. . 2002 4 .......................................................................................................................................4 ..................................................................................................................................................6 I. .................................7 I. . . .......................................................7 1. .........................................................................................................................7 2. ...................................................7 3. ...........................................................................8 4. ....................................................................................8 5. ................................................................................................10 II. .................................................................................................................................11 6. ...............................................................................................11 7. . ......................................................................11 8. .................................................13 III. ..................................................................................................................14 9. . .........................................................................................................14 10. . , . ..15 11. .......................17 12. . .............................................................19 13. ..................................................................................................20 14. - .........................................................22 15. ....................................................................................24 16. ..............................................................................27 IV. ..........................................................................................................29 17. ...........................................................................................................29 18. .............................................................32 19. ...........................................................................................................33 V. .............................................................35 20. ...............................................................35 21. ............................................................35 21. ................................................................................37 22. .......................................................................39 23. ............................................................................................................40 VI. ...........................................................................42 24. , ......................................................42 25. ..........................................................................................47 26. , ....................................49 27. .......................................50 28. ........................................................................................................................51 29. .............................................................................................................52 30. , , 53 31. ..............................................................................................................54 32. 56 VII. , ............58 33. . 58 34. ...........................................................59 35. ...................................................................59 36. ..........................................................................................................60 37. ..............................60 38. ......................................................65 39. ..........................................69 III.................................................................................... ! . VIII. .............................................75 40. ......................75 41. .......................................................................................75 42. ..........................................75 43. .............76 5 44. .....................................78 45. 79 46. ............................................................81 47. 83 6 ,,,,. . , . . , , , . , . . . 1. . ., , 1988. 2. .. ., ,1982. 3. . . .. .. ., ,1991. 4. . . .. ., , 1981 5.......... ., , 1991. 6. .. . ., ,1989. 7 I. I. . . 1. , . . , . . , , . . ., ,,- . . ,,. . . . , ., :,(,, ,,..)(,, , . .). . . . 2. .,, (,,,.),( ,..),(,, ..).,, ,, . , ., , . . - . , , . .- . - . . , . 8 , . ,... , ; ., , . 3. . ,- . 1. , , , , . :- -,. . :) ( , , , . .); ) (, , );) (, . .). , ., . 2. . . , . ,:,, , , . 3. . ,-, ,. . 4. . ,, . ,, . . . . ( ) , : 6576 11 . , 1068.,..XI, .XII , . . . , XV , . ,XVIIIXIX . 9 , . , . . . ., , 1627 . . 1667.... . 1697 . . . . 23 . , . . , I (16721725.),. , , . 1696 . , 1715 . .17181722..... .1720. ,.., . 1739., .-17571763. (17111765 .). . , , ., . XVIII67. . . .,.. ,. , (17931864 .). ,..1822., , , , . , , :-,-,- ,, . XVIII :,,, . ,,,. .XVIII , .XVIII,XIX- ,. .XIX , -. 10 . 5. .. ,,,GPS ()(). , . , . 11 II. 6. ., ,. ,.. , ,. .- , . , PQP1Q1(.1)PP1. , . , ,, ,, .,, . OQ= =b (. 1) ; - ,b-. . ab aa= . , b, , 1. , . . 1946. =6 378 245 , b =6 356 863 , =1:298,3. 1:300. =300,-b1. R=6371 . 7. . . 1 12 . , ,() (. 2). : ,,... ,,,,D , . . N, ,b,,d, . N. ,,:1) N2)(A,Bb...) N. ,,, ,N,-. . . (-, . . 19461947., 10 . N(.2),-(- , ). .N(.2) . . o1Q(.3).-,. , ,,P1 . , ; 090;,, ,., 0180. . . ., . 2 . 3 13,,,D,(..2) . 8. , : , , , , , , , . . , . . , ,., , . . . . , . . . 4 ( 20), N(..2). , , , , D, (. 4), MN:,,....,. ,dD .,dD. , , MN. ,, .N . 14 III. 9. . . . .24,,,b,c,d,e ; 1=, 2=b . . , , , , . (), . . (, , . .) , . , . . . 5 . . 5 , 11, , 12,10,,. , 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.,,. 12 163,2 . -,,. 15,13. 1416,. 17.15. . . . : ,,, , , . . (,,, ..). ().. , . . .,, , . . . 10. . , . . , . 6 . , 5001, 10001, 50001, 100001, 250001.., ., ., . . ; . (.6)-,12. ..61 .10. ., ,1:10000,100,200,300, 400, 500,- 10;20; 30; ...;100.-d, 240.10 . 16 . 7 . , . ,2(.7),10 . : F, 10 , . F, , F. 10 . , , 10 , , ,.7., ,B,.. 10ABED = ,, D,., t10,.. 100 10 10 10AB AB EDt == = . . . 8 . 5 (. 8), 10 ,t 50 10 5AB ABt == ., n,, ,m, ,t nmABt = . , , . 7 8, 1:10000. 200, mmt 210 10200== , 17mmt 410 5200== .bkl(.7)1:10000 468 356 . , . , 1 :2000 2 2x2000 = 40 . 2,5 , 2,52000 = 50 . 0,1,. , 0,1,.,1:500,1:1000, 1:5000,1:10000,1:25000:0,05,0,1,0,5,1,0,2,5. ,,,. ,, .,, ,,0,2,,, 1:2000.,0,01 0,21-2000,, 1 : 2000. 11. R.(.9) .d,, d,., A, . =t, d=t-d, h=O, .9 t=Rtga d=Ra, Rda =(III.I) . d=R(tg a). , R, , 33aa tg = . (III.1), 18 . 9 . 23 3313 Rd aR d = = (III.2) R=6371 : d=10 , (III.2) b= 1 b : d =1 : 1000000. ,,10 ,1:1000000. .d d , .21= BAC ,. h d. d h = 21. (III.1)Rdh321 = .(III.3) (III.3)d,h, .1. 1 d () 0.5123 h () 283171 ,12., . .2,,N 20 b, bc, cd... , . N . bd , .,-20, . 19 12. . ,, ,. ,; , . , ,... ,, , . -, , . , , . ,. :1.- ;- ;2., , , , . , . , , ,, . , , . (,) , . .. . , , . , ; .,, , . , ,,. . 1:100000,1:2000001:1000000 1:1000000. . . 1:1 000000. 4 6 . 60 76 ,7688. 20, , (444 372) 2. 144 1:100000; (3731)2. 1:100000, . . 1:10000041:50000. ( )21237 2,(18,515,5)2.,1:50000 . 13. ,, . . 1:1000000.. ,6,60. ; 180 (. 10). ,4. , . . , ; , N-37 , . . 20 1:1000000 21 . 11 1:1000000:41:500000, , ,, , ; 9 1:300000, IIX, ;361:200000,IXXXVI, ;1441:100000, 1144,(. 11). N-37 1:1 000000 . 2. 2 1:1000000 1:5000004N-37-20 30 1:3000009IX-N-371020 20 1:20000036N-37-XXXVI40 10 1:100000144N-37-14420 30 . 12. 1:50000 22 . 13. 1:25000 1:10000 1:100000 .1:1000004 1:50000,,,,, (.12) 10' 15' . , N-37-1441:100000,N-37-144-1'.1:50000 41:25000, ,,,,(.13); 1:25000 4 1:10000, 14, . 1:100000 . 3. 3 1:100000-N-37-14420 30 1:500004N-37-144-1015 1:250004N-37-144--57,5 1:100004N-37-144---42,53,75 1:100000 1:5000 1:2000. 1:100000 256 (16 16) 1:5000,1,2,...,256,. ' ' ''15 11620= 5 , 52 11630' ' ''= . 1:5000, N-37-144 1 : 100000, N-37-144-(256). 1:50001:2000, , , , , , , , , , . ' '' ' '25315 1= 5 , 3735 , 52 1' '' ' '= . 1:2000, N-37-144-(256), N-37-144-(256-). . 4. 14. - 23 ,- . . ,, ;- , (. 14). 4 1:100000-N-37-14420 30 1:5000256N-37-144-(256)115152,5 1:20009N-37-144-(256-)2537'',5 . , , -180, 30.,, N-37,7. .,,6 7=42, 42- 6=36. 39. . , .,, , 1. ,. (.15). *. , , . . . . 14. 6- . 24 ;, .3070, ,1:10001:6000. , . ,-, ,, ,., ,., ,..-., , , , . , . ,,, .,,-, ; -, ,, . 15. (.15). ,-. ,, ., ,-., , , - . (.15):. ,,. , , 500 . , , . , , 7 487 230 , 25 . 15. Y = 487 230 - 500000 = -12770 . ,, . . .161:10000, 1800' 180345' 5442'30 5445', , ,. ,-, , . . 17. 26 . 16. ,-. ., ,6069;, 6069 . ; . ,,4307.4 ,500 ,307-500=-193,, 4-193. ,, . . *1928., 1932 . . , . (.17),: ,. .1= ()2=(),. . ,; . . , : , , , ; , , . 5. 27 5 I II III IV +--+ ++-- , , . . . , , . ,, ,. , . 16. . . 18. .x1y1, d 1.2 1-2. x2 y2 . 12(.18).d, y=y2 y1. 12 )`= = . 2 . 12 . 1sin, cosd yd x(III.4) 2 .,2 . 1 1 22 . 1 1 2y y yx x x + = + = . (sin cos) . .6 . 28 6. 0 - 900 (I ) 90 - 1800 (II ) 180 - 2700 (III ) 270 - 3600 (IV ) x +--+ y ++-- .x1y1 x2y2 (..28).1.2 1-2 d. 1- 2- , : . ,1 2 1 2y y y x x x = = (III.6) y x .1 21 22 . 1x xy yxytg== , ,r1.2. , (sincos).,y ,x -. , , sin a1.2 , cos a1.2 - , , IV(..6),a1.2 = 3600-r1.2 (..7). . 7. I ()II ()III ()IV () r1=A1 r2=1800 - A2r3= A3 - 1800r4= 3600- A4 A1=r1A2=1800 - r2A3=1800 + r3A4= 3600- r4 sin a1.2 cos a1.2 d .cos cos,sin sin2 . 11 22 . 12 . 11 22 . 1ax xaxday yayd==== 12 (. .18): .2 2y x d + =29 IV. 17. - . ;, , . . 19. ,- , .,,, - . , , :. ,, . ,, . ., ; 0 360. , , , . (. 19) ( ), 3 - , . , . 1,2,4. 1, 2,, 4 . ,.- , - . , . , 12 (. 20) 1 1, 22;21 .., , . .20222111 1.30 , .1 2 = A A12,=0,2=1, . , - . M1M2(.20)12,2 - 2. . 20, + + =01'2180 A A (IV.1) , 18002'2+ = A A (IV.2) .. 180+; 180. . ,,..20C11 1 -,22,2,11,11, ,2 ,- 122,.. ,, 0 - 360. , ,2 = A (a) ..- . () , . 20. . .2 + = A (IV.3.) . 20 2 . M2 C11 (. 22), .2 = A, , . (IV.3) . (.20) ; 3 , M2., ,, 31, . . M1M2, M3M1 . . 20, , 180 '0+ = a a. . 180. . , > 180 ( . 21), . 180 '0 = a a,,a=300030/./=30030'+180=480030',/=48030'-360=12030'. : . 22. ' = 300 30' - 180 = 120 30'. . 21. .. ., (). 0 90. . 22 Ml, 2, 4, .20. , , , , . , Ml, 2, 4 :r1,:r2,:r3,:r4., , . . 19 22 , - A1 r1.- 32 180. - , 180, ,,-360. ., =215, A-180=2150-1800=350 . =100, 180-= 180-100 =80 . ..19, ,A1,A2,A34Ml, M2, 4 a1, a2, a3 a4. . 22 , . . 23. M112(.23), - . ,. . , . , ,:rM1M2M1, 3: r; 2 : r; , : (r+) - . 18. ( ). , .. (. 24) - N, M , B , , , Ml, = AM + B, , , , M2, = AM - B. , , , = AM + , (IV. 4) . . . 33 ., . 15'. 500 22,5. , ., . . 24. . . , (-,-), , . , , , . 19. ,-, . , 16, . . , R=6371 (. 25). - , 1 . B,. . ., -,,.25l AT. , , ,ATl= , ) 90 (0 tgRRctg Rtg AT = = =, . tgRl=343438',,, . 25. . 3438' ' = tgRl R , . 540 , 0' tg lkm = (IV.5) lkm=1, . 540 , 0' tg = (IV.5) ..( ) ., =5546' (IV.5') =0',8. 1 . 1, . 35 V. 20. , , .., . . , - 100 . , 5 .95., ,95-. , . . 26. .,5, , 90- . . (.26),.. . , () 1, 2, 5, 10 . . , . , , 0,2; 0,25; 0,5 . . , .,. . , . . , . . . . . 21. 36, .,. (.27)., ... N, . . 27. . 28. 37 . 29. ,, . , (.28). ,, , ., . , , . , ,,,,. . . , (. 29) . , , . ., , , . 21. . : , , , , . . 200,., 200.. ,, ., 200 (. 30, ). ,., , , . .,. ,5;-520-2045. ,(.30,). . 38 (. 30, ). - - . , , - , (. 30, ). . 30. (-), -. . - (.30,),.() , . . . 39. (.30,),- . ,, ,. ,,, , , ; , . ., ,: , , . , ,(.30,). . ,. ,. ., . . . (.30,). 22. ,.31. , . , ,, 20, 18, 16, 14 . . - . ,(.32),, ,..,., , (.33).,,N ;, . 32. . 31. . 33. 40N. , N - . ,.34,,... N..3334,,, ,,- . . 34. ,,,.35. ,., . 23. : 1.,,- . . 35. 2.,, ; . 3.- , , . , , . 414.. , (. 36). . 36. 5., ., ,. , .6.-- - . 7. (. . 33 34). 8.,, . 42 VI. 24. , , .,, . :) , , ; ) . ,., . (.38). III, .,-. , , . , . , . ,, ..-(.39) b. , , I II ., . -; . , , . . 38 . 43 . 39 . ,,(. 40),. b. (.41). ,; .. , ., ,-. ,., 1:10000, 10,5 , 10000x10,5 =1050 . . 40 . . ,,20. 20,20 /20=1,,1820 /18=1,11. , . .. ,(.42). .- . . : 44 . 41 ) ;) ; )90,- ; ) . . 42 . ,. , ; , . , . (),, -;90, . . :' - , , 20, , 2, 4, 6 . . 22,24,26.. , ., . 1/4. (), 5 1. 45 . 43 . ; . . (.43), .,-. , . 0, 90, 180 270 , ,,3,., () , , - 3 - . . . 44 . ., ,,, ,,. , . .. . . 44 , . , . , -46.. . . 1. . ,., , . . 2.-. ,,; ,,,, ; . . , , , , . . 3.. ; , ; ,, . . 45 . 4. . ,, . 180,., ., . . 47 . 46 , . 45 , ,n1s1nsn1s1, n,180 s,n1n=s1s;, , . 5.. s(.46), ,. , ,, ., , . . , , . , ( ). 6.. . , . 7. . , 0, . 25. , . , , , . . . . 48, (.47) , , ,. . () ( ) , . ,( ). . 47 ,, 06 + = .,, , , 6 . , , ; . (.48). (), , - . - , . PQ(.48)-., (IV.3) (IV.4) : = A a , = A Am . = mA a49 . 48 . ,=+6=-2,-=+8. , 8 . . (), . . 26. , , , , . ,.,, (.49),ns, b. b, cd, ef... . 49 \' . . s , , . ,,(). 90, - ., . ,A (. 49) . , , . . ,s,, ,. ,, . , .(.49) (.50), s,., 50,.. , . . 49 , . 27. , . . (.49) ,s; ,, 180, , 180, , ; . . . 51 . 50 . ,, , . , , . . , ns(.50), n ; , , ., , , . . , . . 28. 52, , , . . ., , , - . , . . , . ., . .,, , . . , . (.51),,- . . , , ..53, , - . , - . .,., , . 29. ,,, (,,,..). ..52 .BCDHEF . A-I-II-III-IV . . ,,., , , . , . . , , . . . , - 1:50 000. . 51 . 52 53 30. , , ., . (.53)7372. . ab,,.. ., , . . ab . ab (.54), 1.ab . ab. B 73.b1. ,ab. . -,() .. 72,65.,72 , b . . 54 . 55 . (. 55) . I 54 . 53 . tga i =(VII.1) ,,dhtga = , , . . h d. , , h=\ , d==20 , i= 0,05. (VII.2) d=l, i=h. , ,. i=0,05,5 5 100 , . ,(. 53). 7273,h1.mn=d .28; . 036 , 0281= = =dhi . i=3,6%. . . 53 7273., -1.,, ,., .,, ., , . 31. . (. 53). .dhtga i = = . 53 h = 1 . ,1dtga i = = , 1 = id (VII. 3) 55.. .3',.d i .dhi = (VII.4) ,, . i. (VII. 4) h=1, i : 0,008; 0,01; 0,03; 0,05; 0,07; 0,10; 0,20,0,30;0,40;0,50;0,70;1,00,,1id = 125; 100;33,3;20;14,3;10;5;3,3;2,5;2;1,4;1. (.57)0,008;0,01;0,03.. d.. ., .,,ab(.53), ,.57., b 0,04. .t, (VII.1) .dhi tga = = (VII.5) , . h=l (VII.5): . 57 . .1dtga = . d ctga =(VII. 6) 56 . 56 . : 114,6; 57,3; 28,6; 19,1; 14,3; 11,4; 5,7; 3,7; 2,8: 1,7 1 030'; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 10; 15; 20; 30; 45.(VII.6),, h=l,,,114,6, , 114,6, . . a=0o30'. - , , o . (.56). 030';1;2;3;4.. d. , , 030', d=114,6 ; , 1, d=57,3 . . . .,,-, ,b,, =3,3. , . 56 57, h=l ; h 2 , . , h d i = ,1hid =. . d h . 32. (.58). b (I, II, III... VII) . (IV). b. , -.I,II,...VII ,, . , . ,. . . 57 . 59 . ,(.59)N, 5%. 1205100. 5,5/ 100 . 100At,35. 100 40- . , .MeN. . . 58 58 VII. , 33. . , . , - (. 23). -. 0,6 ,,1.-(). 10-. ,(), . . , . ,, (. . ), , , (..). ,-( ,-500). {, ) . , , ., ,., . 23 , = -027'. . ,,. , ,.- , - (), . - (,0045'),(,0027') = - , . (:), . (,1:25000), (1-250). (,5) . . - , . , , . 59 34. - () . . . (, L) (. . 23) , . 0L00 ., ,AA1=2=L. : A=0+; LA=L0+L. A=5416'+18"==54016'18''; LA = 14023 + 24" = 1402324. . (,)(..23),, (x0,y0) - , . 1 2 : 1= 2=. : =+; =y+y. : xc = 6017 + 0,510 = 6017,510 ; yc= 3461 + 0,670 = 3461,670 . , , . . 35. -, . (), . ( ) , ( ). , , - 5 V; ( ), , . (..23) ,0- 180 , . , , , ; (. . 23), , - . ,, ,, 60,..=-. (. . 23) (+04)-(-0027)= +112. 36. , , , -(.24). , , (4) (5): . 60 . = - ; = - . D D ,,..,-DE(..24). . ( ) 1, y1 2 ,y2, , 1 21 22 1x xy ytg= . ,,, , (5) (6): A = + ; AM = - + = . - . 37. 61., ,., . ,. (.25,),, 125 130 . d = l = . (.25,6),h. ' ' : dlhh=. . 61. : , ; hdlh = . HM = HA + h = HA + dlh. . 25, HM = 125 m +52014 m = 128,5 m. ( . 25, )(),-., ,..0,5h(,A=121,5,HB=125,5). (,..), , . , .()Vi, , : dhtgv i = = . dharctg v = , h - , ; d - , . 62 .62. : ; - , , . , 30'. - ., , tgvhd = . ,(), . , (. 26,). , (. 26,6). (,),(..26), , ,-., . (. . 26) v=130', i=0,026.,,, . . , () . 1:10000 N, i=0,05 (. 27). h = 5 . , i h, mmmihd 10005 , 05= = = : cmmMm dd 110000100 100 100 ,'=== , - . 63 d' . , d'= 1 , 1; 1 , 2, . . , . . 63. . d' (. . ), . . , , - . . , . (. 28, ) -1,1-2;2-3,3-. 54,5 . . , (,=50).(. 28,), ,..=. ',1,2'..,. 10 , . . . . , (,..). (). , . . 29 . 64 .64. ,, ,, , . ., , , , . ,(.30),, . : I hS SV22 11+= .65. . 65 .66. . II hS SV23 22+= .. h-;Si,Si+1 -, ; . , '21h S VB B = , SB -;h- . ==niiV V1. 38. . , .,() , ; ,, () , . . . 66 .67. ( 1015 2 ) :,,(.31).- , .() () . . (): , . -(t=0,2), ,.- . , .- 1 :200. (2-32) . (.32,)(,), 1- 5 . , s. N1,. N2, . 67 .68. . : , -, . ). (2 1N N s S + = , 45. 1:501:100. 102() (. 32, ), , - =25 . ,mn . , ; . , - l1 ,l2 ,l , . . ( ) . ...12 1 == + + + =nin nl a l l l a S(.32,)- (). . , 6090 . 68 .69. . . (), . /23 (. 33). ,- : I - (1122'), II - (2'233') III - (1/ - 1 - 3 - 3/), . . S=S1+SII+SIII. : SI = (x1 + x2) (y2 y1); SII = (x1 + x2) (y2 y1); SIII = (x1 + x2) (y2 y1). 123 : 2S = (x1 + x2) (y2 y1) + (x2 + x3) (y3 y2) - (x1 + x) (1)- , 2S =x1 (y2 y3) + x2 (y3 y2) +x (12)- 2S =y1 (x3 x2) + y2 (x1 x3) +y (X2X1)- ( )== + =311 121iii i iy y x S ( )== + =311 1.21iii i ix x y S : ( )== + =311 121iii i iy y x S( )== + =311 1,21iii i ix x y S 1=7, 2, 3, ...., . . ,, 69. , 1' 1:2000 1: 500. . 39. ,- - . 1856 . ... -2 ( ) - (. 34, ). .-(.. 34, ) 1 4. 2, , . , 56.3, . 6(.34,6),8 7. -9.3 11 ; - . 70 .70. -: ; . 100,..10 . . :14 (), ,; , ( ). (..34)13 4,. 12,, 10. 71. 71. . (.35).. .35:I-II- \.R1R ,r . (I)A1B1(II) :1);2)-R11h;3) R1 1 . 11 : ;2 221 1aR RAA OAA S = = ;1 1h R ABCA S = ;2 221 11 1 1R RCB CB A S = = ( ). 11 .2 212121h RR RS + + = (26) ,h.1- 1 A1B1 ab=r. , h - r . nn1(I)A1B1(II),t- . t(1o). )1(on n t r h = . ) (1 + = r n n t ho h (26), ). (2 21 1 12121 on n t R r RRaRS + + + = (27) S1, S2, ..., S: 72.... ) (2 2) (2 21 2 1 1 1 121121 1 12121+ + + + + + + + = n n t R r RRaRn n t R r RRaRSo ), (2 21 1 12121 on n t R r RRaRS + + + = (28) n, . , , 1; 2 = = a (28) ). ( ) 2 (0 1 1212n n t R r R R R S + + + = ` (29) ) 2 (1212r R R R q + + = ,1t R = u : , ) (0q n n S + = u(30) ; q . ( ), 1,,==0. (30) ). (0n n S = u(31) .- 4002 . . , , . , 30150. , ., .(n) . ), (0n n S = u( u ,.., . , 23 ; . . : ()(). , , . . ,. , (, , . .) . 73 . . ( u ),' 2 /.,( u ),2 /./., (). ,S (,). ..: ()().-(ni -noi). ,,200-2,2002000320004. ,(-n) .) (00n nS= u(32)(, u =9,75/.),. (,u0=10 2/) . , :,( u =9,752/.R=155,3 .u0=2/. : R= 155,3 u =9,75 '/., .72. .. R = ? u0 = 10 2/. . 3 , 15975 , 9103 , 15500 R R = = =uu 12(..34,), ,. . , . : 741.. ; 3 . . . 2. . ( ). , 1:200. ,- ,... . ;, . ()10122, . 1:400. .... s,(.36) S (, ). :N0N, n . ); (0N N S = u). (0n n s = u , : .00N Nn nSs= .00N Nn nS s= (33) (33),, (), . 75 VIII. 40. ,, . . : 1.; , . 2.; . 41. ,, (. . , , ) . . . . (L) . ;, .(,L) ()(,) () . . ,60100., . , (). ,. , , . , , . .1:100000, (, .), . 42. 76 : , . () . . , (, ) , , () . /, . -,. . 43. - . : ) 1, 2, 3 4 , ,. ,, ; ) I, II, III IV . . , (.73, ). . , (,),D, D . ,. ,(AB,dAB),. , . 1 - , . . , . 1 4 1. 1 , () 1 2 20-25 7-20 0,7 1.0 3.0 4.0 1:400000 1:300000 773 4 5-8 2-5 1.5 2.0 6.0 8.0 1:200000 1:200000 2 , 1 2 3 4 12 6 6 20 8-30 5-18 3-10 0,25-2 0,4 1.0 1.5 2.0 1:400000 1:200000 1:100000 1:40000 b 1 2. .- . , , . 1 ,700800. ().2 1 150180 . 34 ,. . 2. .73. : - ; 1-4 78 . . I, II, III IV . III, () , : , ..III .25III .III . I, 2000.I, : mh=0,5 1 .II,I 500600 IIh=0,81 . III I II , 11 69 150200 (mh=1,61).III IV (h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h. 2; 1/3 h - 2 6 1:5000, 1:2000 101:10001:500;1/20,5 1:50001:2000.1,5. 61:500010 1:1000 1:500 , , 1/3 . ,,,, . , . , , . , 067 . 0mM=;m - ; - . ,, ,. , 84 . , 1000P M = . 1050 1:2000,50100-1:5000100200-1:10000. , 1:100001:5000, 1:10000. 1:2000. ,. , , . 1:5000-1:25000 h=0,2M, mm . ,1:10000,,2, 1: 5000 1 . H=5mh h=4H , h.;H . (,,, )24 : 1:50000,55,0 ; 1:20000,52,0 ; 1 :1000 1 :5000,51,0. 2 0,25., 2, . , 2,5 , . 85 III. 9 48. . , ,. , . ,(.78),. . b=,bbeA Q., P1, A ., b,, Q. b', b,'', .,a'b'c', b= . , , , (), ZZ, . , ''. , o ' ', . . =a/c'. - . . ZZA(..78), Z1Z2. v1 v2. 49. .78 86,, . 10529-86 3 : 1.1, 1 2 . 2. 2 - 3 4 ; 5 - 12 . 3.15,3060- , . ;5m =5",30m =30" . . . (-50, -5, -5 .). ; . . . 2, 3. . . . , . () , . . 1.- . 2.- ,,. (15, 230, 60 .) . 3.:(2"/10",2"/2")- ,; (15,30,230);-()- ;()-, ,,, ;-,, , . 2 30, 15 ,5,25. 50. (. 79). 87,3 2. ,-, .ZZ, , . ZZ (- ) 9/ 10. , , - . 8, VV ,. 4. 5, 7. . . - (). .. , ZZ.,.. , . , . . 51. . , . . . (). 0 360. . ;. ( , - ), . .79. 88 , , . 52. (),(-) ,-. ( ), ( ). , . -, (.80). , . 30 . 1. . , ( ) . , (. 81). .81, 5, , 60. 1,. 0, . .81. : : 174054,9; 405,0; 125005,4; 0034, 9 .80. 30. : 70004; 358048 8915,25(.81,) . + , , . 230 (. 81, ) 5, 0,5. . 81. 53. . . ; ,. , . . . , . , . (. 82, ) - 1,2,3, 4 ( ) 5. ,. (.82,) (), . ,, 1(..82,).b,, ,.2, 'b' . . 82. : ; 90,, , .,( ) . , . , ,, 2-3 . .. -. , (.83,)., , . 83, , . , , . . ; , . . ,, ,. ,, .,.., . ()1:(..83,), . , . . , . . ; . () ., ,. ., , . , . 91. , , . (. .82,),,, , . . .= : .ff = , 5 - 10(.84,).:- ,-. ;,, ,,. . . 83. : ; 15, 5, 30 60; 15 30. . 84. 9260" , : .600mv =(I.1) . , , 15 30x, - 40. , .(.84,), b. 02 , 38= (IX.2) .. . ,. -, . D(..84,) 1, . .'pDl= , D=20 , l=60 , =0,60 /20 3438'= 103'= 1,7. 30' 2. , ,. I, 1, ,201||.|

\|= =BXdDEEI (IX.3) -, ;.D;d . (IX.3), ( ) . , - . . 54. . ( ) . 93 . () . .(.85,) (), 3,5200. (),. ,, . ,.,.. , . 2(..85,). 0-. - . -, . .,, ., ,.-, v=n. 1"2'. ,.. ., , , ( , ). 0,3-0,4+20. (.85,)-(.85,). 1 .2 . , . (), 180. - . (.85,). . ., 3-4 . .(.86) 18, . 85. 94. 2, . ,-. , -, . -, . . , . , ,;5. , , . 55. . . . ; . . , () . - . , U2-U2 ( ) OO (. 87 ). - . 30; , - . (5,15)- , - ( ) . . 86. : - ; ; 95 :1)(),0360 ( 5) ( ); 2) , , ,-(2, 15,25.)., , . .. ( ) . v. VVU2U2 , , (.87,)..87,,, OO , ..., . ,v :()()., v , . 1. , . . 5 (. 54, ). . 54, , ( ) ; v= - O; v = 360 - + ,(IX.4) , (360), v=MO - (IX.5) . 87. 96 (IX.4) (IX.5) v , ;2 v= (IX.6) .2 += (IX.7) ,(IX.4)(IX.6), , . ,.180, v ;2) 180 (0+ += (IX.8) ;2) 180 (0+ = v (IX.9) v = + = ) 180 (0(IX.10) , ( 30) ;21800+ += (IX.11) ;2) 180 (0+ = v (IX.12) ). 180 ( + = = v(IX.13) (IX.4)-(IX.13) :,,90, 360. 2. , . . 230, 15, 25 . (IX.11)(IX.13), 180, . . ;2 MO+= (IX.14) ;2 v= (IX.15) . v = =(IX.16) 360 . , . (IX.6),(IX.9),(IX.12),(IX.15)., , ( ) . 56. 30 15, 5 . 30(.88,) .10 . 8 9. ( 97. ) 1 7. ,, . . , 9. , ., .. 5 6 . 20 ., -. - , . . 70-. 036010',. -(..80), . .3(.. 88, ). ,45, , 2., 4 . 1981.30230, -120 5', - 1 0,5' (. . 87, ). 0 75 0 -75. 30230. , . 88: 30; 15 98,, . . (..83,) 1. . ; , . , . 30, 5', . 15(.88,) .10 9.,6 1. , . , ,. 25.- 5.4 . 78,. 3. -2.15 . 4',-5". 1. :0+750-75.. (. . 81, ), . 11 (. . 88, ). - . , . 15 15 . 515 .25. ., . .55 , 3'; 27,5. 1977.552-25,25. -1, . . 25 4'. 25 25. 57. , . , 99:,, ,(), ,.., . ;. . . . (. . 79): 1.U1U1 ZZ. 2.VV ( ) . 3. ZZ. . , ,. . 89. 100(). . 1. . . ,, . ZZ (.89,), .ZZ U1U1. . 89 , UU =,(., U1'U1',, 2+=180, , +/2=90. . -.ZZ180. -, UUZZ.. - . ., 180- . ; . -. 90 . , . 2. . . , ., . ,. OK1(.89,) . N , ( ), M1 2.-.89,,M1 , 2 +180 , . . ;1x M M + = . 18020x M M = + , 101;2) 180 (01 2+ =M Mx (IX.17) .218002 1 +=M MM (IX.18) , ; , 0, = . . (IX.17),, ,. ( ). , .(IX.18) .=, N.,, . . 3. . . , . . 1020 (.89,)., 1. ,2.12, ,.. . 1020. ;, . -. . ; , . ,, ( ), . 4. . . , . (,)., ,,5-10. , ., , 102;. '/ . , -. ,- ; . . 5. . - 0 0. , . (0^2/), . 0. : (5, 15 .), , ,; -. . ;-. -. . (30,230), ,(IX.11)(IX.14) v . .,, . . (5, 25, 30 .) =0 ,3,05,0'. . 530 ,, .2515 . 58. . , . , ,. . , , . , , , ;. 103,(,) . ,,. , . , . . . 104 59. . . ( ), (. 90, ). , : 1.()- , . . 2. 2 (). 3., ; . - . , -. . . (. . 90, ). , ., , . , (. 1). . 1. 28.08.86 . 230 25361 .. . . 123456 . 90. 105 22017,5(1) 247 15,5 (2) 135002,0(3) 135001,8(7) B A C 202 17,7 (4) 67 15,5 (5) 135 01,5 (6) , b.,I (, ), : . b = (IX.19) . II ( ), . . . - , (..1,1-), 360. . , . . . 2t , .2 += (IX.20) . (. . 90, ) (. . 1) , . , . .(.90,), , 1, 2, 3 1.. I.1() , . . , , 1, 3, 2, 1' , . . II . . m180, . . (. 90,). , 0., a. a. , II;,., b. . 106.20a b = (IX.21) , . 0a ak k = (IX.22) , . . . 5 , 1 tk . . 360, ,23600na K bo += (IX.23) . .03602 b a no KK + = (IX.24) . 60. . . . ,,, . ,, , . : ;2 2nmnmmv o+ =(IX.25) ,2222nmnmmv o+ =(IX.26) ; ; , mo=t/2; t ;mv , mv =60/; . , =2, t=30" =20" mo=15//, mv=3", m=10,9" m'=5,6". 107, . . . 180, . , 100 5., ,12 . , (). ( 10 ) (1516). . 61. ( ) ( ). ; (), . ,, I( ). , . . 30 - . 2 . (). (IX.6),(IX.9),(IX.12),(IX.14). m, . 108 IV 10. 62. () . ; . ,,. . . , . . , , . 63. . 20 24, 50 100 . ( 64 % 36 /,). . ( ). (. 91, ) 20 24 , 15200,30,4. , , " . 10920-,. (), ; . , . 1. (. 91, ). 6 11 (. 91, ). 24-,20-;120. 24-1,2. ,20- . 1 : 1000 1 :3000. (. 91, ), . , 10(..91,). . . , (2448)., , .. 0,2 . , . 1 :7000, 1 : 100 000. . 91. 110., - . 10, 20, 30, 50 5, 10 20 . - (. 92, ), (. 92, ), (. 92,).; -20,-30-50,, . (), . 1-,2-3-.1:50000 . , (,), . ,, ., ;,,. . . 2448,1,65. 8 (. 93, ). , . 10- (. 93, ). . 0,1 . -1,-2-3, , -., 1:10000 1:25000, 1:30000 1:1000000. . 92. 111 64. .. , . (),35, . . . () . . . 1:2 500 000. ,, ,. 120 240 , . . . , . . . . (,) , , . (10)/ / 1 () , .. , o kl l l = lk . () ,k ol l l + = (X.1) lo . . 93. 112lk , ,,.. , to,. (,,)(), ,, . 65. - , . . - .() . t, . ;. . .t v , A ,21ctv c D D + = + = (X.2) v,v=vo/n;VQ (vo== 299792,5 0,4 /); ,,;D1 ,; , ; -, . , . 1,2 , 2 . , , , D1 f. , ,. ., (373787,265) 1 :90 000 000. ,-3, -1,-1,-316,-(6266),,-2,-3(-3),-1. 1922382 ,. : 1131.-6 3050 OT=(I+O,ID), , D, . 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 . 2.-02300 2 , . -02(-1) 1 500 . 3.-22 2 ; 4 , 4 , 1 2 . 2-2 1976 . 4. -5 500 5 ; 2 .; , (-5). . 2000 ( , , ); 1978 . 20003, 10 . ,. , ,. . , , ().(150) ,. , , , . (35) . , ( ). . 2,34 , 3040 1 : 200 0001 :300 000. 66. , . () ,(.94,). , . D .2 21 ctg b D =(X.3) 114 ( 1), 2tg 2. . .212 bptgbD = = (X.4) , ( b),,. . ,,(.94,). l, . (X.4) p , ., Kp= , l K D =(X.5) . . (.94,). ;b . D ,KD =(X.6) K=bp . , .2, 4 . . . . , (..83,,), . . -(,,), . , , . . . 94. 115D(.95,)12.1 ,1;2 . , , , . ,b; p=ab. F . . 95 , , f E D + + = (X.7) ; ; f - . b,, . ABF abF ,pfnE= . npfE =fp,Kpf= - . 1 2 , c Kn f E D + = + + = (X.8) + = f c- . f p , =100. =34,38=34'22,8. . 95. C 116=f+0,6, (1:500, 1:1000, 1:2000) . 4 , . l n,.n , . n Kn D 100 = =(X.9) ,25221208.n= 2522-1208=131,4 ; D=Kn=100131,4 = 13140 = 131,4 . . ,10., .=100 (. 95, ). ,, ,,.., , =200. 200 ; . , ,1:2001:400. , , , .. . . . . - . , . .nDK =(X.10) 0,1 . , 25,50,75,100150(.95,). 1:2000. ,1,2,3,4, ,. . K1,2,,...,,0,4. ....3 2 1nK K K KKn+ + + += (X.11) 100, , , ) 100 ( n K D = (X.12).. ., 117100. (34). , 50,100,150200; , . . . (. 96). ,..v, D=MN=Kn'+c. , . . 96, Na'a Nbb' 'b'90,../2=17,2. , , Na'a Nbb' . : Na' + Nb' = (Na + Nb) cos v, ' = cos v. D=cosv+. -=0, D = . cos v.(X.13) , cos cos2v Kn v D d = = (X.14), L, , cos2v L d =(X.15) (100) ,HL L d =(X.16) , sin2v L LH = . . , ,, . .9 . : 1., . 2. , . ; 404002, . 96. , 118 1: 5000 1 :3000. ' , , V, , 2., ( 1,5) . ; 20120 1:10001:2000 . , 12. , =34/22,6//. , . 67. ,, , . ..1836. . , - . , , . . 1., 90 (. 97, ). =90.b . ,sin) sin( + =bd . bd =(X.17). 97. 1192., 90(.65,); . ,2 2 22 12 1||.|

\|+ = + = ctg ctgbd d d .2 1||.|

\|+ =b d(X.18) . , . 2'.8 1 4 2 . , (24, 48 . .). . 12 ... ; 24 , . 2 1,5". 1 2 , - . . ; . 4060, (. 97,). AD , . . d=d1+d2+d3. -. -2,5 122. 2 1" . 120 68. - . :,, ,,.. , , , . = (. 98), . , ()bb1 ,,a1,1. ,,.A,D , 1 1. , 1. .) sin(sin;) sin(sin1 111+=+=ab aab a(X.19) , . . ,.( ) . 69. . . ,.., . , 1,52,5,20 .'(100150) . , , . . . 98. 121, , . , ,.. (. 99,)., . 12 , . 1, 2, 3 4. , . , , . 1, 2, 3 4 , . , (.99,6). D1 , D1A, C1.1, D1 D2. D2 A, C1 . , : D , . -- DA. D . ,(.99,),. 1 , 2 1. 3 1. 23 2 4 . . . :, .. . . 1(.100) .,10(5), ., , 2. , . . ,1,2 . 3 . . . 99. : ; ; 122 , (105);, 200 100 . 10 ( 5) ; .10 (5). ., ,., . , r nl D+ =(X.20) l ; ; r . :20- 20-24-. . .: ,,, , . ,, , . . , . :I, ();II ();III ,(, , ). , :I1:3000,II1:2000III 1:1000. . . . - -1. . 100. 123(.101,) ()1, 6.6060. 7 , .2(), .-:3 5,: . , 4 . (.101,) , i. . , . . ,, .v .. , . . .2BA ABv vv+=--1 (.101, ) , : , 1520. . , . 1530'. ()56 . ,. ,( ). ,KllDD = (X.21) D;l;l , (). .101. 124 , ) (0 tD t t a D = (X.22) (=12,5-10-6);t ; to . - .t K D D D D + + =(X.23) l