 1.5 mm in depth. This blade is held in a steel frame. You use the coping saw to cut curves and other small, difficult shapes.

Drop saw

The drop saw is sometimes called a mitre saw. It is electrically operated and adjustable, and is used to cut (dock) timber to length. It can be adjusted to cut at angles between 90° and any angle down to 45°. It makes accurate repetitive cuts. You can use it for detailed joinery tasks.

You unlock and move the rotating saw table to the cutting angle required and then lock it in place.

You lower the rotating saw towards the material to cut. A similar tool is the sliding compound drop saw. The operation is the same as the

compound mitre saw except that the blade assembly slides towards you as it cuts. Various kinds of blades are available for table saws. A common type for cutting

timber are the tungsten carbide tipped blades (TCT). These can be used for a lot of cutting before they need sharpening.

Saw stool/horse

A saw stool is also called a saw horse. It is a four legged stool that is used to hold the timber while you are sawing it.

Air nail gun

This machine drives in small or large nails much faster than hand nailing.

Explosive powered fastener (Hilti gun)

This tool drives in metal nails. It uses an explosive cartridge.

Power/battery screwdriver

This electric or battery tool drives in screws much faster than hand screwing.

Electric drills

Drills are used to bore holes in wood for fastening builders' fixings such as bolts and masonry anchors.

Combination square

This tool has a sliding blade that can be locked in any position. You use it to test for square, mark lines at 90 or 45 degrees, or to gauge parallel lines.

Chalk line reel

This tool is used to mark a straight line with a chalked string. You pull the string out of a plastic or aluminium casing, which can be refilled with chalk.

Automatic taper

Automatic taper, corner finisher and corner roller

These are mechanical tools used for finishing joints between plasterboards.

Mechanical tools are useful when you have a lot of joints that need to be finished. They are used to bed the tape and apply the skim coat.

Broad knives

These come in a range of widths from 25 mm to 150 mm to suit different uses. Narrow blades are used for applying adhesive and bedding tape into corners. Wider blades are used for bedding tapes into recess joints.

Claw hammer

The 'claw' is used to grip nails and then lever them out.

The claw hammer can also be used for hammering nails, and hitting other tools (like chisels and bolsters) lightly.

Claw hammers used in dry wall plastering have a convex head to reduce the chance of damaging the face of the plaster sheets. They also give a concave indent to the plasterboard so that the nail can be easily concealed with plaster.

Check:

the head is strongly fixed on and can't fly off the handle is not splintered or broken.

 

Corner finisher/corner rollers

Automatic taper, corner finisher and corner roller

These are mechanical tools used for finishing joints between plasterboards.

Mechanical tools are useful when you have a lot of joints that need to be finished. They are used to bed the tape and apply the skim coat.

 

Corner tools

These are used by plasterers for finishing internal corners. They come in two sizes - 50 mm for applying tape to internal angles and 100 mm for finishing internal angles, to give a neat, straight corner.

Mechanical tools

Automatic taper Corner finisher

Automatic taper, corner finisher and corner roller

These are mechanical tools used for finishing joints between plasterboards.

Mechanical tools are useful when you have a lot of joints that need to be finished. They are used to bed the tape and apply the skim coat.

 

Mitre box

This is used to cut 45o angles in cornices.

 

Panel saw

This is a small hand saw with a blade between 450 and 500 mm long. It has small fine teeth that allow you to cut very accuratley and smoothly. You can use it to cut small sections of timber, plywood or cornice.

A plaster saw is similar to this but has larger teeth.

Power sander

Belt sander Orbital sander

Disc sander

Several kinds of power sanders are available. They are generally used for removing old coatings of paint or sanding back plaster joints. Such power tools include disc sanders, orbital-rotating sanders, and belt sanders. Like all power tools they can be dangerous if not used carefully.

Power-driven sanders vary in their specific purpose and in how they are used. You must be trained in their use and follow the safety requirements.

Power/battery screwdriver or screwgun

These electric or battery tools drive in screws much faster than hand screwing. These are available with an automatic feed facility which feeds a strip of screws into the gun.

 

Screwgun

Screwgun

This electric or battery tools drives in screws much faster than hand screwing. These are available with an automatic feed facility which feeds a strip of screws ino the gun.

 

Sanders - hand/pole

Hand sander and pole sander

A hand sander is shaped like a trowel with sand paper attached to the face.

A pole sander is like a hand sander with a long pole attached to the handle so that ceilings can be sanded without a scaffold.

 

Trowel - Straight edge

A straight edge trowel is used for the general application of compound to external angles, columns, beams and arches.

Tinsnips

Tinsnips are like strong scissors. They are used for cutting thin strips or sheets of metal.

Trimming knife or cutting knife

This knife is used for cutting or trimming materials such as plasterboard, wallpaper, vinyl and cardboard. The blade may be replaceable or retractable. When a retractable blade becomes blunt, the end section is snapped off to leave a new sharp section.

Warning: Trimming knives are very sharp.

Never cut towards yourself or anyone else. The blade should be fully retracted when it is not being used.

Tee square or T-square

A Tee square (or T-square) is a T-shaped wooden tool, used when cutting across the width of plasterboard with a knife. It comes in different lengths (1200 mm and 1350 mm) to suit different widths of plasterboard sheet.

Trowel - Waisted

This tool is used to apply bedding and finishing compounds. When held at the correct angle and with the right amount of pressure, the line of the trowel over the recessed joint is straight.

A 200 mm waisted trowel is used to apply the second coat of bedding compound.

A 275 mm waisted trowel is used to apply the finishing compound and the edges are automatically feathered (ie thinner on one side than on the other).

Trestles

Trestles are used to support planks to make an easily portable work platform.

Scutch hammer

A scutch hammer is like a brick hammer with a 'comb' at one end. This is used for roughing up parts of a surface to be plastered.

Българо-английски речник на строителни термини

Bulgarian   English     

aрмировка, укрепване

a system of steel bars, strands, wires, or mesh for absorbing the tensile and shearing stresses in concrete work reinforcement

aрмировъчна стомана   reinforcing steel

агент недвижими имотиa person who is authorized to act as an agent for the sale of land estate agent

английска превръзка   English bond

арка, свод

a curved masonry construction for spanning an opening, consisting of a number of wedgelike stones, bricks, or the like, set with the narrower side toward the opening in such a way that forces on the arch are transmitted as vertical or oblique stresses on either side of the opening arch

архитектура;

the profession of designing buildings, open areas, communities, and other artificial constructions and environments, usually with some regard to aesthetic effect architecture

бетонthe mixture of cement, sand, gravel, and water concrete n.

бетонджия   concretorбетонирам to treat or lay with concrete concrete v.

бетонобъркачка

a machine with a large revolving drum in which cement is mixed with other materials to make concrete concrete mixer

бичмета   heavy joist

блокова превръзка

the overlap of blocks in a construction so as to increase its strength block bond

боя

a substance composed of solid coloring matter suspended in a liquid medium and applied as a protective or decorative coating to various surfaces paint n.

боядисвам to coat or cover anything with paint paint v.

бутобетонconcrete made with rubble from demolished structures rubble concrete

вар

a white or grayish-white, odorless, lumpy, very slightly water-soluble solid, CaO, used chiefly in mortars, plasters, and cements, in bleaching powder, and in the manufacture of steel, paper, glass, and various chemicals of calcium lime

варна мазилка   lime cast

варов разтвор   lime solution

водоснабдяванеthe supply of purified water available to a community water supply

водосточна тръба (канал)

a channel at the eaves or on the roof of a building, for carrying off rain water gutter

възстановявам, обновявамto restore to good condition; make new or as if new again; repair renovate

вътрешна oблицовкаa layer of material on the inner side or surface of something lining

газобетон  aero concrete/aerocrete

гасена вар

lime slacked by exposure to the air, in consequence of the absorption of carton dioxide and water, by which it is converted into carbonate of lime and hydrate of lime slacked lime

гвоздей

a slim, pointed piece of metal hammered into material as a fastener nail n.

географска ширина

the angular distance north or south from the equator of a point on the earth's surface, measured on the meridian of the point latitude

геодезист

an engineer who determines the boundaries and elevations of land or structures  surveyor

геодезична снимка

a land area survey in which the curvature of the surface of the earth is taken into account geodetic survey

геодезия

the branch of applied mathematics that deals with the measurement of the shape and area of large tracts of country, the exact position of geographical points, and the curvature, shape, and dimensions of the earth geodesy

гипс

common white or colorless mineral (hydrated calcium sulphate) used to make cements and plasters (especially plaster of Paris)  gypsum

гипс powdered gypsum plasterгипсова мазилка a layer or coating of plaster plastering

гипсова мазилкаan exterior finish for masonry or frame walls, usually composed of stucco

cement, sand, and hydrated lime mixed with water and laid on wet

главна греда beam of a balance axis

греда, траверсаA structural member transversely supporting a load beam

груба мазилка   rough coat

датчикAn instrument for measuring or testing gauge

двойна стена double wall double leaf

двупластова мазилка cover with two coats of plaster render set длето   tooler

дъска

a piece of wood sawed thin, and of considerable length and breadth compared with the thickness board

дъскаa long, flat piece of timber, thicker than a board plank

дъсчена облицовка, ламперия Planks considered as a group planking

дялан камък

a squared building stone cut more or less true on all faces adjacent to those of other stones so as to permit very thin mortar joints ashlar

забивам гвоздейTo fasten, join, or attach with or as if with a nail nail v.

замазка

A type of dough used in sealing glass in the sash, filling small holes and crevices in wood, and for similar purposes putty

засводенconstructed or covered with a vault, as a building or chamber vaulted

земеустрoйство   land regulation

зидарA person skilled in building with bricks. bricklayer

зидар

a person whose trade is building with units of various natural or artificial mineral products, as stones, bricks, cinder blocks, or tiles, usually with the use of mortar or cement as a bonding agent mason

зидар, каменоделецa person who builds with or dresses stone stonemason

зидарияStone, brick, concrete, hollow-tile, concrete block, or other similar masonry

building units or materials. Normally bonded together with mortar to form a wall.

зидария от дялани камъни masonry made of ashlars ashlarwork

зидария от ломени камъни   rubble masonry

зидария от плътни тухли   massive masonry

зидария от половин тухлаa masonry of bricks cut transversely so as to leave one end whole bat brick

зидария с дебелина една тухла   one stretcher wide зидарско канче   masonry can

зидарция, облицована с дялан камък

masonry with stone that has been worked to desired shape; the faces to be exposed are smooth dressed masonry

измерване   measuring

измерител; измервателен уред a person or thing that gauges gauger

кадастър

an official register of the ownership, extent, and value of real property in a given area, used as a basis of taxation cadastre

каменарско шило   juniper каменоделски чук an adzlike tool for dressing stone hack-hammer

канал; улейany channel, trough, or the like for carrying off fluid gutter

канап

a string or thin rope made of several strands braided, twisted, or woven together cord

канапa slender cord or thick thread used for binding or tying; line string

кариера

an excavation or pit, usually open to the air, from which building stone, slate, or the like, is obtained by cutting, blasting, etc. quarry

карта/географска/

a drawing or plan, in outline, of (any part of) the surface of the earth, with various features shown (usually roads, rivers, seas, towns etc) map

картографияa structural member transversely supporting a load cartography

катран, смола

any of various dark, tenacious, and viscous substances for caulking and paving, consisting of the residue of the distillation of coal tar or wood tar pitch

клещи

a gripping tool consisting of two pivoted limbs forming a pair of jaws and a pair of handles pinchers

клещи

small pincers with long jaws, for bending wire, holding small objects, etc. pliers (a pair of)

клещи

any of various implements consisting of two arms hinged, pivoted, or otherwise fastened together, for seizing, holding, or lifting something tongs

количество бетон от едно забъркване

the quantity of concrete prepared or required for one operation batch

колона/в строителството/a rigid, relatively slender, upright support column

конзолна греда

a short wooden beam projecting from an interior wall to support or tie together rafters or arched roof braces hammer-beam

конструирам,строяto build or form by putting together parts; frame; devise construct, build

конструкцияsomething built or constructed, as a building, bridge, or dam structure

корито (за строителен разтвор)

a portable trough for carrying mortar, bricks, etc., fixed crosswise on top of a pole and carried on the shoulder hod

корниз

any prominent, continuous, horizontally projecting feature surmounting a wall or other construction

cornice, perch, moulding

космичен геодезист   cosmic surveyor

кота/надморска височина/The height of a thing above a reference level elevation /level mark/

кофа

a deep, cylindrical vessel, usually of metal, plastic, or wood, with a flat bottom and a semicircular bail, for bucket

collecting, carrying, or holding water, sand, fruit, etc.; pail

кофраж   encasing

кофраж

the structure of boards, bolts, etc., composing a form for poured-concrete or rammed-earth construction formwork/sheathing

кофраж   shuttering

криваa continuously bending line, without angles curve

кръстата превръзка   cross bond

кръстовище/пътно/

a road that crosses another road, or one that runs transversely to main roads cross-road

лак

A paint containing a solvent and an oxidizing or evaporating binder, used to coat a surface with a hard, glossy, transparent film varnish

ламарина plate iron thinner than tank iron  sheet iron

лата

a conspicuously painted pole held upright to show the position of a survey mark range pole/lath,bar/

лебедка   jinny

лебедка, крич

A stationary motor-driven or hand-powered machine used for hoisting or hauling, having a drum around which is wound a rope or chain attached to the load being moved winch

лепилоa substance that causes something to adhere, as glue or rubber cement adhesive

летва, дъска

A thin strip of wood or metal, usually nailed in rows to framing supports as a substructure for plaster, shingles, slates, or tiles lath

либела

a device used for determining or adjusting something to a horizontal surface balance level

лопата

A tool with a handle and a broad scoop or blade for digging and moving material shovel

мазилкаA cement mixture used to waterproof outer walls parget

мазилка; a composition, as of lime or gypsum, sand, water, and sometimes hair or plaster

other fiber, applied in a pasty form to walls, ceilings, etc., and allowed to harden and dry;

мазилка; облицовка; слой, покритиеa layer of anything that covers a surface coat

мастар;

a paving tool for spreading and smoothing concrete, consisting of a straightedge mounted transversely on a long handle lute

мерене, измерванеA method of determining quantity, capacity, or dimension measurement

метален ъгъл, винкел

a piece of structural iron or steel having a cross section in the form of an L angle iron/L beam

метла

an implement for sweeping, consisting of a brush of straw or stiff strands of synthetic material bound tightly to the end of a long handle broom

метър

A yardstick is a tool used to physically measure lengths of up to a yard (0.9144 metres or three feet). yard meter

метър

A yardstick is a tool used to physically measure lengths of up to a yard (0.9144 metres or three feet). yard stick

мистрия   depositor

мистрияa flat tool for spreading and smoothing plaster or stucco float

мистрия

a shaping tool used by potters and consisting of a flat blade or plate with a handle at one end pallet

мистрия

any of various tools having a flat blade with a handle, used for depositing and working mortar, plaster, etc. trowel

монтажен отвор   mounting hole

монтажна стяга

Any of various devices used to join, grip, support, or compress mechanical or structural parts assembly clamp

монтиранеthe process of putting with precise placement or adjustment fitting

мост

a structure spanning and providing passage over a river, chasm, road, or the like bridge

надлъжна превръзка a brickwork bond having successive stretcher bond

courses of overlapping stretchers

наклонена покривна греда

One of a series of structural members of a roof designed to support roof loads. The rafters of a flat roof are sometimes called roof joists rafter

напоителен/оросителен канал

water conveyance artificial channels, which are used for the conveyance and delivery of water irrigation canal

напречна гредаa girder supporting the ends of two sets of floor joists binder, cross-arm

напречна греда   cross beam

напречна греда

a horizontal timber or the like for connecting two structural members to keep them from spreading apart, as a beam connecting the feet of two principal rafters in a roof truss tie beam

напречна греда

A structural load-carrying member with an open web system which supports floors and roofs utilizing hot-rolled or cold-formed steel and is designed as a simple span member joist

напречна греда, щурц

a crosspiece separating a door or the like from a window or fanlight above it transom

напречна превръзка   transverse bond

настилкаMaterial, such as lumber or tile, used in making floors flooring

настилка;тротоар

walk consisting of a paved area for pedestrians; usually beside a street or roadway  pavement

негасена вар

Calcium oxide; unslacked lime; -- so called because when wet it develops great heat quick(burnt) lime

недвижим имот property, esp. in land real estate

нивелир, либела;

a device used for determining or adjusting something to a horizontal surface level

ниво height above ground levelносеща греда   carrier beam

носеща стенаA wall that supports any vertical load in addition to its own weight bearing wall

носеща, подсилваща частa timber or the like connecting two ribs of a centering bolster

oблицовка

a covering in front, for ornament, protection, etc., as an outer layer of stone on a brick wall facing

oблицовка

an ornamental facing, as on a common masonry wall, of marble, face brick, tiles, etc. revetment

oблицовка с плочки the operation of covering with tiles tiling

окачен таван

a ceiling system supported by hanging it from the overhead structural framing suspended ceiling

основа на мазилка A coat of plaster or cement applied to a masonry surface

rendering

отвес

A weight on the end of a line, used especially by masons and carpenters to establish a true vertical plumb

oтвес   plumb-lineoтвес   vertical level отводнителен канал, тръба; канализация

something, as a pipe or conduit, by which a liquid drains drain n.

отводнявам, пресушавам; дренирам

to withdraw liquid gradually from; make empty or dry by drawing off liquid drain v.

oтвор an opening, as a hole, slit, crack, gap, etc.

aperture

oтвор an opening through something; gap; aperture

hole

oтвор an open space serving as a passage or gap

opening

парцел a measured area of land; a lot plotпарче тухла a piece, especially of brick brick-bat пенобетон   cellular concrete

пенобетон

foam concrete is cement bonded material manufactured by blending a very fluid cement paste (slurry) and then injecting stable, pre-formed foam into the slurry. foam concrete

пердашка a tool for smoothing the surface of plaster or cement

mason’s float

планиране an act of formulating a program for a definite course of action

planning

плоча

a piece of fine-grained metamorphic rock cut for use as roofing or surfacing material slate

поддръжкаthe work of keeping something in proper condition; upkeep maintenance

покривthe external upper covering of a house or other building roof

поправямTo restore to sound condition after damage or injury; fix, mend repair

преградна стена

an interior wall or barrier dividing a room, area of a building, enclosure, etc., into separate areas partition

предварително напрегнат бетон   prestressed concrete

преносима бъркачка   portable mixer проект a plan; a project design

проектsomething that is contemplated, devised, or planned; plan; scheme project

проектиране

the act of working out the form of something (as by making a sketch or outline or plan design

първа/основна бояa primary coat of paint; priming; base coat ground/first coat

пясък

the more or less fine debris of rocks, consisting of small, loose grains, often of quartz sand

разпънка, траверса, напречник.   crossarm; tie-bar

разтвор /строителен/; варов разтвор

A mixture of cement (or lime) with sand and water used in masonry work mortar

регистриранеThe act of registering; registry; enrollment registration

редова зидария

Masonry construction in which the stones are laid in regular courses, not irregularly as in rough or random rubble. coursed masonry

репер

an official register of the ownership, extent, and value of real property in a given area, used as a basis of taxation bеnchmark

решеткаA framework of crossed wood or metal strips lattice

pешетна тухлаA brick having holes through it which total at least 25% of its volume hollow brick

pулетка

a long, flexible strip marked with subdivisions of the foot or meter and used for measuring tape measure

ръководител проект   project manager

ръчна количка

A one- or two-wheeled vehicle with handles at the rear, used to convey small loads wheelbarrow

сводест, куполовиден   arched, arch-shape

сводова зидария

A structure, especially one of masonry, forming the curved, pointed, or flat upper edge of an open space and supporting the weight above it, as in a bridge or doorway arching

свързващо вещество, строителен разтвор

a material for holding loose material together, as in a macadamized road binder

сглобяване; дограма   joinery

cекач

a wedgelike tool with a cutting edge at the end of the blade, often made of steel, used for cutting or shaping wood, stone, etc. chisel

cистема от греди и подпори

a system of large beams of wood or steel used to support concentrated loads at isolated points along its length girderage

скеле

a temporary structure for holding workers and materials during the erection, repair, or decoration of a building scaffold

cкица

A drawing or diagram made to scale showing the structure or arrangement of something plan

cтеги   building clips

cтеги

Any of various tools with opposing, often adjustable sides or parts for bracing objects or holding them together clamps

стомана

generally hard, strong, durable, malleable alloy of iron and carbonwidely used as a structural steel

material

стоманобетон

concrete containing steel bars, strands, mesh, etc., to absorb tensile and shearing stresses reinforced concrete

стоманобетонна плоча  reinforced concrete slab

строителен разтвор (вода, пясък, цимент и понякога дребен чакъл)

a thin, coarse mortar poured into various narrow cavities, as masonry joints or rock fissures, to fill them and consolidate the adjoining objects into a solid mass grout

строителна площадкаa lot on which there are no permanent buildings building site

строително скеле

a temporary platform or structure of posts and boards for support, as in building; scaffolding staging

стълба

An often portable structure consisting of two long sides crossed by parallel rungs, used to climb up and down ladder

стълбищеsteps collectively, esp. as forming a flight or a series of flights stairs

cуха зидарияthe activity of building stone walls without mortar dry walling

суха каменна зидарияmasonry made with irregular fragments or pieces of rock rubble work

cуха мазилка   plaster board

сухопътен,земен

pertaining to, consisting of, or representing the earth as distinct from other planets terrestrial

cхемаa plan, design, or program of action to be followed; project scheme

схема/чертеж/

a graphic representation, as by curves, of a dependent variable, as temperature, price, etc.; graph chart

теодолитpertaining to, consisting of, or representing the earth theodolite

технически pъководител (на обект), майстор-бригадир

a person who exercises control over workers foreman

трион

a tool or device for cutting, typically a thin blade of metal with a series of sharp teeth saw

тръбопровод A conduit of pipe, especially one pipeline

used for the conveyance of water, gas, or petroleum products

тухла

a block of clay hardened by drying in the sun or burning in a kiln, and used for building, paving, etc. brick

тухлена превръзка

the overlap of bricks in a construction so as to increase its strength brick bond

фина мазилка a final coat of plaster or paint finishing coat фина мазилка   skin coat

фламандска превръзка   Flemish bond

фугирам (при зидане)to finish (a mortar joint), as by striking joint v.

фугирана зидария   joint masonry

фундамент

the lowest division of a building, wall, or the like, usually of masonry and partly or wholly below the surface of the ground foundation

хаспелmachine or device designed to pick up, raise, or carry something lift

хаспелAn object, such as a spool or barrel, around which material is wound winder

хаспел, макара, скрипец

A chain or electric lifting device usually attached to a trolly which travels along a monorail or bridge crane hoist

хелиографско копие; чертеж

a process of photographic printing, used chiefly in copying architectural and mechanical drawings, which produces a white line on a blue background blue print

хоризонтална греда или дъска на скеле

A horizontal timber in a scaffold, attached to the uprights and supporting the putlogs ledger

циментA structural member transversely supporting a load cement

циментна замазка

A substance, such as dried clay or cement, used to pack and seal pipe joints and other connections or coat a porous surface in order to make it tight lute

челна превръзка a brickwork bond composed entirely of overlapping headers header bond

чело, шев, спойка, шарнир (на The space between the adjacent joint

връзка)

surfaces of two members or components joined and held together by nails, glue, cement, mortar, or other means

чертеж a sketch or design drawingчертеж (груб) a drawing, sketch, or design draft чертеж (груб) a drawing, sketch, or design draught, draft

четка

an implement for sweeping, consisting of a brush of straw or stiff strands of synthetic material bound tightly to the end of a long handle brush

чук

a tool consisting of a solid head, usually of metal, set crosswise on a handle, used for beating metals, driving nails, etc. hammer

шпакла   broad knife

шпакла, бояджийска лопата   putty knife

шпакловка a coat of plaster for finishing a ceiling or interior wall grout

шпакловка   void filling

щурц

A horizontal structural member that supports the load over an opening such as a door or window lintel

язовир

a barrier to obstruct the flow of water, esp. one of earth, masonry, etc., built across a stream or river dam

Construction Glossary from Home Building Manual

A/C- An abbreviation for air conditioner or air conditioning.

A/C Condenser- The outside fan unit of the Air Conditioning system. It removes the heat from the freon gas and "turns" the gas back into a liquid and pumps the liquid back to the coil in the furnace.

A/C Disconnect- The main electrical ON-OFF switch near the A/C Condenser.

Aerator- The round screened screw-on tip of a sink spout. It mixes water and air for a smooth flow.

Aggregate- A mixture of sand and stone and a major component of concrete.

Air space - The area between insulation facing and interior of exterior wall coverings. Normally a 1" air gap.

Allowance(s) - A sum of money set aside in the construction contract for items which have not been selected and specified in the construction contract. For example, selection of tile as a flooring may require an allowance for an underlayment material, or an electrical allowance which sets aside an amount of money to be spent on electrical fixtures.

Amortization - A payment plan by which a loan is reduced through monthly payments of principal and interest.

Anchor bolts- Bolts to secure a wooden sill plate to concrete , or masonry floor or wall.

Annual Percentage Rate (APR)- Annual cost of credit over the life of a loan, including interest, service charges, points, loan fees, mortgage insurance, and other items.

Appraisal An expert valuation of property.

Apron- A trim board that is installed beneath a window sill

Architect - One who has completed a course of study in building and design, and is licensed by the state as an architect. One who draws up plans.

Area wells- Corrugated metal or concrete barrier walls installed around a basement window to hold back the earth

Assessment - A tax levied on a property, or a value placed on the worth of a property.

Assumption - Allows a buyer to assume responsibility for an existing loan instead of getting a new loan.

Astragal- A molding, attached to one of a pair of swinging double doors, against which the other door strikes.

Attic access- An opening that is placed in the drywalled ceiling of a home providing access to the attic.

Attic Ventilators- In houses, screened openings provided to ventilate an attic space.

Back Charge- Billings for work performed or costs incurred by one party that, in accordance with the agreement, should have been performed or incurred by the party to whom billed. Owners bill back charges to general contractors, and general contractors bill back charges to subcontractors. Examples of back charges include charges for cleanup work or to repair something damaged by another subcontractor, such as a tub chip or broken window.

Backfill- The replacement of excavated earth into a trench around or against a basement /crawl space foundationwall.

Backing- Frame lumber installed between the wall studs to give additional support for drywall or an interior trim related item, such as handrail brackets, cabinets, and towel bars. In this way, items are screwed and mounted into solid wood rather than weak drywall that may allow the item to break loose from the wall. Carpet backing holds the pile fabric in place.

Backout- Work the framing contractor does after the mechanical subcontractors (Heating-Plumbing-Electrical) finish their phase of work at the Rough (before insulation) stage to get the home ready for a municipal frame inspection. Generally, the framing contractor repairs anything disturbed by others and completes all framing necessary to pass a Rough Frame Inspection.

Ballast- A transformer that steps up the voltage in a florescent lamp.

Balloon - A loan that has a series of monthly payments with the remaining balance due in a large lump sum payment at the end.

Balloon framed wall- Framed walls (generally over 10' tall) that run the entire vertical length from the floor sill plate to the roof. This is done to eliminate the need for a gable end truss.

Balusters- Vertical members in a railing used between a top rail and bottom rail or the stair treads. Sometimes referred to as 'pickets' or 'spindles'.

Balustrade- The rail, posts and vertical balusters along the edge of a stairway or elevated walkway.

Barge- Horizontal beam rafter that supports shorter rafters.

Barge board- A decorative board covering the projecting rafter (fly rafter) of the gable end. At the cornice, this member is a fascia board.

Base or baseboard- A trim board placed against the wall around the room next to the floor.

Basement window inserts- The window frame and glass unit that is installed in the window buck.

Base shoe- Molding used next to the floor on interior base board. Sometimes called a carpet strip.

Bat - A half-brick.

Batt - A section of fiber-glass or rock-wool insulation measuring 15 or 23 inches wide by four to eight feet long and various thickness'.  Sometimes "faced" (meaning to have a paper covering on one side) or "unfaced" (without paper).

Batten- Narrow strips of wood used to cover joints or as decorative vertical members over plywood or wide boards.

Bay window- Any window space projecting outward from the walls of a building, either square or polygonal in plan.

Beam- A structural member transversely supporting a load. A structural member carrying building loads (weight) from one support to another. Sometimes called a "girder".

Bearing partition- A partition that supports any vertical load in addition to its own weight.

Bearing point- A point where a bearing or structural weight is concentrated and transferred to the foundation

Bearing wall- A wall that supports any vertical load in addition to its own weight.

Bearing header- (a) A beam placed perpendicular to joists and to which joists are nailed in framing for a chimney, stairway, or other opening. (b) A wood lintel. (c) The horizontal structural member over an opening (for example over a door or window).

Bedrock- A subsurface layer of earth that is suitable to support a structure.

Bid- A formal offer by a contractor, in accordance with specifications for a project, to do all or a phase of the work at a certain price in accordance with the terms and conditions stated in the offer.

Bid bond- A bond issued by a surety on behalf of a contractor that provides assurance to the recipient of the contractor's bid that, if the bid is accepted, the contractor will execute a contract and provide a performance bond. Under the bond, the surety is obligated to pay the recipient of the bid the difference between the contractor's bid and the bid of the next lowest responsible bidder if the bid is accepted and the contractor fails to execute a contract or to provide a performance bond.

Bid security Funds or a bid bond submitted with a bid as a guarantee to the recipient of the bid that the contractor, if awarded the contract, will execute the contract in accordance with the bidding requirements of the contract documents.

Bid shopping- A practice by which contractors, both before and after their bids are submitted, attempt to obtain prices from potential subcontractors and material suppliers that are lower than the contractors' original estimates on which their bids are based, or after a contract is awarded, seek to induce subcontractors to reduce the subcontract price included in the bid.

Bidding requirements- The procedures and conditions for the submission of bids. The requirements are included ion documents, such as the notice to bidders, advertisements for bids, instructions to bidders, invitations to bid, and sample bid forms.

Bifold door- Doors that are hinged in the middle for opening in a smaller area than standard swing doors. Often used for closet doors.

Binder- A receipt for a deposit to secure the right to purchase a home at an agreed terms by a buyer and seller.

Bipass doors- Doors that slide by each other and commonly used as closet doors.

Blankets- Fiber-glass or rock-wool insulation that comes in long rolls 15 or 23 inches wide.

Blocked (door blocking)- Wood shims used between the door frame and the vertical structural wall framing members.

Blocked (rafters)- Short "2 by 4's" used to keep rafters from twisting, and installed at the ends and at mid-span.

Blocking- Small wood pieces to brace framing members or to provide a nailing base for gypsum board or paneling.

Block out- To install a box or barrier within a foundation wall to prevent the concrete from entering an area. For example, foundation walls are sometimes "blocked" in order for mechanical pipes to pass through the wall, to install a crawl space door, and to depress the concrete at a garage door location.

Blow insulation- Fiber insulation in loose form and used to insulate attics and existing walls where framing members are not exposed.

Blue print(s) - A type of copying method often used for architectural drawings. Usually used to describe the drawing of a structure which is prepared by an architect or designer for the purpose of design and planning, estimating, securing permits and actual construction.

Blue stake- Another phrase for Utility Notification. This is when a utility company (telephone, gas, electric, cable TV, sewer and water, etc) comes to the job site and locates and spray paints the ground and/or installs little flags to show where their service is located underground.

Board foot- A unit of measure for lumber equal to 1 inch thick by 12 inches wide by 12 inches long. Examples: 1" x 12" x 16' = 16 board feet, 2" x 12" x 16' = 32 board feet

Bond or bonding - An amount of money (usually $5,000-$10,000) which must be on deposit with a governmental agency in order to secure a contractor's license. The bond may be used to pay for the unpaid bills or disputed work of the contractor. Not to be confused with a 'performance bond'. Such bonds are rarely used in residential construction, they are an insurance policy which guarantees proper completion of a project.

Boom- A truck used to hoist heavy material up and into place. To put trusses on a home or to set a heavy beam into place.

Bottom chord - The lower or bottom horizontal member of a truss.

Bottom plate- The "2 by 4's or 6's" that lay on the subfloor upon which the vertical studs are installed. Also called the 'sole plate'.

Brace- An inclined piece of framing lumber applied to wall or floor to strengthen the structure. Often used on walls as temporary bracing until framing has been completed.

Breaker panel- The electrical box that distributes electric power entering the home to each branch circuit (each plug and switch) and composed of circuit breakers.

Brick ledge- Part of the foundation wall where brick (veneer) will rest.

Brick lintel- The metal angle iron that brick rests on, especially above a window, door, or other opening.

Brick mold-Trim used around an exterior door jamb that siding butts to.

Brick tie- A small, corrugated metal strip @ 1" X 6"- 8" long nailed to wall sheeting or studs. They are inserted into the grout mortar joint of the veneer brick, and holds the veneer wall to the sheeted wall behind it.

Brick veneer- A vertical facing of brick laid against and fastened to sheathing of a framed wall or tile wall construction.

Bridging- Small wood or metal members that are inserted in a diagonal position between the floor joists or rafters at mid-span for the purpose of bracing the joists/rafters & spreading the load.

Buck- Often used in reference to rough frame opening members. Door bucks used in reference to metal door frame. See Window Bucks

Builder's Risk Insurance- Insurance coverage on a construction project during construction, including extended coverage that may be added for the contract for the customer's protections.

Building codes-  Community ordinances governing the manner in which a home may be constructed or modified.

Building insurance- Insurance covering the structure of the building.

Building paper- A general term for papers, felts, and similar sheet materials used in buildings without reference to their properties or uses. Generally comes in long rolls.

Built-up roof- A roofing composed of three to five layers of asphalt felt laminated with coal tar, pitch, or asphalt. The top is finished with crushed slag or gravel. Generally used on flat or low-pitched roofs.

Bull nose (drywall)- Rounded drywall corners.

Bundle - A package of shingles. Normally, there are 3 bundles per square and 27 shingles per bundle.

Butt edge- The lower edge of the shingle tabs.

Butt hinge- The most common type. One leaf attaches to the door's edge, the other to its jamb.

Butt joint- The junction where the ends of two timbers meet, and also where sheets of drywall meet on the 4 foot edge. To place materials end-to-end or end-to-edge without overlapping.

Buy down- A subsidy (usually paid by a builder or developer) to reduce monthly payments on a mortgage.

By fold door- Doors that are hinged in the middle for opening in a smaller area than standard swing doors. Often used for closet doors.

By pass doors- Doors that slide by each other and commonly used as closet doors.

C

CO- An abbreviation for "Certificate of Occupancy". This certificate is issued by the local municipality and is required before anyone can occupy and live within the home. It

is issued only after the local municipality has made all inspections and all monies and fees have been paid.

Caisson- A 10" or 12" diameter hole drilled into the earth and embedded into bedrock 3 - 4 feet. The structural support for a type of foundation wall, porch, patio, monopost, or other structure. Two or more "sticks" of reinforcing bars (rebar) are inserted into and run the full length of the hole and concrete is poured into the caisson hole

Cantilever- An overhang. Where one floor extends beyond and over a foundation wall. For example at a fireplace location or bay window cantilever. Normally, not extending over 2 feet.

Cantilevered void- Foundation void material used in unusually expansive soils conditions. This void is "trapezoid" shaped and has vertical sides of 6" and 4" respectively.

Cap- The upper member of a column, pilaster, door cornice, molding, or fireplace.

Cap flashing- The portion of the flashing attached to a vertical surface to prevent water from migrating behind the base flashing.

Capital- The principal part of a loan, i.e. the original amount borrowed.

Capital and interest- A repayment loan and the most conventional form of home loan. The borrower pays an amount each month to cover the amount borrowed (or capital or principal) plus the interest charged on capital.

Capped rate- The mortgage interest rate will not exceed a specified value during a certain period of time, but it will fluctuate up and down below that level.

Casement- Frames of wood or metal enclosing part (or all) of a window sash. May be opened by means of hinges affixed to the vertical edges.

Casement Window- A window with hinges on one of the vertical sides and swings open like a normal door

Casing- Wood trim molding installed around a door or window opening.

Caulking- (1) A flexible material used to seal a gap between two surfaces e.g. between pieces of siding or the corners in tub walls. (2) To fill a joint with mastic or asphalt plastic cement to prevent leaks.

CCA (Chromated Copper Arsenate)- A pesticide that is forced into wood under high pressure to protect it from termites, other wood boring insects, and decay caused by fungus

Celotex ™- Black fibrous board that is used as exterior sheething.

Ceiling joist- One of a series of parallel framing members used to support ceiling loads and supported in turn by larger beams, girders or bearing walls. Also called roof joists.

Cement- The gray powder that is the "glue" in concrete. Portland cement. Also, any adhesive.

Ceramic tile- A man-made or machine-made clay tile used to finish a floor or wall. Generally used in bathtub and shower enclosures and on counter tops.

CFM (cubic feet per minute)- A rating that expresses the amount of air a blower or fan can move. The volume of air (measured in cubic feet) that can pass through an opening in one minute.

Chair rail- Interior trim material installed about 3-4 feet up the wall, horizontally.

Chalk line- A line made by snapping a taut string or cord dusted with chalk. Used for alignment purposes.

Change order- A written document which modifies the plans and specifications and/or the price of the construction Contract.

Chase- A framed enclosed space around a flue pipe or a channel in a wall, or through a ceiling for something to lie in or pass through.

Chink- To install fiberglass insulation around all exterior door and window frames, wall corners, and small gaps in the exterior wall.

Chip Board- A manufactured wood panel made out of 1"- 2" wood chips and glue. Often used as a substitute for plywood in the exterior wall and roof sheathing. Also called OSB (Oriented Strand Board) or wafer board.

Circuit- The path of electrical flow from a power source through an outlet and back to ground.

Circuit Breaker- A device which looks like a switch and is usually located inside the electrical breaker panel or circuit breaker box. It is designed to (1) shut of the power to portions or all of the house and (2) to limit the amount of power flowing through a circuit (measured in amperes). 110 volt household circuits require a fuse or circuit breaker with a rating of 15 or a maximum of 20 amps. 220 volt circuits may be designed for higher amperage loads e.g. a hot water heater may be designed for a 30 amp load and would therefore need a 30 amp fuse or breaker.

Class "A"- Optimum fire rating issued by Underwriter's Laboratories on roofing. The building codes in some areas require this type of roofing for fire safety.

Class "C"- Minimum fire rating issued by the Underwriters' Laboratories for roofing materials.

Clean out- An opening providing access to a drain line. Closed with a threaded plug.

Clip ties- Sharp, cut metal wires that protrude out of a concrete foundation wall (that at one time held the foundation form panels in place).

Cold air return- The ductwork (and related grills) that carries room air back to the furnace for re-heating.

Collar- Preformed flange placed over a vent pipe to seal the roofing above the vent pipe opening. Also called a vent sleeve.

Collar beam- Nominal 1- or 2-inch-thick members connecting opposite roof rafters. They serve to stiffen the roof structure.

Column- A vertical structural compression member which supports loads.

Combustion air- The duct work installed to bring fresh, outside air to the furnace and/or hot water heater. Normally 2 separate supplies of air are brought in: One high and One low.

Combustion chamber- The part of a boiler, furnace or woodstove where the burn occurs; normally lined with firebrick or molded or sprayed insulation.  

Compression web- A member of a truss system which connects the bottom and top chords and  which provides downward support.

Compressor- A mechanical device that pressurizes a gas in order to turn it into a liquid, thereby allowing heat to be removed or added. A compressor is the main component of conventional heat pumps and air conditioners. In an air conditioning system, the compressor normally sits outside and has a large fan (to remove heat).

Concrete- The mixture of Portland cement, sand, gravel, and water. Used to make garage and basement floors, sidewalks, patios, foundation walls, etc. It is commonly reinforced with steel rods (rebar) or wire screening (mesh).

Concrete block - A hollow concrete 'brick' often 8" x 8" x 16" in size.

Concrete board - A panel made out of concrete and fiberglass usually used as a tile backing material.

Condensation- Beads or drops of water (and frequently frost in extremely cold weather) that accumulate on the inside of the exterior covering of a building. Use of louvers or

attic ventilators will reduce moisture condensation in attics. A vapor barrier under the gypsum lath or dry wall on exposed walls will reduce condensation.

Condensing unit - The outdoor component of a cooling system. It includes a compressor and condensing coil designed to give off heat.

Conditions, Convenants, and Restrictions (CC and Rs) - The standards that define how a property may be used and the protections the developer makes for the benefit of all owners in a subdivision.

Conduction- The direct transfer of heat energy through a material.

Conductivity- The rate at which heat is transmitted through a material.

Conduit, electrical- A pipe, usually metal, in which wire is installed.

Construction Contract - A legal document which specifies the what-when-where-how-how much and by whom in a construction project. A good construction contract will include:

1. The contractors registration number.

2. A statement of work quality such as 'Standard Practices of the Trades' or 'according to Manufacturers Specifications'.

3. A set of Blue Prints or Plans4. A construction timetable including starting and completion dates.5. A set of Specifications6. A Fixed Price for the work, or a Time and Materials formula.7. A Payment Schedule.8. Any Allowances.9. A clause which outlines how any disputes will be resolved.10. A written Warrantee.

Construction drywall- A type of construction in which the interior wall finish is applied in a dry condition, generally in the form of sheet materials or wood paneling as contrasted to plaster.

Construction, frame- A type of construction in which the structural components are wood or depend upon a wood frame for support.

Continuity tester- A device that tells whether a circuit is capable of carrying electricity.

Contractor- A company licensed to perform certain types of construction activities. In most states, the generals contractor's license and some specialty contractor's licenses don't require of compliance with bonding, workmen's compensation and similar regulations.

Some of the specialty contractor licenses involve extensive training, testing and/or insurance requirements. There are various types of contractors:

· General contractor - responsible for the execution, supervision and overall coordination of a project and may also perform some of the individual construction tasks. Most general contractors are not licensed to perform all specialty trades and must hire specialty contractors for such tasks, e.g. electrical, plumbing.· Remodeling contractor - a general contractor who specializes in remodeling work.· Specialty contractor - licensed to perform a specialty task e.g. electrical, side sewer, asbestos abatement.· Sub contractor - a general or specialty contractor who works for another general contractor.

Control joint- Tooled, straight grooves made on concrete floors to "control" where the concrete should crack

Convection- Currents created by heating air, which then rises and pulls cooler air behind it. Also see radiation.

Conventional loan A mortgage loan not insured by a government agency (such as FHA or VA)

Convertibility The ability to change a loan from an adjustable rate schedule to a fixed rate schedule.

Cooling load- The amount of cooling required to keep a building at a specified temperature during the summer, usually 78° F, regardless of outside temperature.

Coped- Removing the top and bottom flange of the end(s) of a metal I-beam. This is done to permit it to fit within, and bolted to, the web of another I-beam in a "T" arrangement

Coped joint- Cutting and fitting woodwork to an irregular surface.

Corbel- The triangular, decorative and supporting member that holds a mantel or horizontal shelf.

Corner bead- A strip of formed sheet metal placed on outside corners of drywall before applying drywall 'mud'.

Corner boards- Used as trim for the external corners of a house or other frame structure against which the ends of the siding are finished.

Corner braces- Diagonal braces at the corners of the framed structure designed to stiffen and strengthen the wall.

Cornice- Overhang of a pitched roof , usually consisting of a fascia board, a soffit and appropriate trim moldings.

Counter flashing- A metal flashing usually used on chimneys at the roofline to cover shingle flashing and used to prevent moisture entry.

Counterfort- A foundation wall section that strengthens (and generally perpendicular to) a long section of foundation wall

Course- A row of shingles or roll roofing running the length of the roof. Parallel layers of building materials such as bricks, or siding laid up horizontally.

Cove molding- A molding with a concave face used as trim or to finish interior corners.

Crawl space- A shallow space below the living quarters of a house, normally enclosed by the foundation wall and having a dirt floor.

Credit rating- A report ordered by a lender from a credit agency to determine a borrower's credit habits.

Cricket- A second roof built on top of the primary roof to increase the slope of the roof or valley. A saddle-shaped, peaked construction connecting a sloping roof with a chimney. Designed to encourage water drainage away from the chimney joint.

Cripple- Short vertical "2 by 4's or 6's" frame lumber installed above a window or door.

Cross bridging- Diagonal bracing between adjacent floor joists, placed near the center of the joist span to prevent joists from twisting.

Cross Tee- Short metal "T" beam used in suspended ceiling systems to bridge the spaces between the main beams.

Crown molding- A molding used on cornice or wherever an interior angle is to be covered, especially at the roof and wall corner.

Culvert- Round, corrugated drain pipe (normally 15" or 18" in diameter) that is installed beneath a driveway and parallel to and near the street.

Cupping- A type of warping that causes boards to curl up at their edges.

Curb- The short elevation of an exterior wall above the deck of a roof. Normally a 2 by 6 box (on the roof) on which a skylight is attached.

Curb stop- Normally a cast iron pipe with a lid (@ 5" in diameter) that is placed vertically into the ground, situated near the water tap in the yard, and where a water cut-

off valve to the home is located (underground). A long pole with a special end is inserted into the curb stop to turn off/on the water.

Cut-in brace- Nominal 2-inch-thick members, usually 2 by 4's, cut in between each stud diagonally.

Dado- A groove cut into a board or panel intended to receive the edge of a connecting board or panel.

Damper- A metal "door" placed within the fireplace chimney. Normally closed when the fireplace is not in use.

Dampproofing- The black, tar like waterproofing material applied to the exterior of a foundation wall.

Daylight- The end of a pipe (the terminal end) that is not attached to anything.

Dead bolt- An exterior security lock installed on exterior entry doors that can be activated only with a key or thumb-turn. Unlike a latch, which has a beveled tongue, dead bolts have square ends.

Dead light- The fixed, non-operable window section of a window unit.

Deck, decked- To install the plywood or wafer board sheeting on the floor joists, rafters, or trusses.

Dedicated circuit- An electrical circuit that serves only one appliance (ie, dishwasher) or a series of electric heaters or smoke detectors.

Default- Breach of a mortgage contract (not making the required payments).

De-humidistat- A control mechanism used to operate a mechanical ventilation system based upon the relative humidity in the home.

Delamination- Separation of the plies in a panel due to failure of the adhesive.  Usually caused by excessive moisture.

Disconnect- A large (generally 20 Amp) electrical ON-OFF switch.

Discount rate- A mortgage interest rate that is lower than the current rate for a certain period of time, e.g. 2.00% below variable rate for 2 years.

Doorjamb, interior- The surrounding case into which and out of which a door closes and opens. It consists of two upright pieces, called side jambs, and a horizontal head jamb. These 3 jambs have the "door stop" installed on them.

Door operator- An automatic garage door opener.

Door stop- The wooden style that the door slab will rest upon when it's in a closed position.

Dormer- An opening in a sloping roof, the framing of which projects out to form a vertical wall suitable for windows or other openings.

Double glass- Window or door in which two panes of glass are used with a sealed air space between.  Also known as Insulating Glass.

Double hung window- A window with two vertically sliding sashes, both of which can move up and down.

Down payment- The difference between the sales price and the mortgage amount. A downpayment is usually paid at closing.

Downspout- A pipe, usually of metal, for carrying rainwater down from the roof's horizontal gutters.

Drain tile- A perforated, corrugated plastic pipe laid at the bottom of the foundation wall and used to drain excess water away from the foundation. It prevents ground water from seeping through the foundation wall. Sometimes called perimeter drain.

Draw- The amount of progress billings on a contract that is currently available to a contractor under a contract with a fixed payment schedule.

Drip- (a) A member of a cornice or other horizontal exterior finish course that has a projection beyond the other parts for throwing off water.(b) A groove in the underside of a sill or drip cap to cause water to drop off on the outer edge instead of drawing back and running down the face of the building.

Drip cap- A molding or metal flashing placed on the exterior topside of a door or window frame to cause water to drip beyond the outside of the frame.

Dry in- To install the black roofing felt (tar paper) on the roof.

Drywall (or Gypsum Wallboard (GWB), Sheet rock or Plasterboard)- Wall board or gypsum- A manufactured panel made out of gypsum plaster and encased in a thin

cardboard. Usually 1/2" thick and 4' x 8' or 4' x 12' in size. The panels are nailed or screwed onto the framing and the joints are taped and covered with a 'joint compound'. 'Green board' type drywall has a greater resistance to moisture than regular (white) plasterboard and is used in bathrooms and other "wet areas".

Ducts- The heating system. Usually round or rectangular metal pipes installed for distributing warm (or cold) air from the furnace to rooms in the home.  Also a tunnel made of galvanized metal or rigid fiberglass, which carries air from the heater or ventilation opening to the rooms in a building.

Due-on-sale- A clause in a mortgage contract requiring the borrower to pay the entire outstanding balance upon sale or transfer of the property.

Dura board, dura rock- A panel made out of concrete and fiberglass usually used as a ceramic tile backing material. Commonly used on bathtub decks. Sometimes called Wonder board

DWV (drain-waste-vent)- The section of a plumbing system that carries water and sewer gases out of a home.

Easement

Earnest Money- A sum paid to the seller to show that a potential purchaser is serious about buying.

Earthquake Strap- A metal strap used to secure gas hot water heaters to the framing or foundation of a house. Intended to reduce the chances of having the water heater fall over in an earthquake and causing a gas leak.

Easement- A formal contract which allows a party to use another party's property for a specific purpose. e.g. A sewer easement might allow one party to run a sewer line through a neighbors property.

Eaves- The horizontal exterior roof overhang.

Egress- A means of exiting the home. An egress window is required in every bedroom and basement. Normally a 4' X 4' window is the minimum size required

Elbow (ell)- A plumbing or electrical fitting that lets you change directions in runs of pipe or conduit.

Electric lateral- The trench or area in the yard where the electric service line (from a transformer or pedestal) is located, or the work of installing the electric service to a home.

Electric resistance coils- Metal wires that heat up when electric current passes through them and are used in baseboard heaters and electric water heaters.

Electrical entrance package- The entry point of the electrical power including: (1) the 'strike' or location where the overhead or underground electrical lines connect to the house, (2) The meter which measures how much power is used and (3) The 'panel' or 'circuit breaker box ' (or 'fuse box') where the power can be shut off and where overload devices such a fuses or circuit breakers and located.

Electrical Rough- Work performed by the Electrical Contractor after the plumber and heating contractor are complete with their phase of work. Normally all electrical wires, and outlet, switch, and fixture boxes are installed (before insulation).

Electrical Trim- Work performed by the electrical contractor when the house is nearing completion. The electrician installs all plugs, switches, light fixtures, smoke detectors, appliance "pig tails", bath ventilation fans, wires the furnace, and "makes up" the electric house panel. The electrician does all work necessary to get the home ready for and to pass the municipal electrical final inspection

Elevation sheet- The page on the blue prints that depicts the house or room as if a vertical plane were passed through the structure.

Equity- The "valuation" that you own in your home, i.e. the property value less the mortgage loan outstanding.

Escrow - The handling of funds or documents by a third party on behalf of the buyer and/or seller.

Estimate- The amount of labor, materials, and other costs that a contractor anticipates for a project as summarized in the contractor's bid proposal for the project.

Escutcheon- An ornamental plate that fits around a pipe extending through a wall or floor to hide the cut out hole

Estimating- The process of calculating the cost of a project. This can be a formal and exact process or a quick and imprecise process.

Evaporator coil- The part of a cooling system that absorbs heat from air in your home. Also see condensing unit.

Expansion joint- Fibrous material (@1/2" thick) installed in and around a concrete slab to permit it to move up and down (seasonally) along the non-moving foundation wall.

Expansive soils- Earth that swells and contracts depending on the amount of water that is present. ("Betonite" is an expansive soil).

Exposed aggregate finish- A method of finishing concrete which washes the cement/sand mixture off the top layer of the aggregate - usually gravel. Often used in driveways, patios and other exterior surfaces.

Extras- Additional work requested of a contractor, not included in the original plan, which will be billed separately and will not alter the original contract amount, but increase the cost of building the home.

FHA strap- Metal straps that are used to repair a bearing wall "cut-out", and to "tie together" wall corners, splices, and bearing headers. Also, they are used to hang stairs and landings to bearing headers.

Face nail- To install nails into the vertical face of a bearing header or beam.

Faced concrete- To finish the front and all vertical sides of a concrete porch, step(s), or patio. Normally the "face" is broom finished.

Facing brick- The brick used and exposed on the outside of a wall. Usually these have a finished texture.

Fascia- Horizontal boards attached to rafter/truss ends at the eaves and along gables. Roof drain gutters are attached to the fascia.

Felt- Tar paper. Installed under the roof shingles. Normally 15 lb. or 30 lb.

Female- Any part, such as a nut or fitting, into which another (male) part can be inserted. Internal threads are female.

Ferrule- Metal tubes used to keep roof gutters "open". Long nails (ferrule spikes) are driven through these tubes and hold the gutters in place along the fascia of the home.

Field measure- To take measurements (cabinets, countertops, stairs, shower doors, etc.) in the home itself instead of using the blueprints.

Finger joint- A manufacturing process of interlocking two shorter pieces of wood end to end to create a longer piece of dimensional lumber or molding. Often used in jambs and casings and are normally painted (instead of stained).

Fire block- Short horizontal members sometimes nailed between studs, usually about halfway up a wall. See also 'Fire stop'.

Fire brick- Brick made of refractory ceramic material which will resist high temperatures. Used in a fireplace and boiler.

Fireplace chase flashing pan- A large sheet of metal that is installed around and perpendicular to the fireplace flue pipe. It's purpose is to confine and limit the spread of fire and smoke to a small area.

Fire-resistive or Fire rated- Applies to materials that are not combustible in the temperatures of ordinary fires and will withstand such fires for at least 1 hour. Drywall used in the garage and party walls are to be fire rated, 5/8", Type X.

Fire retardant chemical- A chemical or preparation of chemicals used to reduce the flammability of a material or to retard the spread of flame.

Fire stop- A solid, tight closure of a concealed space, placed to prevent the spread of fire and smoke through such a space. In a frame wall, this will usually consist of 2 by 4 cross blocking between studs. Work performed to slow the spread of fire and smoke in the walls and ceiling (behind the drywall). Includes stuffing wire holes in the top and bottom plates with insulation, and installing blocks of wood between the wall studs at the drop soffit line. This is integral to passing a Rough Frame inspection.  See also 'Fire block'.

Fishplate (gusset)- A wood or plywood piece used to fasten the ends of two members together at a butt joint with nails or bolts. Sometimes used at the junction of opposite rafters near the ridge line. Sometimes called a gang nail plate.

Fish tape- A long strip of spring steel used for fishing cables and for pulling wires through conduit.

Fixed price contract- A contract with a set price for the work. See Time and Materials Contract.

Fixed rate- A loan where the initial payments are based on a certain interest rate for a stated period .  The rate payable will not change during this period regardless of changes in the lender's standard variable rate.

Fixed Rate Mortgage- A mortgage with an interest rate that remains the same over the years.

Flagstone (flagging or flags)- Flat stones (1 to 4 inches thick) used for walks, steps, floors, and vertical veneer (in lieu of brick).

Flakeboard- A manufactured wood panel made out of 1"- 2" wood chips and glue. Often used as a substitute for plywood in the exterior wall and roof sheathing. Also called OSB or wafer board.

Flame retention burner- An oil burner, designed to hold the flame near the nozzle surface. Generally the most efficient type for residential use.

Flashing- Sheet metal or other material used in roof and wall construction to protect a building from water seepage.

Flat mold- Thin wood strips installed over the butt seam of cabinet skins.

Flat paint- An interior paint that contains a high proportion of pigment and dries to a flat or lusterless finish.

Flatwork- Common word for concrete floors, driveways, basements, and sidewalks.

Floating- The next-to-last stage in concrete work, when you smooth off the job and bring water to the surface by using a hand float or bull float.

Floating wall- A non-bearing wall built on a concrete floor. It is constructed so that the bottom two horizontal plates can compress or pull apart if the concrete floor moves up or down. Normally built on basements and garage slabs.

Fluorescent lighting- A fluorescent lamp is a gas-filled glass tube with a phosphur coating on the inside.  Gas inside the tube is ionized by electricity which causes the phosphur coating to glow.  Normally with two pins that extend from each end.

Flue- Large pipe through which fumes escape from a gas water heater, furnace, or fireplace. Normally these flue pipes are double walled, galvanized sheet metal pipe and sometimes referred to as a "B Vent". Fireplace flue pipes are normally triple walled. In addition, nothing combustible shall be within one inch from the flue pipe.

Flue collar- Round metal ring which fits around the heat flue pipe after the pipe passes out of the roof.

Flue damper- An automatic door located in the flue that closes it off when the burner turns off; purpose is to reduce heat loss up the flue from the still-warm furnace or boiler.

Flue lining- 2-foot lengths, fire clay or terra-cotta pipe (round or square) and usually madein all ordinary flue sizes. Used for the inner lining of chimneys with the brick or masonry work done around the outside. Flue linings in chimneys runs from one foot below the flue connection to the top of the chimney.

Fly rafters- End rafters of the gable overhang supported by roof sheathing and lookouts.

Footer, footing- Continuous 8" or 10" thick concrete pad installed before and supports the foundation wall or monopost.

Forced air heating - A common form of heating with natural gas, propane, oil or electricity as a fuel. Air is heated in the furnace and distributed through a set of metal ducts to various areas of the house.

Form- Temporary structure erected to contain concrete during placing and initial hardening.

Foundation- The supporting portion of a structure below the first floor construction, or below grade, including the footings.

Foundation ties- Metal wires that hold the foundation wall panels and rebar in place during the concrete pour.

Foundation waterproofing- High-quality below-grade moisture protection. Used for below-grade exterior concrete and masonry wall damp-proofing to seal out moisture and prevent corrosion. Normally looks like black tar.

Frame Inspection- The act of inspecting the home's structural integrity and it's complianceto local municipal codes.

Framer-The carpenter contractor that installs the lumber and erects the frame, flooring system, interior walls, backing, trusses, rafters, decking, installs all beams, stairs, soffits and all work related to the wood structure of the home. The framer builds the home according to the blueprints and must comply with local building codes and regulations.

Framing- Lumber used for the structural members of a building, such as studs, joists, and rafters.

Frieze- In house construction a horizontal member connecting the top of the siding with the soffit of the cornice.

Frost lid- Round metal lid that is installed on a water meter pit.

Frost line- The depth of frost penetration in soil and/or the depth at which the earth will freeze and swell. This depth varies in different parts of the country.

Furring strips- Strips of wood, often 1 X 2 and used to shim out and provide a level fastening surface for a wall or ceiling.

Fuse- A device often found in older homes designed to prevent overloads in electrical lines. This protects against fire. See also 'circuit breakers'.

G

GF C I, or G F I- Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter- an ultra sensitive plug designed to shut off all electric current. Used in bathrooms, kitchens, exterior waterproof outlets, garage outlets, and "wet areas". Has a small reset button on the plug.

Gable- The end, upper, triangular area of a home, beneath the roof.

Gang nail plate- A steel plate attached to both sides at each joint of a truss. Sometimes called a fishplate or gussett.

Gate valve- A valve that lets you completely stop—but not modulate—the flow within a pipe.

General Contractor A contractor who enters into a contract with the owner of a project for the construction of the project and who takes full responsibility for its completion, although the contractor may enter into subcontracts with others for the performance of specific parts or phases of the project.

Gas lateral- The trench or area in the yard where the gas line service is located, or the work of installing the gas service to a home.

Girder- A large or principal beam of wood or steel used to support concentrated loads at isolated points along its length.

Glazing- The process of installing glass, which commonly is secured with glazier's points and glazing compound.

Globe valve- A valve that lets you adjust the flow of water to any rate between fully on and fully off. Also see gate valve.

Gloss enamel- A finishing paint material. Forms a hard coating with maximum smoothness of surface and dries to a sheen or luster (gloss)

Glued Laminated Beam (Glulam)- A structural beam composed of wood laminations or lams. The lams are pressure bonded with adhesives to attain a typical thickness of 1 ½" . (It looks like 5 or more 2 X 4's are glued together).

Grade- Ground level, or the elevation at any given point. Also the work of leveling dirt. Also the designated quality of a manufactured piece of wood.

Grade beam- A foundation wall that is poured @ level with or just below the grade of theearth. An example is the area where the 8' or 16' overhead garage door "block out" is located, or a lower (walk out basement) foundation wall is poured

Graduated Payment Mortgage (GPM) - A fixed-rate, fixed-schedule loan. It starts with lower payments than a level payment loan; payments rise annually, with the entire increase being used to reduce the outstanding balance. The increase in payments may enable the borrower to pay off a 30-year loan in 15 to 20 years, or less.

Grain- The direction, size, arrangement, appearance, or quality of the fibers in wood.

Grid- The completed assembly of main and cross tees in a suspended ceiling system before the ceiling panels are installed. Also the decorative slats (munton) installed between glass panels.

Ground- Refers to electricity's habit of seeking the shortest route to earth. Neutral wires carry it there in all circuits. An additional grounding wire or the sheathing of the metal-clad cable or conduit—protects against shock if the neutral leg is interrupted.

Ground fault- Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI, GFI)- an ultra sensitive plug designed to shut off all electric current. Used in bathrooms, kitchens, exterior waterproof outlets, garage outlets, and "wet areas". Has a small reset button on the plug.

Ground iron- The plumbing drain and waste lines that are installed beneath the basement floor. Cast iron was once used, but black plastic pipe (ABS) is now widely used.

Groundwater- Water from an aquifer or subsurface water source.

Grout- A wet mixture of cement, sand and water that flows into masonry or ceramic crevices to seal the cracks between the different pieces. Mortar made of such consistency (by adding water) that it will flow into the joints and cavities of the masonry work and fill them solid.

Gusset- A flat wood, plywood, or similar type member used to provide a connection at the intersection of wood members. Most commonly used at joints of wood trusses. They are fastened by nails, screws, bolts, or adhesives.

Gutter- A shallow channel or conduit of metal or wood set below and along the (fascia) eaves of a house to catch and carry off rainwater from the roof.

Gyp board- Drywall. Wall board or gypsum- A panel (normally 4' X 8', 10', 12', or 16')made with a core of Gypsum (chalk-like) rock, which covers interior walls and ceilings.

Gypsum plaster- Gypsum formulated to be used with the addition of sand and water for base-coat plaster.

H  

H Clip- Small metal clips formed like an "H" that fits at the joints of two plywood (or wafer board) sheets to stiffen the joint. Normally used on the roof sheeting.

Hardware- All of the "metal" fittings that go into the home when it is near completion. For example, door knobs, towel bars, handrail brackets, closet rods, house numbers, door closers, etc. The Interior Trim Carpenter installs the "hardware".

Haunch- An extension, knee like protrusion of the foundation wall that a concrete porch or patio will rest upon for support.

Hazard insurance - Protection against damage caused by fire, windstorms, or other common hazards. Many lenders require borrowers to carry it in an amount at least equal to the mortgage.

Header- (a) A beam placed perpendicular to joists and to which joists are nailed inframing for a chimney, stairway, or other opening. (b) A wood lintel. (c) The horizontal structural member over an opening (for example over a door or window).

Hearth- The fireproof area directly in front of a fireplace. The inner or outer floor of a fireplace, usually made of brick, tile, or stone.

Heating load- The amount of heating required to keep a building at a specified temperature during the winter, usually 65° F, regardless of outside temperature.

Heat meter- An electrical municipal inspection of the electric meter breaker panel box.

Heat pump- A mechanical device which uses compression and decompression of gas to heat and/or cool a house.

Heat Rough- Work performed by the Heating Contractor after the stairs and interior walls are built. This includes installing all duct work and flue pipes. Sometimes, the furnace and fireplaces are installed at this stage of construction.

Heat Trim- Work done by the Heating Contractor to get the home ready for the municipal Final Heat Inspection. This includes venting the hot water heater, installing all vent grills, registers, air conditioning services, turning on the furnace, installing thermostats, venting ranges and hoods, and all other heat related work.

Heel cut- A notch cut in the end of a rafter to permit it to fit flat on a wall and on the top, doubled, exterior wall plate.

Highlights- A light spot, area, or streak on a painted surface.

Hip- A roof with four sloping sides. The external angle formed by the meeting of two sloping sides of a roof.

Hip roof- A roof that rises by inclined planes from all four sides of a building.

Home run (electrical)- The electrical cable that carries power from the main circuit breaker panel to the first electrical box, plug, or switch in the circuit.

Honey combs- The appearance concrete makes when rocks in the concrete are visible and where there are void areas in the foundation wall, especially around concrete foundation windows.

Hose bib- An exterior water faucet (sill cock).

Hot wire- The wire that carries electrical energy to a receptacle or other device—in contrast to a neutral, which carries electricity away again. Normally the black wire. Also see ground.

Humidifier- An appliance normally attached to the furnace, or portable unit device designed to increase the humidity within a room or a house by means of the discharge of water vapor.

Hurricane clip- Metal straps that are nailed and secure the roof rafters and trusses to the top horizontal wall plate. Sometimes called a Teco clip.

H V A C- An abbreviation for Heat, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning

I-beam- A steel beam with a cross section resembling the letter I. It is used for long spans as basement beams or over wide wall openings, such as a double garage door, when wall and roof loads bear down on the opening.

I-joist- Manufactured structural building component resembling the letter "I". Used as floor joists and rafters. I-joists include two key parts: flanges and webs. The flange of the I joist may be made of laminated veneer lumber or dimensional lumber, usually formed into a 1 ½" width. The web or center of the I-joist is commonly made of plywood or oriented strand board (OSB). Large holes can be cut in the web to accommodate duct work and plumbing waste lines. I-joists are available in lengths up to 60 feet long

Incandescent lamp- A lamp employing an electrically charged metal filament that glows at white heat. A typical light bulb.

Index- The interest rate or adjustment standard that determines the changes in monthly payments for an adjustable rate loan.

Infiltration- The passage of air from indoors to outdoors and vice versa; term is usually associated with drafts from cracks, seams or holes in buildings.

Inside corner- The point at which two walls form an internal angle, as in the corner of a room.

Insulating glass- Window or door in which two panes of glass are used with a sealed air space between.  Also known as Double glass.

Insulation board, rigid- A structural building board made of coarse wood or cane fiber in ½- and 25/32-inch thickness. It can be obtained in various size sheets and densities.

Insulation- Any material high in resistance to heat transmission that, when placed in the walls, ceiling, or floors of a structure, and will reduce the rate of heat flow.

Interest - The cost paid to a lender for borrowed money.

Interior finish- Material used to cover the interior framed areas of walls and ceilings

Irrigation- Lawn sprinkler system.

J Channel- Metal edging used on drywall to give the edge a better finished appearance when a wall is not "wrapped" Generally, basement stairway walls have drywall only on the stair side. J Channel is used on the vertical edge of the last drywall sheet

Jack post- A type of structural support made of metal, which can be raised or lowered through a series of pins and a screw to meet the height required. Basically used as a replacement for an old supporting member in a building. See Monopost.

Jack rafter- A rafter that spans the distance from the wall plate to a hip, or from a valley to a ridge.

Jamb- The side and head lining of a doorway, window, or other opening. Includes studs as well as the frame and trim.

Joint- The location between the touching surfaces of two members or components joined and held together by nails, glue, cement, mortar, or other means.

Joint cement or Joint compound- A powder that is usually mixed with water and used for joint treatment in gypsum-wallboard finish. Often called "spackle" or drywall mud.

Joint tenancy- A form of ownership in which the tenants own a property equally. If one dies, the other automatically inherits the entire property.

Joint trench- When the electric company and telephone company dig one trench and "drop" both of their service lines in.

Joist- Wooden 2 X 8's, 10's, or 12's that run parallel to one another and support a floor or ceiling, and supported in turn by larger beams, girders, or bearing walls.

Joist hanger- A metal "U" shaped item used to support the end of a floor joist and attached with hardened nails to another bearing joist or beam.

Jumpers- Water pipe installed in a water meter pit (before the water meter is installed), or electric wire that is installed in the electric house panel meter socket before the meter is installed. This is sometimes illegal.

Keeper- The metal latch plate in a door frame into which a doorknob plunger latches.

Keyless- A plastic or porcelain light fixture that operates by a pull string. Generally found in the basement, crawl space , and attic areas.

Keyway- A slot formed and poured on a footer or in a foundation wall when another wall will be installed at the slot location. This gives additional strength to the joint/meeting point.

Kilowatt (kw)- One thousand watts. A kilowatt hour is the base unit used in measuring electrical consumption. Also see watt.

King stud- The vertical "2 X's" frame lumber (left and right) of a window or door opening, and runs continuously from the bottom sole plate to the top plate.

Knot- In lumber, the portion of a branch or limb of a tree that appears on the edge or face of the piece.

Laminated shingles - Shingles that have added dimensionality because of extra layers or tabs, giving a shake-like appearance. May also be called "architectural shingles" or "three-dimensional shingles."

Laminating- Bonding together two or more layers of materials.

Landing- A platform between flights of stairs or at the termination of a flight of stairs. Often used when stairs change direction. Normally no less than 3 ft. X 3 ft. square.

Lap- To cover the surface of one shingle or roll with another.

Latch- A beveled metal tongue operated by a spring-loaded knob or lever. The tongue's bevel lets you close the door and engage the locking mechanism, if any, without using a key. Contrasts with dead bolt.

Lateral (electric, gas, telephone, sewer and water)- The underground trench and related services (i.e., electric, gas, telephone, sewer and water lines) that will be buried within the trench.

Lath- A building material of narrow wood, metal, gypsum, or insulating board that is fastened to the frame of a building to act as a base for plaster, shingles, or tiles.

Lattice- An open framework of criss-crossed wood or metal strips that form regular, patterned spaces.

Ledger (for a Structural Floor)- The wooden perimeter frame lumber member that bolts onto the face of a foundation wall and supports the wood structural floor.

Ledger strip- A strip of lumber nailed along the bottom of the side of a girder on which joists rest.

Leech field- A method used to treat/dispose of sewage in rural areas not accessible to a municipal sewer system.  Sewage is permitted to be filtered and eventually discharged into a section of the lot called a leech field.

Let-in brace- Nominal 1 inch-thick boards applied into notched studs diagonally. Also, an "L" shaped, long (@ 10') metal strap that are installed by the framer at the rough stage to give support to an exterior wall or wall corner.

Level- True horizontal. Also a tool used to determine level.

Level Payment Mortgage- A mortgage with identical monthly payments over the life of the loan.

Lien- An encumbrance that usually makes real or personal property the security for payment of a debt or discharge of an obligation.

Light- Space in a window sash for a single pane of glass. Also, a pane of glass.

Limit switch- A safety control that automatically shuts off a furnace if it gets too hot. Most also control blower cycles.

Lineal foot- A unit of measure for lumber equal to 1 inch thick by 12 inches wide by 12 inches long. Examples: 1" x 12" x 16' = 16 board feet, 2" x 12" x 16' = 32 board feet.

Lintel- A horizontal structural member that supports the load over an opening such as a door or window.

Load bearing wall- Includes all exterior walls and any interior wall that is aligned above a support beam or girder. Normally, any wall that has a double horizontal top plate.

Loan- The amount to be borrowed.

Loan to value ratio- The ratio of the loan amount to the property valuation and expressed as a percentage. E.g. if a borrower is seeking a loan of $200,000 on a property worth $400,000 it has a 50% loan to value rate. If the loan were $300,000, the LTV would be 75%. The higher the loan to value, the greater the lender's perceived risk. Loans above normal lending LTV ratios may require additional security.

Lookout- A short wood bracket or cantilever that supports an overhang portion of a roof.

Louver- A vented opening into the home that has a series of horizontal slats and arranged to permit ventilation but to exclude rain, snow, light, insects, or other living creatures.

Lumens- Unit of measure for total light output. The amount of light falling on a surface of one square foot.

Male- Any part, such as a bolt, designed to fit into another (female) part. External threads are male.

Mantel- The shelf above a fireplace opening. Also used in referring to the decorative trim around a fireplace opening.

Manufactured wood- A wood product such as a truss, beam, gluelam, microlam or joist which is manufactured out of smaller wood pieces and glued or mechanically fastened to form a larger piece. Often used to create a stronger member which may use less wood. See also Oriented Strand Board.

Manufacturer's specifications- The written installation and/or maintenance instructions which are developed by the manufacturer of a product and which may have to be followed in order to maintain the product warrantee.

Masonry- Stone, brick, concrete, hollow-tile, concrete block, or other similar building units or materials. Normally bonded together with mortar to form a wall.

Mastic- A pasty material used as a cement (as for setting tile) or a protective coating (as for thermal insulation or waterproofing)

Mechanics lien- A lien on real property, created by statue in many years, in favor of persons supplying labor or materials for a building or structure, for the value of labor or materials supplied by them. In some jurisdictions, a mechanics lien also exists for the value of professional services. Clear title to the property cannot be obtained until the

claim for the labor, materials, or professional services is settled. Timely filing is essential to support the encumbrance, and prescribed filing dates vary by jurisdiction.

Metal lath- Sheets of metal that are slit to form openings within the lath. Used as a plaster base for walls and ceilings and as reinforcing over other forms of plaster base.

Microlam- A manufactured structural wood beam. It is constructed of pressure and adhesive bonded wood strands of wood. They have a higher strength rating than solid sawn lumber. Normally comes in l ½" thickness' and 9 ½", 11 ½" and 14" widths

Milar (mylar)- Plastic, transparent copies of a blueprint.

Millwork- Generally all building materials made of finished wood and manufactured in millwork plants. Includes all doors, window and door frames, blinds, mantels, panelwork, stairway components (ballusters, rail, etc.), moldings, and interior trim. Does not include flooring, ceiling, or siding.

Miter joint- The joint of two pieces at an angle that bisects the joining angle. For example, the miter joint at the side and head casing at a door opening is made at a 45° angle.

Molding- A wood strip having an engraved, decorative surface.

Monopost- Adjustable metal column used to support a beam or bearing point. Normally 11 gauge or Schedule 40 metal, and determined by the structural engineer

Mortar- A mixture of cement (or lime) with sand and water used in masonry work.

Mortgage- Loan secured by land.

Mortgage broker - A broker who represents numerous lenders and helps consumers find affordable mortgages; the broker charges a fee only if the consumer finds a loan.

Mortgage company - A company that borrows money from a bank, lends it to consumers to buy homes, then sells the loans to investors.

Mortgage deed- Legal document establishing a loan on property.

Mortgagee- The lender who makes the mortgage loan.

Mortgage loan- A contract in which the borrower's property is pledged as collateral. It is repaid in installments. The mortgagor (buyer) promises to repay principal and interest, keep the home insured, pay all taxes and keep the property in good condition.

Mortgage Origination Fee- A charge for work involved in preparing and servicing a mortgage application (usually one percent of the loan amount).

Mortise- A slot cut into a board, plank, or timber, usually edgewise, to receive the tenon (or tongue) of another board, plank, or timber to form a joint.

Mudsill- Bottom horizontal member of an exterior wall frame which rests on top a foundation, sometimes called sill plate. Also sole plate, bottom member of interior wall frame.

Mullion- A vertical divider in the frame between windows, doors, or other openings.

Muntin- A small member which divides the glass or openings of sash or doors.

Muriatic acid- Commonly used as a brick cleaner after masonry work is completed.

Mushroom- The unacceptable occurrence when the top of a caisson concrete pier spreads out and hardens to become wider than the foundation wall thickness.

Nail inspection- An inspection made by a municipal building inspector after the drywall material is hung with nails and screws (and before taping).

Natural finish- A transparent finish which does not seriously alter the original color or grain of the natural wood. Natural finishes are usually provided by sealers, oils, varnishes, water repellent preservatives, and other similar materials.

NEC (National Electrical Code)- A set of rules governing safe wiring methods. Local codes—which are backed by law—may differ from the NEC in some ways.

Neutral wire- Usually color-coded white, this carries electricity from an outlet back to the service panel. Also see hot wire and ground.

Newel post- The large starting post to which the end of a stair guard railing or balustrade is fastened.

Nonbearing wall- A wall supporting no load other than its own weight.

Nosing- The projecting edge of a molding or drip or the front edge of a stair tread.

Notch- A crosswise groove at the end of a board.

Note- A formal document showing the existence of a debt and stating the terms of repayment.

Nozzle- The part of a heating system that sprays the fuel of fuel-air mixture into the combustion chamber.

O  

O C- On Center- The measurement of spacing for studs, rafters, and joists in a building from the center of one member to the center of the next.

Oakum- Loose hemp or jute fiber that's impregnated with tar or pitch and used to caulk large seams or for packing plumbing pipe joints

Open hole inspection- When an engineer (or municipal inspector) inspects the open excavation and examines the earth to determine the type of foundation (caisson, footer, wall on ground, etc.) that should be installed in the hole.

Oriented Strand Board or OSB- A manufactured 4' X 8' wood panel made out of 1"- 2" wood chips and glue. Often used as a substitute for plywood.

Outrigger- An extension of a rafter beyond the wall line. Usually a smaller member nailed to a larger rafter to form a cornice or roof overhang.

Outside corner- The point at which two walls form an external angle, one you usually can walk around.

Overhang- Outward projecting eave-soffit area of a roof; the part of the roof that hangs out or over the outside wall. See also Cornice.

Padding- A material installed under carpet to add foot comfort, isolate sound, and to prolong carpet life.

Pad out, pack out- To shim out or add strips of wood to a wall or ceiling in order that the finished ceiling/wall will appear correct.

Paint- A combination of pigments with suitable thinners or oils to provide decorative and protective coatings. Can be oil based or latex water based.

Pallets- Wooden platforms used for storing and shipping material. Forklifts and hand trucks are used to move these wooden platforms around.

Panel- A thin flat piece of wood, plywood, or similar material, framed by stiles and rails as in a door (or cabinet door), or fitted into grooves of thicker material with molded edges for decorative wall treatment.

Paper, building- A general term for papers, felts, and similar sheet materials used in buildings without reference to their properties or uses. Generally comes in long rolls.

Parapet- A wall placed at the edge of a roof to prevent people from falling off.

Parting stop or strip- A small wood piece used in the side and head jambs of double hung windows to separate the upper sash from the lower sash.

Particle board- Plywood substitute made of course sawdust that is mixed with resin and pressed into sheets. Used for closet shelving, floor underlayment, stair treads, etc.

Partition- A wall that subdivides spaces within any story of a building or room.

Paver, paving- Materials—commonly masonry—laid down to make a firm, even surface.

Payment schedule- A pre-agreed upon schedule of payments to a contractor usually based upon the amount of work completed. Such a schedule may include a deposit prior to the start of work. There may also be a temporary 'retainer' (5-10% of the total cost of the job) at the end of the contract for correcting any small items which have not been completed or repaired.

Pedestal- A metal box installed at various locations along utility easements that contain electrical, telephone, or cable television switches and connections.

Penalty clause - A provision in a contract that provides for a reduction in the amount otherwise payable under a contract to a contractor as a penalty for failure to meet deadlines or for failure of the project to meet contract specifications.

Penny- As applied to nails, it originally indicated the price per hundred. The term now series as a measure of nail length and is abbreviated by the letter "d". Normally, 16d (16 "penny") nails are used for framing

Percolation test or perc. test- Tests that a soil engineer performs on earth to determine the feasibility of installing a leech field type sewer system on a lot. A test to determine if the soil on a proposed building lot is capable of absorbing the liquid affluent from a septic system.

Performance bond- An amount of money (usually 10% of the total price of a job)  that a contractor must put on deposit with a governmental agency as an insurance policy that guarantees the contractors' proper and timely completion of a project or job.

Perimeter drain- 3" or 4" perforated plastic pipe that goes around the perimeter (either inside or outside) of a foundation wall (before backfill) and collects and diverts ground water away from the foundation. Generally, it is "daylighted" into a sump pit inside the

home, and a sump pump is sometimes inserted into the pit to discharge any accumulation of water.

Permeability- A measure of the ease with which water penetrates a material.

Permit - A governmental municipal authorization to perform a building process as in:

· Zoning\Use permit - Authorization to use a property for a specific use e.g. a garage, a single family residence etc.

· Demolition permit - Authorization to tear down and remove an existing structure.

· Grading permit - Authorization to change the contour of the land.

· Septic permit - A health department authorization to build or modify a septic system.

· Building permit - Authorization to build or modify a structure.

· Electrical permit - A separate permit required for most electrical work.

· Plumbing permit - A separate permit required for new plumbing and larger modifications of existing plumbing systems.

Pigtails, electrical- The electric cord that the electrician provides and installs on an appliance such as a garbage disposal, dishwasher, or range hood.

Pier- A column of masonry, usually rectangular in horizontal cross section, used to support other structural members. Also see Caisson.

Pigment- A powdered solid used in paint or enamel to give it a color.

Pilot hole- A small-diameter, pre-drilled hole that guides a nail or screw.

Pilot light- A small, continuous flame (in a hot water heater, boiler, or furnace) that ignites gas or oil burners when needed.

Pitch- The incline slope of a roof or the ratio of the total rise to the total width of a house, i.e., a 6-foot rise and 24-foot width is a one-fourth pitch roof. Roof slope is expressed in the inches of rise, per foot of horizontal run.

PITI - Principal, interest, taxes and insurance (the four major components of monthly housing payments).

Plan view- Drawing of a structure with the view from overhead, looking down.

Plate-  Normally a 2 X 4 or 2 X 6 that lays horizontally within a framed structure, such as:

Sill plate- A horizontal member anchored to a concrete or masonry wall.

Sole plate- Bottom horizontal member of a frame wall.

Top plate- Top horizontal member of a frame wall supporting ceiling joists, rafters, or other members.

Plenum- The main hot-air supply duct leading from a furnace.

Plot plan- An overhead view plan that shows the location of the home on the lot. Includes all easements, property lines, set backs, and legal descriptions of the home. Provided by the surveyor.

Plough, plow- To cut a lengthwise groove in a board or plank. An exterior handrail normally has a ploughed groove for hand gripping purposes

Plumb- Exactly vertical and perpendicular.

Plumb bob- A lead weight attached to a string. It is the tool used in determining plumb.

Plumbing boots- Metal saddles used to strengthen a bearing wall/vertical stud(s) where a plumbing drain line has been cut through and installed.

Plumbing ground- The plumbing drain and waste lines that are installed beneath a basement floor.

Plumbing jacks- Sleeves that fit around drain and waste vent pipes at, and are nailed to, the roof sheeting.

Plumbing rough- Work performed by the plumbing contractor after the Rough Heat is installed. This work includes installing all plastic ABS drain and waste lines, copper water lines, bath tubs, shower pans, and gas piping to furnaces and fireplaces. Lead solder should not be used on copper piping.

Plumbing stack- A plumbing vent pipe that penetrates the roof.

Plumbing trim- Work performed by the plumbing contractor to get the home ready for a final plumbing inspection. Includes installing all toilets (water closets), hot water heaters, sinks, connecting all gas pipe to appliances, disposal, dishwasher, and all plumbing items.

Plumbing waste line- Plastic pipe used to collect and drain sewage waste.

Ply- A term to denote the number of layers of roofing felt, veneer in plywood, or layers in built-up materials, in any finished piece of such material.

Plywood- A panel (normally 4' X 8') of wood made of three or more layers of veneer, compressed and joined with glue, and usually laid with the grain of adjoining plies at right angles to give the sheet strength.

Point load- A point where a bearing/structural weight is concentrated and transferred to the foundation.

Portland cement- Cement made by heating clay and crushed limestone into a brick and then grinding to a pulverized powder state.

Post- A vertical framing member usually designed to carry a beam. Often a 4" x 4", a 6" x 6", or a metal pipe with a flat plate on top and bottom.

Post-and-beam- A basic building method that uses just a few hefty posts and beams to support an entire structure. Contrasts with stud framing.

Power vent- A vent that includes a fan to speed up air flow.  Often installed on roofs.

Premium- Amount payable on a loan.

Preservative-. Any pesticide substance that, for a reasonable length of time, will prevent the action of wood-destroying fungi, insect borers, and similar destructive agents when the wood has been properly coated or impregnated with it. Normally an arsenic derivative. Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA) is an example.

Pressure Relief Valve (PRV)- A device mounted on a hot water heater or boiler which is designed to release any high steam pressure in the tank to prevent tank explosions.

Pressure-treated wood- Lumber that has been saturated with a preservative.

Primer- The first, base coat of paint when a paint job consists of two or more coats. A first coating formulated to seal raw surfaces and holding succeeding finish coats.

Principal- The original amount of the loan, the capital.

Property survey- A survey to determine the boundaries of your property. The cost depends on the complexity of the survey.

P trap- Curved, "U" section of drain pipe that holds a water seal to prevent sewer gasses from entering the home through a fixtures water drain.

Pump mix- Special concrete that will be used in a concrete pump. Generally, the mix has smaller rock aggregate than regular mix.

Punch list- A list of discrepancies that need to be corrected by the contractor.

Punch out- To inspect and make a discrepancy list.

Putty- A type of dough used in sealing glass in the sash, filling small holes and crevices in wood, and for similar purposes.

PVC or CPVC - Poly Vinyl Chloride-A type of white or light gray plastic pipe sometimes used for water supply lines and waste pipe.

Q

Quarry tile- A man-made or machine-made clay tile used to finish a floor or wall. Generally 6" X  6"  X 1/4" thick .

Quarter round- A small trim molding that has the cross section of a quarter circle.

R

Rabbet- A rectangular longitudinal groove cut in the corner edge of a board or plank.

Radiant heating- A method of heating, usually consisting of a forced hot water system with pipes placed in the floor, wall, or ceiling. Also electrically heated panels.

Radiation- Energy transmitted from a heat source to the air around it. Radiators actually depend more on convection than radiation.

Radon- A naturally-occurring, heavier than air, radioactive gas common in many parts of the country.  Radon gas exposure is associated with lung cancer. Mitigation measures may involve crawl space and basement venting and various forms of vapor barriers.

Radon system- A ventilation system beneath the floor of a basement and/or structural wood floor and designed to fan exhaust radon gas to the outside of the home

Rafter- Lumber used to support the roof sheeting and roof loads. Generally, 2 X 10's and 2 X 12's are used. The rafters of a flat roof are sometimes called roof joists.

Rafter, hip- A rafter that forms the intersection of an external roof angle.

Rafter, valley- A rafter that forms the intersection of an internal roof angle. The valley rafter is normally made of double 2-inch-thick members.

Rail- Cross members of panel doors or of a sash. Also, a wall or open balustrade placed at the edge of a staircase, walkway bridge, or elevated surface to prevent people from

falling off.  Any relatively lightweight horizontal element, especially those found in fences (split rail).

Railroad tie- Black, tar and preservative impregnated, 6" X 8" and 6'-8' long wooden timber that was used to hold railroad track in place. Normally used as a member of a retaining wall.

Rake- Slope or slanted.

Rake fascia- The vertical face of the sloping end of a roof eave.

Rake siding- The practice of installing lap siding diagonally

Ranch- A single story, one level home.

Ready mixed concrete- Concrete mixed at a plant or in trucks en route to a job and delivered ready for placement.

Rebar, reinforcing bar-Ribbed steel bars installed in foundation concrete walls, footers, and poured in place concrete structures designed to strengthen concrete. Comes in various thickness' and strength grade.

Receptacle- An electrical outlet.  A typical household will have many 120 volt receptacles for plugging in lams and appliances and 240 volt receptacles for the range, clothes dryer, air conditioners, etc.

Recording fee - A charge for recording the transfer of a property, paid to a city, county, or other appropriate branch of government.

Redline, red lined prints- Blueprints that reflect changes and that are marked with red pencil.

Reducer- A fitting with different size openings at either end and used to go from a larger to a smaller pipe.

Reflective insulation- Sheet material with one or both faces covered with aluminum foil.

Refrigerant- A substance that remains a gas at low temperatures and pressure and can be used to transfer heat. Freon is an example and is used in air conditioning systems.

Register- A grill placed over a heating duct or cold air return.

Reglaze- To replace a broken window.

Relief valve- A device designed to open if it detects excess temperature or pressure.

Remote- Remote electrical, gas, or water meter digital readouts that are installed near the front of the home in order for utility companies to easily read the home owners usage of the service.

Retaining wall- A structure that holds back a slope and prevents erosion.

Retentions- Amounts withheld from progress billings until final and satisfactory project completion.

R factor or value- A measure of a materials resistance to the passage of heat. New homewalls are usually insulated with 4" of batt insulation with an R value of R-13, and a ceiling insulation of R-30.

Ribbon (girt)- Normally a 1 X 4 board let into the studs horizontally to support the ceiling or second-floor joists.

Ridge- The horizontal line at the junction of the top edges of two sloping roof surfaces.

Ridge board- The board placed on the ridge of the roof onto which the upper ends of other rafters are fastened.

Ridge shingles- Shingles used to cover the ridge board.

Rim joist- A joist that runs around the perimeter of the floor joists and home.

Rise- The vertical distance from the eaves line to the ridge. Also the vertical distance from stair tread to stair tread (and not to exceed 7 ½").

Riser- Each of the vertical boards closing the spaces between the treads of stairways.

Riser and panel- The exterior vertical pipe (riser) and metal electric box (panel) the electrician provides and installs at the "Rough Electric" stage.

Road base- A aggregate mixture of sand and stone.

Rock 1, 2, 3- When referring to drywall, this means to install drywall to the walls and ceilings (with nails and screws), and before taping is performed.

Roll, rolling- To install the floor joists or trusses in their correct place. (To "roll the floor" means to install the floor joists).

Romex- A name brand of nonmetallic sheathed electrical cable that is used for indoor wiring.

Roll roofing- Asphalt roofing products manufactured in roll form. 36-inch wide rolls with and 108 square feet of material. Weights are generally 45 to 90 pounds per roll.

Romex- A name brand of nonmetallic sheathed electrical cable that is used for indoor wiring.

Roof jack- Sleeves that fit around the black plumbing waste vent pipes at, and are nailed to, the roof sheeting.

Roof joist- The rafters of a flat roof. Lumber used to support the roof sheeting and roof loads. Generally, 2 X 10's and 2 X 12's are used.

Roof sheathing or sheeting- The wood panels or sheet material fastened to the roof rafters or trusses on which the shingle or other roof covering is laid.

Roof valley- The "V" created where two sloping roofs meet.

Rough opening- The horizontal and vertical measurement of a window or door opening before drywall or siding is installed.

Rough sill- The framing member at the bottom of a rough opening for a window. It is attached to the cripple studs below the rough opening.

Roughing-in- The initial stage of a plumbing, electrical, heating, carpentry, and/or other project, when all components that won't be seen after the second finishing phase are assembled. See also Heat Rough, Plumbing Rough, and Electrical Rough.

Run, roof - The horizontal distance from the eaves to a point directly under the ridge. One half the span.

Run, stair- the horizontal distance of a stair tread from the nose to the riser.

R Value- A measure of insulation. A measure of a materials resistance to the passage of heat. The higher the R value, the more insulating "power" it has. For example, typical new home's walls are usually insulated with 4" of batt insulation with an R value of R-13, and a ceiling insulation of R-30.

S

Saddle- A small second roof built behind the back side of a fireplace chimney to divert water around the chimney. Also, the plate at the bottom of some—usually exterior—door openings. Sometimes called a threshold.

Sack mix- The amount of Portland cement in a cubic yard of concrete mix. Generally, 5 or 6 sack is required in a foundation wall.

Sales contract - A contract between a buyer and seller which should explain: (1) What the purchase includes, (2) What guarantees there are, (3) When the buyer can move in,

(4) What the closing costs are, and (5) What recourse the parties have if the contract is not fulfilled or if the buyer cannot get a mortgage commitment at the agreed upon time.

Sand float finish- Lime that is mixed with sand, resulting in a textured finish on a wall.

Sanitary sewer- A sewer system designed for the collection of waste water from the bathroom, kitchen and laundry drains, and is usually not designed to handle storm water.

Sash- A single light frame containing one or more lights of glass. The frame that holds the glass in a window, often the movable part of the window.

Sash balance- A device, usually operated by a spring and designed to hold a single hung window vent up and in place

Saturated felt- A felt which is impregnated with tar or asphalt.

Schedule (window, door, mirror)- A table on the blueprints that list the sizes, quantities and locations of the windows, doors and mirrors.

Scrap out- The removal of all drywall material and debris after the home is "hung out" (installed) with drywall.

Scratch coat- The first coat of plaster, which is scratched to form a bond for a second coat.

Screed, concrete- To level off concrete to the correct elevation during a concrete pour.

Screed, plaster- A small strip of wood, usually the thickness of the plaster coat, used as a guide for plastering.

Scribing- Cutting and fitting woodwork to an irregular surface.

Scupper- (1) An opening for drainage in a wall, curb or parapet. (2) The drain in a downspout or flat roof, usually connected to the downspout.

Sealer- A finishing material, either clear or pigmented, that is usually applied directly over raw wood for the purpose of sealing the wood surface.

Seasoning- Drying and removing moisture from green wood in order to improve its usability.

Self-sealing shingles- Shingles containing factory-applied strips or spots of self-sealing adhesive.

Semigloss paint or enamel- A paint or enamel made so that its coating, when dry, has some luster but is not very glossy. Bathrooms and kitchens are normally painted semi-gloss

Septic system- An on site waste water treatment system. It usually has a septic tank which promotes the biological digestion of the waste, and a drain field which is designed to let the left over liquid soak into the ground. Septic systems and permits are usually sized by the number of bedrooms in a house.

Service entrance panel- Main power cabinet where electricity enters a home wiring system.

Service equipment- Main control gear at the service entrance, such as circuit breakers, switches, and fuses.

Service lateral- Underground power supply line.

Setback Thermostat- A thermostat with a clock which can be programmed to come on or go off at various temperatures and at different times of the day/week. Usually used as the heating or cooling system thermostat.

Settlement- Shifts in a structure, usually caused by freeze-thaw cycles underground.

Sewage ejector- A pump used to 'lift' waste water to a gravity sanitary sewer line. Usually used in basements and other locations which are situated bellow the level of the side sewer.

Sewer lateral- The portion of the sanitary sewer which connects the interior waste water lines to the main sewer lines. The side sewer is usually buried in several feet of soil and runs from the house to the sewer line. It is usually 'owned' by the sewer utility, must be maintained by the owner and may only be serviced by utility approved contractors. Sometimes called side sewer.

Sewer stub- The junction at the municipal sewer system where the home's sewer line is connected.

Sewer tap- The physical connection point where the home's sewer line connects to the main municipal sewer line.

Shake- A wood roofing material, normally cedar or redwood. Produced by splitting a block of the wood along the grain line. Modern shakes are sometimes machine sawn on one side. See shingle.

Shear block- Plywood that is face nailed to short (2 X 4's or 2 X 6's) wall studs (above a door or window, for example). This is done to prevent the wall from sliding and collapsing.

Sheathing, sheeting- The structural wood panel covering, usually OSB or plywood, used over studs, floor joists or rafters/trusses of a structure.

Shed roof- A roof containing only one sloping plane.

Sheet metal work- All components of a house employing sheet metal, such as flashing, gutters, and downspouts.

Sheet metal duct work- The heating system. Usually round or rectangular metal pipes and sheet metal (for Return Air) and installed for distributing warm (or cold) air from the furnace to rooms in the home.

Sheet rock- Drywall-Wall board or gypsum- A manufactured panel made out of gypsum plaster and encased in a thin cardboard. Usually 1/2" thick and 4' x 8' or 4' x 12' in size. The 'joint compound'. 'Green board' type drywall has a greater resistance to moisture than regular (white) plasterboard and is used in bathrooms and other "wet areas".

Shim- A small piece of scrap lumber or shingle, usually wedge shaped, which when forced behind a furring strip or framing member forces it into position. Also used when installing doors and placed between the door jamb legs and 2 X 4 door trimmers. Metal shims are wafer  1 1/2" X 2" sheet metal of various thickness' used to fill gaps in wood framing members, especially at bearing point locations.

Shingles- Roof covering of asphalt. asbestos, wood, tile, slate, or other material cut to stock lengths, widths, and thickness'.

Shingles, siding- Various kinds of shingles, used over sheathing for exterior wall covering of a structure.

Short circuit- A situation that occurs when hot and neutral wires come in contact with each other. Fuses and circuit breakers protect against fire that could result from a short.

Shutter- Usually lightweight louvered decorative frames in the form of doors located on the sides of a window. Some shutters are made to close over the window for protection.

Side sewer- The portion of the sanitary sewer which connects the interior waste water lines to the main sewer lines. The side sewer is usually buried in several feet of soil and runs from the house to the sewer line. It is usually 'owned' by the sewer utility, must be maintained by the owner and may only be serviced by utility approved contractors. Sometimes called sewer lateral.

Siding- The finished exterior covering of the outside walls of a frame building.

Siding, (lap siding)- Slightly wedge-shaped boards used as horizontal siding in a lapped pattern over the exterior sheathing. Varies in butt thickness from ½ to ¾ inch and in widths up to 12".

Sill- (1) The 2 X 4 or 2 X 6 wood plate framing member that lays flat against and bolted to the foundation wall (with anchor bolts) and upon which the floor joists are installed. Normally the sill plate is treated lumber. (2) The member forming the lower side of an opening, as a door sill or window sill.

Sill cock- An exterior water faucet (hose bib).

Sill plate (mudsill)- Bottom horizontal member of an exterior wall frame which rests on top a foundation, sometimes called mudsill. Also sole plate, bottom member of an interior wall frame.

Sill seal- Fiberglass or foam insulation installed between the foundation wall and sill (wood) plate. Designed to seal any cracks or gaps.

Single hung window- A window with one vertically sliding sash or window vent.

Skylight- A more or less horizontal window located on the roof of a building.

Slab, concrete- Concrete pavement, i.e. driveways, garages, and basement floors.

Slab, door- A rectangular door without hinges or frame.

Slab on grade- A type of foundation with a concrete floor which is placed directly on the soil. The edge of the slab is usually thicker and acts as the footing for the walls.

Slag- Concrete cement that sometimes covers the vertical face of the foundation void material.

Sleeper- Usually, a wood member embedded in concrete, as in a floor, that serves to support and to fasten the subfloor or flooring.

Sleeve(s)- Pipe installed under the concrete driveway or sidewalk, and that will be used later to run sprinkler pipe or low voltage wire.

Slope- The incline angle of a roof surface, given as a ratio of the rise (in inches) to the run (in feet). See also pitch.

Slump- The "wetness" of concrete. A 3 inch slump is dryer and stiffer than a 5 inch slump.

Soffit- The area below the eaves and overhangs. The underside where the roof overhangs the walls. Usually the underside of an overhanging cornice.

Soil pipe- A large pipe that carries liquid and solid wastes to a sewer or septic tank.

Soil stack- A plumbing vent pipe that penetrates the roof.

Sole plate- The bottom, horizontal framing member of a wall that's attached to the floor sheeting and vertical wall studs.

Solid bridging- A solid member placed between adjacent floor joists near the center of the span to prevent joists or rafters from twisting.

Sonotube- Round, large cardboard tubes designed to hold wet concrete in place until it hardens.

Sound attenuation- Sound proofing a wall or subfloor, generally with fiberglass insulation.

Space heat- Heat supplied to the living space, for example, to a room or the living area of a building.

Spacing- The distance between individual members or shingles in building construction.

Span- The clear distance that a framing member carries a load without support between structural supports. The horizontal distance from eaves to eaves.

Spec home- A house built before it is sold. The builder speculates that he can sell it at a profit.

Specifications or Specs- A narrative list of materials, methods, model numbers, colors, allowances, and other details which supplement the information contained in the blue prints. Written elaboration in specific detail about construction materials and methods. Written to supplement working drawings.

Splash block- Portable concrete (or vinyl) channel generally placed beneath an exterior sill cock (water faucet) or downspout in order to receive roof drainage from downspouts and to divert it away from the building.

Square- A unit of measure-100 square feet-usually applied to roofing and siding material. Also, a situation that exists when two elements are at right angles to each other. Also a tool for checking this.

Square-tab shingles- Shingles on which tabs are all the same size and exposure.

Squeegie- Fine pea gravel used to grade a floor (normally before concrete is placed).

Stack (trusses)- To position trusses on the walls in their correct location.

Standard practices of the trade(s)- One of the more common basic and minimum construction standards. This is another way of saying that the work should be done in the way it is normally done by the average professional in the field.

Starter strip- Asphalt roofing applied at the eaves that provides protection by filling in the spaces under the cutouts and joints of the first course of shingles.

Stair carriage or stringer- Supporting member for stair treads. Usually a 2 X 12 inch plank notched to receive the treads; sometimes called a "rough horse."

Stair landing- A platform between flights of stairs or at the termination of a flight of stairs. Often used when stairs change direction. Normally no less than 3 ft. X 3 ft. square.

Stair rise- The vertical distance from stair tread to stair tread (and not to exceed 7 ½").

Static vent- A vent that does not include a fan.

STC (Sound Transmission Class)- The measure of sound stopping of ordinary noise.

Steel inspection- A municipal and/or engineers inspection of the concrete foundation wall, conducted before concrete is poured into the foundation panels. Done to insure that the rebar (reinforcing bar), rebar nets, void material, beam pocket plates, and basement window bucks are installed and wrapped with rebar and complies with the foundation plan.

Step flashing- Flashing application method used where a vertical surface meets a sloping roof plane. 6" X 6" galvanized metal bent at a 90 degree angle, and installed beneath siding and over the top of shingles. Each piece overlaps the one beneath it the entire length of the sloping roof (step by step).

Stick built- A house built without prefabricated parts. Also called conventional building.

Stile- An upright framing member in a panel door.

Stool- The flat molding fitted over the window sill between jambs and contacting the bottom rail of the lower sash.  Also another name for toilet.

Stop box- Normally a cast iron pipe with a lid (@ 5" in diameter) that is placed vertically into the ground, situated near the water tap in the yard, and where a water cut-off valve to the home is located (underground). A long pole with a special end is inserted into the curb stop to turn off/on the water.

Stop Order- A formal, written notification to a contractor to discontinue some or all work on a project for reasons such as safety violations, defective materials or workmanship, or cancellation of the contract.

Stops- Moldings along the inner edges of a door or window frame. Also valves used to shut off water to a fixture.

Stop valve- A device installed in a water supply line, usually near a fixture, that permits an individual to shut off the water supply to one fixture without interrupting service to the rest of the system.

Storm sash or storm window-. An extra window usually placed outside of an existing one, as additional protection against cold weather.

Storm sewer- A sewer system designed to collect storm water and is separated from the waste water system.

Story- That part of a building between any floor or between the floor and roof.

Strike- The plate on a door frame that engages a latch or dead bolt.

String, stringer- A timber or other support for cross members in floors or ceilings. In stairs, the supporting member for stair treads. Usually a 2 X 12 inch plank notched to receive the treads

Strip flooring- Wood flooring consisting of narrow, matched strips.

Structural floor- A framed lumber floor that is installed as a basement floor instead of concrete. This is done on very expansive soils.

Stub, stubbed- To push through.

Stucco- Refers to an outside plaster finish made with Portland cement as its base.

Stud- A vertical wood framing member, also referred to as a wall stud, attached to the horizontal sole plate below and the top plate above. Normally 2 X 4's or 2 X 6's, 8' long (sometimes 92 5/8"). One of a series of wood or metal vertical structural members placed as supporting elements in walls and partitions.

Stud framing- A building method that distributes structural loads to each of a series of relatively lightweight studs. Contrasts with post-and-beam.

Stud shoe- A metal, structural bracket that reinforces a vertical stud. Used on an outside bearing wall where holes are drilled to accommodate a plumbing waste line.

Subfloor- The framing components of a floor to include the sill plate, floor joists, and deck sheeting over which a finish floor is to be laid.

Sump- Pit or large plastic bucket/barrel inside the home designed to collect ground water from a perimeter drain system.

Sump pump- A submersible pump in a sump pit that pumps any excess ground water to the outside of the home.

Suspended ceiling- A ceiling system supported by hanging it from the overhead structural framing.

Sway brace- Metal straps or wood blocks installed diagonally on the inside of a wall from bottom to top plate, to prevent the wall from twisting, racking, or falling over "domino" fashion.

Switch- A device that completes or disconnects an electrical circuit.

T & G, tongue and groove- A joint made by a tongue (a rib on one edge of a board) that fits into a corresponding groove in the edge of another board to make a tight flush joint. Typically, the subfloor plywood is T & G.

Tab - The exposed portion of strip shingles defined by cutouts.

Tail beam- A relatively short beam or joist supported in a wall on one end and by a header at the other.

Take off- The material necessary to complete a job.

Taping- The process of covering drywall joints with paper tape and joint compound.

T bar- Ribbed, "T" shaped bars with a flat metal plate at the bottom that are driven into the earth. Normally used chain link fence poles, and to mark locations of a water meter pit.

Teco- Metal straps that are nailed and secure the roof rafters and trusses to the top horizontal wall plate. Sometimes called a hurricane clip.

Tee- A "T" shaped plumbing fitting.

Tempered- Strengthened. Tempered glass will not shatter nor create shards, but will "pelletize" like an automobile window. Required in tub and shower enclosures and locations, entry door glass and sidelight glass, and in a windows when the window sill is less than 16" to the floor.

Termites- Wood eating insects that superficially resemble ants in size and general appearance, and live in colonies.

Termite shield- A shield, usually of galvanized metal, placed in or on a foundation wall or around pipes to prevent the passage of termites.

Terra cotta- A ceramic material molded into masonry units.

Thermoply ™- Exterior laminated sheathing nailed to the exterior side of the exterior walls. Normally ¼ " thick, 4 X 8 or 4 x 10 sheets with an aluminumized surface.

Thermostat- A device which relegates the temperature of a room or building by switching heating or cooling equipment on or off.

Three-dimensional shingles- Laminated shingles. Shingles that have added dimensionality because of extra layers or tabs, giving a shake-like appearance. May also be called "architectural shingles".

Threshold- The bottom metal or wood plate of an exterior door frame. Generally they are adjustable to keep a tight fit with the door slab.

Time and materials contract- A construction contract which specifies a price for different elements of the work such as cost per hour of labor, overhead, profit, etc. A contract which may not have a maximum price, or may state a 'price not to exceed'.

Tinner- Another name for the heating contractor.

Tip up- The downspout extension that directs water (from the home's gutter system) away from the home. They typically swing up when mowing the lawn, etc.

Title- Evidence (usually in the form of a certificate or deed) of a person's legal right to ownership of a property.

TJI or TJ- Manufactured structural building component resembling the letter "I". Used as floor joists and rafters. I-joists include two key parts: flanges and webs. The flange or from of the I joist may be made of laminated veneer lumber or dimensional lumber, usually formed into a 1 ½" width. The web or center of the I-joist is commonly made of plywood or oriented strand board (OSB). Large holes can be cut in the web to accommodate duct work and plumbing waste lines. I-joists are available in lengths up to 60'' long.

Toenailing- To drive a nail in at a slant. Method used to secure floor joists to the plate.

Top chord- The upper or top member of a truss.

Top plate- Top horizontal member of a frame wall supporting ceiling joists, rafters, or other members.

Transmitter (garage door)- The small, push button device that causes the garage door to open or close.

Trap- A plumbing fitting that holds water to prevent air, gas, and vermin from backing up into a fixture.

Tread- The walking surface board in a stairway on which the foot is placed.

Treated lumber- A wood product which has been impregnated with chemical pesticides such as CCA (Chromated Copper Arsenate) to reduce damage from wood rot or insects. Often used for the portions of a structure which are likely to be in contact with soil and water. Wood may also be treated with a fire retardant.

Trim (plumbing, heating, electrical)- The work that the "mechanical" contractors perform to finish their respective aspects of work, and when the home is nearing completion and occupancy.

Trim- Interior- The finish materials in a building, such as moldings applied around openings (window trim, door trim) or at the floor and ceiling of rooms (baseboard, cornice, and other moldings). Also, the physical work of installing interior doors and interior woodwork, to include all handrails, guardrails, stair way balustrades, mantles, light boxes, base, door casings, cabinets, countertops, shelves, window sills and aprons, etc. Exterior- The finish materials on the exterior a building, such as moldings applied around openings (window trim, door trim), siding, windows, exterior doors, attic vents, crawl space vents, shutters, etc. Also, the physical work of installing these materials

Trimmer- The vertical stud that supports a header at a door, window, or other opening.

Truss- An engineered and manufactured roof support member with "zig-zag" framing members. Does the same job as a rafter but is designed to have a longer span than a rafter.

Tub trap- Curved, "U" shaped section of a bath tub drain pipe that holds a water seal to prevent sewer gasses from entering the home through tubs water drain.

Turnkey- A term used when the subcontractor provides all materials (and labor) for a job.

Turpentine- A petroleum, volatile oil used as a thinner in paints and as a solvent in varnishes

U

UL (Underwriters' Laboratories)- An independent testing agency that checks electrical devices and other components for possible safety hazards.

Undercoat- A coating applied prior to the finishing or top coats of a paint job. It may be the first of two or the second of three coats. Sometimes called the Prime coat.

Underground plumbing- The plumbing drain and waste lines that are installed beneath a basement floor.

Underlayment- A ¼" material placed over the subfloor plywood sheeting and under finish coverings, such as vinyl flooring, to provide a smooth, even surface. Also a secondary roofing layer that is waterproof or water-resistant, installed on the roof deck and beneath shingles or other roof-finishing layer.

Union- A plumbing fitting that joins pipes end-to-end so they can be dismantled.

Utility easement- The area of the earth that has electric, gas, or telephone lines. These areas may be owned by the homeowner, but the utility company has the legal right to enter the area as necessary to repair or service the lines.

V

Valley- The "V" shaped area of a roof where two sloping roofs meet. Water drains off the roof at the valleys.

Valley flashing- Sheet metal that lays in the "V" area of a roof valley.

Valuation- An inspection carried out for the benefit of the mortgage lender to ascertain if a property is a good security for a loan.

Valuation fee- Th fee paid by the prospective borrower for the lender's inspection of the property. Normally paid upon loan application.

Vapor barrier- A building product installed on exterior walls and ceilings under the drywall and on the warm side of the insulation. It is used to retard the movement of water vapor into walls and prevent condensation within them. Normally, polyethylene plastic sheeting is used.

Variable rate- An interest rate that will vary over the term of the loan.

Veneer- Extremely thin sheets of wood. Also a thin slice of wood or brick or stone covering a framed wall.

Vent- A pipe or duct which allows the flow of air and gasses to the outside. Also, another word for the moving glass part of a window sash, i.e. window vent.

Vermiculite- A mineral used as bulk insulation and also as aggregate in insulating and acoustical plaster and in insulating concrete floors.

Veterans Administration (VA)- A federal agency that insures mortgage loans with very liberal down payment requirements for honorably discharged veterans and their surviving spouses.

Visqueen- A 4 mil or 6 mil plastic sheeting.

Void- Cardboard rectangular boxes that are installed between the earth (between caissons) and the concrete foundation wall. Used when expansive soils are present.

Voltage- A measure of electrical potential. Most homes are wired with 110 and 220 volt lines. The 110 volt power is used for lighting and most of the other circuits. The 220 volt power is usually used for the kitchen range, hot water heater and dryer.

Wafer board - A manufactured wood panel made out of 1"- 2" wood chips and glue. Often used as a substitute for plywood in the exterior wall and roof sheathing.

Walk-Through- A final inspection of a home before "Closing" to look for and document problems that need to be corrected.

Wall out- When a painter pray paints the interior of a home.

Warping- Any distortion in a material.

Warranty- In construction there are two general types of warranties. One is provided by the manufacturer of a product such as roofing material or an appliance. The second is a warranty for the labor. For example, a roofing contract may include a 20 year material warranty and a 5 year labor warranty. Many new homebuilders provide a one year warranty. Any major issue found during the first year should be communicated to the builder immediately. Small items can be saved up and presented to the builder for correction periodically through the first year after closing.

Waste pipe and vent- Plumbing plastic pipe that carries waste water to the municipal sewage system.

Water board- Water resistant drywall to be used in tub and shower locations. Normally green or blue colored

Water closet- Another name for toilet.

Water meter pit (or vault)- The box /cast iron bonnet and concrete rings that contains the water meter.

Water-repellent preservative- A liquid applied to wood to give the wood water repellant properties

Water table- The location of the underground water, and the vertical distance from the surface of the earth to this underground water.

Water tap- The connection point where the home water line connects to the main municipal water system.

W C- An abbreviation for water closet (toilet).

Weatherization- Work on a building exterior in order to reduce energy consumption for heating or cooling.  Work involving adding insulation, installing storm windows and doors, caulking cracks and putting on weather-stripping.

Weatherstrip- Narrow sections of thin metal or other material installed to prevent the infiltration of air and moisture around windows and doors.

Weep holes- Small holes in storm window frames that allow moisture to escape.

Whole house fan- A fan designed to move air through and out of a home and normally installed in the ceiling.

Wind bracing- Metal straps or wood blocks installed diagonally on the inside of a wall from bottom to top plate, to prevent the wall from twisting, racking, or falling over "domino" fashion.

Window buck- Square or rectangular box that is installed within a concrete foundation or block wall. A window will eventually be installed in this "buck" during the siding stage of construction

Window frame- The stationary part of a window unit; window sash fits into the window frame.

Window sash- The operating or movable part of a window; the sash is made of window panes and their  border.

Wire nut- A plastic device used to connect bare wires together.

Wonderboard ™- A panel made out of concrete and fiberglass usually used as a ceramic tile backing material. Commonly used on bathtub decks.

Wrapped drywall- Areas that get complete drywall covering, as in the doorway openings of bifold and bipass closet doors.

Y- A "Y" shaped plumbing fitting.

Yard of concrete- One cubic yard of concrete is 3' X 3' X 3' in volume, or 27 cubic feet. One cubic yard of concrete will pour 80 square feet of 3 ½" sidewalk or basement/garage floor.

Yoke- The location where a home's water meter is sometimes installed between two copper pipes, and located in the water meter pit in the yard.

Z-bar flashing- Bent, galvanized metal flashing that's installed above a horizontal trim board of an exterior window, door, or brick run. It prevents water from getting behind the trim/brick and into the home.

Zone- The section of a building that is served by one heating or cooling loop because it has noticeably distinct heating or cooling needs. Also, the section of property that will be watered from a lawn sprinkler system.

Zone valve- A device, usually placed near the heater or cooler, which controls the flow of water or steam to parts of the building; it is controlled by a zone thermostat.

Zoning- A governmental process and specification which limits the use of a property e.g. single family use, high rise residential use, industrial use, etc. Zoning laws may limit where you can locate a structure. Also see building codes.

ИЗПОЛЗВАНА ЛИТЕРАТУРАBUILDING DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION HANDBOOK

David J. Akers Civil Engineer, San Diego, California (SECT. 4: Building Materials)James M. Bannon Chief Electrical Engineer, STV Incorporated, Douglassville, Pennsylvania(SECT. 15: Electrical Systems)Robert F. Borg Chairman, Kreisler Borg Florman General Construction Company, Scarsdale,

New York (SECT. 17: Construction Project Management)Robert W. Day Chief Engineer, American Geotechnical, San Diego, California (SECT. 6:Soil Mechanics and Foundations)Steven D. Edgett Edgett-Williams Consulting Group, Mill Valley, California (SECT. 16:Vertical Circulation)Dave Flickinger National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA), Technical Service Section,Rosemont, Illinois (SECT. 12: Roof Systems)Gregory P. Gladfelter Gladfelter Engineering Group, Kansas City, Missouri (SECT. 14:Plumbing—Water-Supply, Sprinkler, and Wastewater Systems)Bruce Glidden President, Glidden & Co., Ltd., Bridgeville, Pennsylvania (SECT. 7: StructuralSteel Construction)David P. Gustafson Vice President of Engineering, Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute,Schaumburg, Illinois (SECT. 9: Concrete Construction)Alan D. Hinklin Director, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SECT. 2: The Building Team)Edward S. Hoffman President, Edward S. Hoffman, Ltd., Structural Engineers, Chicago(SECT. 9: Concrete Construction)Lawrence E. McCabe Chief Engineer—Mechanical STV Group, Douglassville, Pennsylvania(SECT. 13: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning)Frederick S. Merritt Consulting Engineer, West Palm Beach, Florida (SECT. 11: Wall, Floor,and Ceiling Systems)David W. Mock Gee & Jenson, West Palm Beach, Florida (SECT. 3: Protection againstHazardsColman J. Mullin Senior Estimator, Bechtel Corporation, San Francisco, California (SECT.19: Construction Cost Estimating)Tom Nevling, RCDD Independent Consultant, Lancaster, Pennsylvania (SECT. 18: Communications

Systems)Brian L. Olsen Poole Fire Protection Engineering, Inc., Olathe, Kansas (SECT. 14: Plumbing—Water-Supply, Sprinkler, and Wastewater Systems)Jonathan T. Ricketts Consulting Engineer, Palm Beach Gardens, Florida (SECT. 1: SystemFundamentals)John ‘‘Buddy’’ Showalter American Forest & Paper Association, Washington, D.C. (SECT.10: Wood Construction)

Akbar Tamboli, Michael Xing, Mohsin Ahmed Thornton-Tomasetti Engineers, Newark,New Jersey (SECT. 5: Structural Theory)Allen M. Williams Edgett-Williams Consulting Group, Mill Valley, California (SECT. 16:Vertical Circulation)Thomas G. Williamson APA—The Engineered Wood Association, Tacoma, Washington(SECT. 10: Wood Construction)Don S. Wolford Consulting Engineer, Middletown, Ohio (SECT. 8: Cold-Formed Steel Construction)Wei-Wen Yu Univesity of Missouri–Rolla, Rolla, Missouri (SECT. 8: Cold-Formed SteelConstruction)