조성일 Presenter Theories of Priming: I. Associative Distance and Lag Ergo Lab 1 /25 Theories of Priming: I. Associative Distance and Lag McNamara 조성일 Presenter

조성일Presenter 1 /25

The

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Theories of Priming:I. Associative Distance and Lag

McNamara

조성일Presenter

08.05.27( 火 )


The

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마실것

주스

오렌지

사과

콜라

펩시

코카 사이다

칠성

천영

생수

우유

밀키스

크리미


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• Intro• Theories Priming• Spreading-Activation Models of Priming• Non-Spreading-Activation Models of Priming• Associative Distance• Experiment 1• Experiment 2• Experiment 3• General Discussion• Conclusion


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Intro

• Performance is affected – By previous retrieval operation– By the context in the retrieval task place

• The dominant explanation of priming appealed to the concept of spreading activation– Retrieving an item from memory amounted to activating

internal representation– Activation spread throughout interconnected network of

memory traces– Residual activation accumulation at memory traces facilitated

subsequent retrieval

• Automatic associative priming occurs in a large number of memory retrieval task– Semantic categorization, lexical decisions, item recognition,

naming, judgments of spatial location– One or other of 2 alternative mechanisms

• Spreading activation • Construction of compound retrieval cues (Non-spreading

activation)


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Intro

• Experiment 1– Summarize two spreading-activation and two non-spreading-

activation model

• Experiment 2– Examines the effects of associative distance on priming– Experiment 1 test for three-step mediated priming in lexical

decisions(mane-lion-tiger-stripe)

• Experiment 3– Investigates priming across lags of zero, one, or two unrelated

items – Considers the implications of these results for the theories priming

• Findings– Spreading-activation : consistent– Non-spreading-activation : inconsistent– Rejection of spreading-activation mechanisms is premature


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Theories of priming

• Simple comparisons between the two classes of models can be misleading– The variance in predictions within classes is often as great as

the variance in prediction between classes

• The priming effects are caused by mechanisms different from – Associative priming in item recognition, lexical decision, and

naming

• Concern with automatic component of associative priming– Property of the way information is retrieved from memory

• Use response latency as the primary dependent variable– Difficult to get high error rates without introducing strategic

components to the task


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Spreading-Activation Models of Priming

• Memory is conceived of as a network of interconnected memory traces, or nodes– Activation spreads to all connected nodes– Decays with distance and time

• One concept can be actively processed at a time– But activation continues to spread en after a concept has ceased

to be processed

• The residual activation that accumulates at neighboring traces facilitates their subsequent retrieval (e.g. lion-tiger)

• The time required for activation to spread from one node to another cannot be used to explain effects of network distance on retrieval time– The effects of distance must be attributed to asymptotic activation

level

• Decay of activation can be quite rapid, within 500ms – Close to ACT– Attention is shifted, activation of the node decays very rapidly

(exponentially)– Priming in ACT are different from priming in the Quillian(1967)


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Non-Spreading-Activation Models of Priming

• Compound-cue model must be combined with theory of memory– Make predictions about performance in memory retrieval tasks

• In SAM (search of associative memory), a matrix of association among cues and memory traces, which are called images– Cues are assembled in a short-term store, or probe set, which is

the match against all item in memory

• In TODAM (theory of distributed associative memory), to-be-remembered items are represented as vectors of features– Sum of vectors, convolution– The resulting scalar can be mapped into familiarity and, in turn,

into response time and accuracy

• Examine mechanisms of priming and extent to explain of priming effects


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SAM

• A-B-C-D-E-F, G-H-I, J-K-L (three separate associate chains); N (non-word)• Residual strengths are 0.2 for item in memory and 0.1 for items not in

memory

• Q: compound cue, X: image in memory, W: weight applied to the strengths

• Weight– 0.7 and 0.3 ( target and prime )– 0.5, 0.3 and 0.2 ( target, prime and item before the prime)– The largest weight is assigned to the target


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SAM

• Prime, target and unrelated word• Cue elements are unrelated,

F({K,E,H})=F({K,H,E})

• Prime, unrelated word and target

• Preprime letter string, prime and target


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TODAM

• Memory is represented by Vector M, item are represented by the vectors A-L, and association are represented by A*B

– Independent of all other vectors


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Associative Distance

• Distance refers to the number of associative steps that intervene between the prime and the target in memory– Activation decays continuously with network distance– In non-spreading-activation, effects of distance on priming are

much more constrained• SAM predicts priming at a distance one or two but not three

or greater(e.g. mane-(lion)-tiger) vs. (e.g. mane-lion-tiger-stripes)

• TODAM predicts priming at a distance of one step

• The goal of Experiment1– Test for priming at a distance of three

• Only at this distance can spreading-activation model and SAM be distinguished


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Experiment 1_Method & Results

• Subject– 200 undergraduates

• Material and design– First word was associated with the second word but not the third word

(e.g. lion-tiger-stripes) ; by Balota and Lorch(1986)– Collected free-association data and select a list 40 quadruplets of words

(e.g. mane-lion-tiger-stripes) neither the third nor the fourth ; by McNamara and Altarriba(1988)

– Four associates for each of the 40 prime words• Total number of between 81 and 101 subjects per prime• 0.53 for the second word, 0.01 for the third word and 0.00 for the fort

h word– Test lists were constructed using the procedure used by McNamara

• 120 letter strings, 80 of which were words in English and 40 of which were pronounceable non-words ( no letter string appeared more than once)


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Experiment 1_Method & Results

• Procedure– Received 72 practice trials and 120 experimental trials– Single letter string was presented left-justified in about the

center of screen– M key on the keyboard if the letter string was a word and Z

otherwise– Interval of 100ms elapsed between the response to a letter

string and presentation of the next letter string– If subjects responded incorrectly, the word ERROR replaced the

letter string, remained on the screen for 1s, and was followed by a interval during which time the screen was blank

– Divided into two 60-trial blocks

• Results– Error rate on targets was 0.85%(mediated) and 1.3%(unrelated)– Response latencies were 597ms(mediated) and

607ms(unrelated)– 10ms difference was significant when subject (item) were

treated as the random effect– Size of the three-step priming effect is small


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Experiment 1_Discussion

• This experiment demonstrates three-step priming– Free association is an accurate index of association in memory– The primes and the targets were not directly associated– The primes and the target did not share a common associate– The primes and the targets were not semantically related

• Analysis of McKoon and Ratcliff’s– The arrows indicate the direction in which associations were obtained

• Average length of the mediation path for non-mediated pairs(2.2-2.4)• Many pairs were connected by multiple paths• 11 two-step(15.3ms) and 8 three-step(10ms) item• A weighted average is 13.1ms, which is nearly identical to 13 priming

effect


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Experiment 1_Discussion

• Additional analyses of the stimuli used in experiment 1– One group (n=22) contained items that had a least one non-

successive association , the priming effect was 11ms– other group (n=18) contained items that had a least one

successive association , the priming effect was 8ms– The difference between these priming effects was not significant

• Association between the primes and the targets did not affect the size of the priming effect


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Lag

• The number of the items that intervene between the prime and the target– Standard priming uses a lag of 0– The goal of experiment 2 was to examine semantic priming in

lexical decision over of 0,1 and 2 intervening words


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Experiment 2_Method

• Subjects– 48 undergraduate

• Material and design– Stimuli consisted of 60 triplets of words ( target-relate prime-

unrelated prime)– Factorial combination of lag(0,1 and 2) and relatedness (related vs.

unrelated)– No target appeared earlier than the 17th serial position– Five, six, or seven empty slots intervened between any two target– Divided into 10 sets of six

• Procedure– 72 practice trials and 444 experimental trials– M key on the keyboard if the letter string was a word and Z otherwise– Divided into four blocks


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Experiment 2_Results & Discussion

• The overall error rate on targets was very low(<1%)

• Priming effect was numerically larger in the lag 0 condition than in the lag 1 condition, but the difference was not statistically reliable

• Priming occurs when one unrelated item intervenes between the prime and the target, but not when two items intervene– Not resolve whether time or number of intervening item is the

critical variable

• Response to the target– Related > unrelated– Lexical status did not affect response

to the target


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Experiment 3_Method

• Responses to word following targets as a function of the prime-target relation

• Response to target words as a function of the lexical status of the items preceding the primes

• Subjects– 40 undergraduates

• Material and design– 60 sets of seven letter strings– Target, two words related to the target, two words unrelated to the target,

two nonword– 298 words , 147 nonword

• Procedure– Identical to n experiment 2


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• Based on medians computed for each subject and each condition• Priming effect in the lag 1 condition, significant

– Target is preceded by tow words• Effects of prime-target relation on response to post-target word

– No effect of the lexical status of the letter string preceding the prime– Mean response latency and error rate (654ms and 6%) in related conditio

n– Mean response latency and error rate (637ms and 4%) in unrelated condit

ion– Not significant– Response latencies were about 75ms longer for posttarget words than for

targets in the unrelated prime condition• Differences in word frequencies for the two sets of words


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• Effects of preprime letter string on response to the target– The lag-1 priming data imply that the lexical status of the preprime letter s

tring affect responses to the target– Correct positive response receding a target reduced response latencies o

n the target by 22.5ms

– Added to the mean in the word/lag 0 (5ms)– Subtracted from the nonword/lag 0 (22.5ms)– No apparent slowing of responses in the nonword/lag 0 condition– These result are consistent with the spreading-activation models , but the

y are problematic for TODAM and SAM• Both model predict a difference in response time between the word/la

g 0 and the nonword/lag 0


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General Discussion

• Consistent with the spreading-activation models of priming but inconsistent with at least one of the non-spreading-activation models

• Non-spreading-activation model might be able to handle distance effect in priming– In SAM, association between the three-step primes and targets were than

the residual value• In experiment 3,

– no priming on a word following a primed target, even though there was priming at a lag of 1

– Nonword before priming effect and did not slow responses any more than would be expected from sequential effects

– Response to target should be faster in the nonword/lag0 condition than in the word/lag 0 condition

• SAM, TODAM might be able to predict the size of lag0 and lag1 priming effect


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Conclusion

• Priming might be caused by the content of retrieval cues was important for– Compound-cue model enabled several non-spreading-activation model of

memory to predict priming effects– Non-spreading-activation models of priming seemed to account for several

result that caused problems for spreading-activation model

• spreading-activation viable explanation of automatic associative priming and that it may be a fundamental mechanism of memory retrival

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조성일 Presenter Theories of Priming: I. Associative Distance and Lag Ergo Lab 1 /25 Theories of Priming: I. Associative Distance and Lag McNamara 조성일 Presenter