第二章 主要理论

Major Perspectives

Medical Psychology

• 精神分析理论 The Theory of Psychoanalysis

• 行为主义理论 The Theory of Psychological behaviorism

• 人本主义理论 The Theory of Humanistic Psychology

• 认知理论 The Theory of Psychological Cognition

The Theory of Psychoanalysis

• 潜意识理论(Unconsciousness theory ）• 人格结构理论（ Structures of personality ）• 性欲发展阶段理论（ Psychosexual stages ）• 心理防御机制理论（ Defense mechanisms ）• 释梦理论（ Dream interpretation ）

决定论的观点• 严格的决定论者：所有的行为都有原因，

行动以及思想和感觉都不会偶然发生

• 精神分析的作用及方法：在隐藏的驱力和冲突中寻找思想、感觉和行动的来源，以及考察个体早期经验与基本的人类本质交互作用以产生成人个性的方式

Mental Structure of Psychoanalysis• 意识 （ Conscious ）

包括存在于可以立即觉察到的水平的东西意识• 潜意识（ Unconscious ）

包括我们没有觉察到的心理活动的所有方面• 前意识（ Preconscious ）

许多思想和主意在我们对它们集中注意时或企图将它们带入意识水平时就会得到，但其并不总是处于意识水平

Key Words• Unconscious

A part of the personality of which a person is unaware. The unconscious contains instinctual drives: infantile wishes, desires, demands, and needs that are hidden from conscious awareness because of the conflicts and pain they would cause us if they were part of our everyday life.

• Preconscious

The memories or feelings that are not part of one's immediate awareness but that can be recalled through conscious effort.

Personality Structure

• 本我 （ Id ）“ Pleasure principle”

• 自我 （ Ego ） “ Reality principle”

• 超我 （ Superego ） “ Principle of ideal”

Key Words• Id

The raw, unorganized, inherited part of personality whose purpose is to reduce tension created by biological drives and irrational impulses. Present from the time of birth, the sole purpose of the id is to reduce tension created by primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression and irrational impulses. The id operates according to the pleasure principle, in which the goal is the immediate reduction of tension and the maximization of satisfaction.

Key Words• Ego

The part of personality that provides a buffer betw

een the id and the outside world. In contrast to the

pleasure-seeking nature of the id, the ego operates

according to the reality principle, in which instinct

ual energy is restrained in order to maintain the sa

fety of the individual and help integrate the person

into society.

Key Words

• Superego

The part of personality that represents the morality of society as presented by parents, teachers, and others. The superego actually has two components, the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience prevents us from doing morally bad things, while the ego-ideal motivates us to do what is morally proper.

Psychosexual stages & oedipus complex

• 口腔期（ oral stage ）

• 肛门期（ anal stage ）

• 性器期（ phallic phase ）

• 潜伏期（ Latency stage ）

• 生殖器性期（ Genital stage ）

Oral phase(0-2 years old)• Freud’s first stage of personality development,

from birth to about age 2, during which infants obtain gratification primarily through the mouth

• 口腔是第一个给予婴儿快感的身体器官，通过口腔获得维持生命的营养，还通过吸吮和啃咬获得快感

• 固着：部分利必多能量分配给了对前一个心理性阶段的注意，没有转到后一个发展阶段

• 过食、酗酒、强迫性吸烟、咬铅笔 / 手指、冷嘲热讽

Anal phase(2-3 years old)• Freud’s second stage of personality devel

opment, from about 2 to about age 3, during which children learn to control the immediate gratification they obtain through defecation and to become responsible to the demands of society

• 肛门是这一时期的性快感带，对大便的保留和排泄引起快感的推迟及满足，通过攻击行为和排泄功能获得满足

• 肛门性格：吝啬、固执、对整洁和秩序过分注意

Phallic phase(3-5 years old)• Freud’s third stage of personality development,

from about age 3 to about age 5, during which children obtain gratification primarily from the genitals

• 生殖器区是这一时期主要的性感带•俄底普斯情结（ oedipus complex ） Occurring during the phallic stage, feelings of riva

lry with the parent of the same sex and love of the parent of the opposite sex, ultimately resolved through identification with the parent of the same

• 阉割焦虑（ castration anxiety ） /阴茎妒忌（ penis envy ）

• 认同（ identity ）

•同性恋

Defense Mechanism

•三种焦虑：现实焦虑（环境）、神经焦虑（本能）、道德焦虑（道德）

•心理防御机制（ mental defense mechanism ）是指个体处在挫折与冲突的情景时，在其内部心理活动中具有对抗焦虑的一种适应性倾向，是一种潜意识的心理保护机制

Key Words

• Defense mechanism

Unconscious strategies people use to reduce anxiety by concealing its source from themselves and others.

•心理防御机制与心理健康的关系•常见心理防御机制的表现 压抑（ Repression ） The primary defense mechanism, in which u

nacceptable or unpleasant id impulses are pushed back into the unconscious. For example, a college student who feels hatred for her mother might repress these personally and socially unacceptable feelings

•倒退 /退行（ Regression ）People behave as if they were at an earlier stage of

development. For example, a student who is overwhelmed by exams might act in a childish, immature manner to escape his responsibilities

• 转移（ Displacement ） The expression of an unwanted feeling or thought i

s redirected from a more threatening, powerful person to a weak one. A classic case is yelling at one’s secretary after being criticized by the boss

•合理化（ Rationalization ） A distortion of reality in which a person just

ifies what happens. For example, a person who is passed over for an award says she didn’t really want it in the first place

•否认（ Denial ） Refusal to accept or acknowledge an anxiet

y-producing piece of information. For example, a student refuses to believe that he has flunked a course

•投射（ Projection ） Attributing unwanted impulses and feelings to so

meone else. For example, a man who is anger at his father acts lovingly to his father but complains that his father is angry with him

•升华（ Sublimation ） Diversion of unwanted impulses into sociall

y approved thoughts, feelings or behaviors. For example, a person with strong feelings of aggression becomes a soldier

Dream Interpretation• 梦是有意义的心理现象，是个体愿望迂回的满足，是潜

意识冲突和愿望的隐晦的表达。• 显梦（ manifest dream ） The overt story line, characters, and setting of a d

ream---the obvious, clearly discernible events of the dream

• 隐梦（ latent dream ） The deeper meaning of a dream, usually involving

symbolism, hidden content, and repressed or obscured ideas and wishes

述评

The Theory of Psychological Behaviorism

• 经典条件反射 Classical conditioning

•操作条件反射 Operant conditioning

•社会学习 / 观察模仿 Social learning /Observa

tional learning

Classical Conditioning

• 巴甫洛夫 Pavlov's experiment

• 无条件刺激 (Unconditioned stimulus /US )• 无条件反射 (Unconditioned reflex /UR)• 条件刺激 (Conditioned stimulus /CS)• 条件反射 (Conditioned reflex/ CR)

Characteristics of Classical Conditioning

• 强化 （ Reinforcement ）

• 泛化（ Generalization ）

• 分化（ Discrimination ）

• 消退（ Extinction ）

Key Words• Reinforcement The process by which a stimulus increases the probabili

ty that a preceding behavior will be repeated. • Stimulus generalization The transfer of a learned response to different but simila

r stimuli. • Stimulus discriminationLearning to respond to only one stimulus and to inhibit t

he response to all other stimuli. • ExtinctionA decrease in the strength or frequency, or stopping, of a

learned response because of failure to continue paring the US and CS or withholding of reinforcement.

Operant conditioning

• 斯金纳 Skinner's experiment

• 奖赏 （ Reward ）

Characteristics of Operant Conditioning

• 正强化 （ Positive reinforcement ）

• 负强化 （ Negative reinforcement ）

• 消退 （ Extinction ）

• 惩罚 （ Punishment ）

Key Words• Positive reinforcement Presentation of a rewarding or pleasant stimulus

after a particular response to increase the likelihood that the response will recur.

• Negative reinforcement Removal of an aversive stimulus after a particul

ar response to increase the likelihood that the response will recur.

• PunishmentA stimulus that follows a behavior and decreases

the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.

Observatioanl Learning

• 班杜拉 Bandura

• 基本机制：• 替代过程（ vicarious process ）

• 认知过程（ cognitive process ）

• 自我调节过程（ self-regulatory process ）

述评

The Theory of Humanistic Psychology