CHAPTER 6Learning through Task-focused Interaction

영어 말하기 듣기지도2013.4.15.

Nation & Newton. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking. Routledge.

Negotiation

“Part of the skill of listening is learning how to take an active role in providing feedback to the speaker (Brown, 1986). This feed-back may involve pointing out problems with the comprehensibil-ity of the message and specifying where the problem lies. This feedback and questioning is called negotiation.”

Long on Negotiation

“. . . tasks that stimulate negotiation for meaning may turn out to be one among several useful language-learning situations, in or out of classrooms, for they may be one of the easiest ways to fa-cilitate a learner’s focus on form without losing sight of a lesson’s (or conversation’s) predominant focus on meaning.”

Long on Negotiation (Cont’d)• makes input understandable without simplifying it, so that

learnable language features are retained• breaks the input into smaller digestible pieces• raises awareness of formal features of the input• gives learners opportunities for direct learning of new forms• provides a “scaffold” within which learners can produce in-

creasingly complex utterances• pushes learners to express themselves more clearly and pre-

cisely— “pushed output”• makes learners more sensitive to their need to be comprehen-

sible.

Gass on Negotiation• “The claim is not that negotiation causes learning nor that

there is a theory of learning based on interaction. Rather, ne-gotiation is a facilitator of learning; it is one means but not the only means of drawing attention to areas of needed change. It is one means by which input can become comprehensible and manageable, [and] . . . it is a form of negative evidence [help-ing] learners to recognize the inadequacy of their own rule system.”

Why Encourage Negotiation?• clarifying poorly presented items • clarifying because of inattention• clarifying unknown items• clarifying the task procedure.

Strategy Training for Speaking

1. Explanation of discourse strategies like “holding the floor” / negotiating meaning / providing feedback to the speaker / managing turn-taking

2. observing conversations / using a checklist and later provid-ing feedback

3. transcribing recordings of their own speech and critiquing them.

Encouraging Negotiation• Use of Written Input

1. completion activities2. ordering activities3. split information activities4. ranking5. problem solving6. modify the statements

Types of Info Distribution

1. All learners have the same information (a cooperating ar-rangement).

2. Each learner has different essential information (a split in-formation arrangement) (Nation, 1977).

3. One learner has all the information that the others need (a superior-inferior arrangement).

4. The learners all see the same information but each one has a different task.

Factors Affecting the Amount and Type of Negotiation• Pair work vs. Group of four• Cooperating tasks vs. Information gap tasks • The signals learners make affects the adjustment of output

during a task.