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Matematik merupakan satu bidang ilmu yang pengetahuan yang sangat penting. Tokoh
Matematik, Carl Friedrich Gauss mengatakan "Mathematics is the Queen of Science". Ia
merangkumi bentuk, simbol dan ruang dan dibahagikan kepada beberapa cabang seperti
aritmetik, calculus, trigonometri, geometri dan tidak ketinggalan algebra. Untuk artikel ini,
saya akan menceritakan tentang algebra secara umum sempena fokus kita pada kali ini iaitu
'Pesona Algebra'.
Algebra ialah salah satu cabang matematik yang membincangkan tentang prinsip operasi dan
hubungan. Perkataan algebra berasal dari perkataan Arab iaitu Al-Jabr. Tidak dapat
dinafikan lagi ilmu algebra bermula dan berkembang pesat dari negara Arab. Untuk
mengetahui dengan lebih lanjut mengenai asal usul dan sejarah algebra, anda bolehlah
membaca artikel Sejarah Algebra dalam ruangan Sejarah.
Antara cabang algebra ialah elementary algebra, abstract algebra, linear algebra dan
universal algebra. Elementary algebra memperkenalkan konsep pembolehubah yang
mewakilkan nombor. Pernyataan dari pembolehubah ini dimanipulasikan menggunakan
prinsip operasi yang menggunakan nombor seperti operasi tambah. Ia boleh diselesaikan
menggunakan pelbagai cara termasuk penyelesaian persamaan.
Walaupun begitu, algebra itu sendiri merupakan bidang yang lebih luas dari konsep
pemboleh ubah ini. Terdapat pelbagai lagi ilmu dalam cabang algebra. Contohnya, abstract
algebra atau dipanggil juga modern algebra. Ia mengkaji tentang algebraic structures seperti
group, ring dan field. Linear algebra mengkaji tentang vector termasuk matrices. Aplikasi
asas untuk linear algebra ialah penyelesaian sistem persamaan linear dengan beberapa
pemalar. Universal algebra pula mengkaji tentang algebraic structures itu sendiri.
Sedarkah anda bahawa algebra banyak digunakan dalam kehidupan seharian kita. Antaranya
dalam perbandingan harga, proses jual beli dan sebaggainya. Ia juga digunakan dalam
bidang-bidang tertentu seperti bidang kimia, fizik, dan forensik. Anda bolehlah membaca
artikel 'Anatomi & Algebra' untuk mengetahui dengan lebih lanjut tentang aplikasi
penggunaan algebra dalam penyiasatan kes jenayah oleh ahli forensik. Dalam ruangan
Tahukah Anda, terdapat artikel 'Kenapa Belajar Matematik' yang turut menyingkap
kepentingan algebra dalam kehidupan seharian kita.
Selain itu, terdapat pelbagai lagi maklumat dari artikel-artikel lain untuk Edisi Febuari ini.
Ruangan Perisian Matematik membincangkan tentang OpenOffice.org Calc manakala
Ruangan Uji Minda membawa Siri Pentagon untuk anda selesaikan.
Comments (31)
http://ndu2009algebra.blogspot.com/
Linear algebra and electricity of a car
The diagram below shows some of a car's electrical network. The battery is on the left, drawn
as stacked line segments. The wires are drawn as lines, shown straight and with sharp right
angles for neatness. Each light is a circle enclosing a loop.
The designer of such a network needs to answer questions like: How much electricity flows
when both the hi-beam headlights and the brake lights are on? Below, we will use linear
systems to analyze simpler versions of electrical networks.
For the analysis we need two facts about electricity and two facts about electrical networks.
The first fact about electricity is that a battery is like a pump: it provides a force impelling the
electricity to flow through the circuits connecting the battery's ends, if there are any such
circuits. We say that the battery provides a potential to flow. Of course, this network
accomplishes its function when, as the electricity flows through a circuit, it goes through a
light. For instance, when the driver steps on the brake then the switch makes contact and a
circuit is formed on the left side of the diagram, and the electrical current flowing through
that circuit will make the brake lights go on, warning drivers behind.
The second electrical fact is that in some kinds of network components the amount of flow is
proportional to the force provided by the battery. That is, for each such component there is a
number, it's resistance, such that the potential is equal to the flow times the resistance. The
units of measurement are: potential is described in volts, the rate of flow is in amperes, and
resistance to the flow is in ohms. These units are defined so that .
Components with this property, that the voltage-amperage response curve is a line through
the origin, are called resistors. (Light bulbs such as the ones shown above are not this kind of
component, because their ohmage changes as they heat up.) For example, if a resistor
measures 2 ohms then wiring it to a 12 volt battery results in a flow of 6 amperes.
Conversely, if we have flow of electrical current of 2 amperes through it then there must be a
4 volt potential difference between it's ends. This is the voltage drop across the resistor. One
way to think of a electrical circuits like the one above is that the battery provides a voltage
rise while the other components are voltage drops.
The two facts that we need about networks are Kirchhoff's Laws.
Current Law. For any point in a network, the flow in equals the flow out.
Voltage Law. Around any circuit the total drop equals the total rise.
In the above network there is only one voltage rise, at the battery, but some networks have
more than one.
For a start we can consider the network below. It has a battery that provides the potential to
flow and three resistors (resistors are drawn as zig-zags). When components are wired one
after another, as here, they are said to be in series.
By Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, because the voltage rise is 20 volts, the total voltage drop must
also be 20 volts. Since the resistance from start to finish is 10 ohms (the resistance of the
wires is negligible), we get that the current is (20 / 10) = 2 amperes. Now, by Kirchhoff's
Current Law, there are 2 amperes through each resistor. (And therefore the voltage drops are:
4 volts across the 2 oh m resistor, 10 volts across the 5 ohm resistor, and 6 volts across the 3
ohm resistor.)
The prior network is so simple that we didn't use a linear system, but the next network is
more complicated. In this one, the resistors are in parallel. This network is more like the car
lighting diagram shown earlier.
We begin by labeling the branches, shown below. Let the current through the left branch of
the parallel portion be i1 and that through the right branch be i2, and also let the current
through the battery be i0. (We are following Kirchoff's Current Law; for instance, all points
in the right branch have the same current, which we call i2. Note that we don't need to know
the actual direction of flow— if current flows in the direction opposite to our arrow then we
will simply get a negative number in the solution.)
The Current Law, applied to the point in the upper right where the flow i0 meets i1 and i2,
gives that i0 = i1 + i2. Applied to the lower right it gives i1 + i2 = i0. In the circuit that loops
out of the top of the battery, down the left branch of the parallel portion, and back into the
bottom of the battery, the voltage rise is 20 while the voltage drop is , so the Voltage Law
gives that 12i1 = 20. Similarly, the circuit from the battery to the right branch and back to the
battery gives that 8i2 = 20. And, in the circuit that simply loops around in the left and right
branches of the parallel portion (arbitrarily taken clockwise), there is a voltage rise of 0 and a
voltage drop of 8i2 − 12i1 so the Voltage Law gives that 8i2 − 12i1 = 0.
The solution is i0 = 25 / 6, i1 = 5 / 3, and i2 = 5 / 2, all in amperes. (Incidentally, this
illustrates that redundant equations do indeed arise in practice.)
Kirchhoff's laws can be used to establish the electrical properties of networks of great
complexity. The next diagram shows five resistors, wired in a series-parallel way.
This network is a Wheatstone bridge (see Problem 4). To analyze it, we can place the arrows
in this way.
Kirchoff's Current Law, applied to the top node, the left node, the right node, and the bottom
node gives these.
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, applied to the inside loop (the i0 to i1 to i3 to i0 loop), the outside
loop, and the upper loop not involving the battery, gives these.
Those suffice to determine the solution i0 = 7 / 3, i1 = 2 / 3, i2 = 5 / 3, i3 = 2 / 3, i4 = 5 / 3,
and i5 = 0.
Posted by charbelazzi at 11:04 PM 2 comments
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THE $25,000,000,000 EIGENVECTOR THE LINEAR ALGEBRA BEHIND
Google’s success derives in large part from its PageRank algorithm, which ranks the importance of webpages
according to an eigenvector of a weighted link matrix. Analysis of the PageRank formula provides a wonderful
applied topic for a linear algebra course.
PageRank algorithm, which quantitatively rates the importance of each page on the web.
Google calculates web page rankings using standard linear algebra application. It does three basic things: 1. Crawl the web and locate all web pages with public access. 2. Index the data from step 1, so that it can be searched efficiently for relevant keywords or phrases.
3. Rate the importance of each page the subset of pages in the database been found, the most important pages
can be presented first.
The importance score for any web page will always be a non-negative real number.
An arrow from page A to page B indicates alink from page A to page B.
xk denotes the importance score of page k in the web
x1 = 2, x2 = 1, x3 = 3, and x4 = 2, so that page 3 would be the most important,
pages 1 and 4 tie for second, and page 2 is least important. A link to page k becomes a vote for
page k’s importance.
This approach ignores an important feature ranking algorithm that a link to page k from an important page
should boost page k’s importance score more than a link from an unimportant page.
we will boost page k’s score by xj/nj , rather than by xj .
xk = ∑ xj/ nk j ϵ L
k ( a link from a page to itself will not be counted.)
Let’s apply this approach :
x1 = x3/1 +
x4/2, since pages 3 and 4 are backlinks for page 1 and page 3 contains only one link, while page 4 contains two
links (splitting its vote in half). Similarly, x2 = x1/3, x3 = x1/3 + x2/2 + x4/2, andx4 = x1/3 + x2/2. These linear
equations can be written Ax = x, where x = [x1 x2 x3 x4]T
This transforms the web ranking problem into the “standard” problem of finding an eigenvector for a square
matrix! (Recall : eigenvalues _ and eigenvectors x of a matrix A satisfy the equation Ax = λx, x != 0 by
definition.)
x1 ~=0.387, x2~ = 0.129,x3 ~= 0.290, and x4 ~=.194.
Note that this ranking differs from that generated by simply counting backlinks. It might seem surprising that page 3, linked to by all other pages, is not the most important.
To understand this, note that page 3 links only to page 1 and so casts its entire vote for page 1. This, with the
vote of page 2, results in page 1 getting the highest importance score.
http://aix1.uottawa.ca/~jkhoury/leonteif.htm
Application to Leontief input-output model
Introduction In order to understand and be able to manipulate the economy of a country or a
region, one needs to come up with a certain model based on the various sectors of this
economy. The Leontief model is an attempt in this direction. Based on the assumption that
each industry in the economy has two types of demands: external demand (from outside the
system) and internal demand (demand placed on one industry by another in the same system),
the Leontief model represents the economy as a system of linear equations. The Leontief
model was invented in the 30’s by Professor Wassily Leontief (picture above) who developed
an economic model of the United States economy by dividing it into 500 economic sectors.
On October 18, 1973, Professor Leontief was awarded the Nobel Prize in economy for his
effort.
1) The Leontief closed Model Consider an economy consisting of n interdependent
industries (or sectors) S1,…,Sn. That means that each industry consumes some of the
goods produced by the other industries, including itself (for example, a power-
generating plant uses some of its own power for production). We say that such an
economy is closed if it satisfies its own needs; that is, no goods leave or enter the
system. Let mij be the number of units produced by industry Si and necessary to
produce one unit of industry Sj. If pk is the production level of industry Sk, then mij pj
represents the number of units produced by industry Si and consumed by industry Sj .
Then the total number of units produced by industry Si is given by:
p1mi1+p2mi2+…+pnmin.
In order to have a balanced economy, the total production of each industry must be equal to
its total consumption. This gives the linear system:
If
then the above system can be written as AP=P, where
.
A is called the input-output matrix.
We are then looking for a vector P satisfying AP=P and with nonnegative components, at
least one of which is positive.
Example Suppose that the economy of a certain region depends on three industries: service,
electricity and oil production. Monitoring the operations of these three industries over a
period of one year, we were able to come up with the following observations:
1. To produce 1 unit worth of service, the service industry must consume 0.3 units of its
own production, 0.3 units of electricity and 0.3 units of oil to run its operations.
2. To produce 1 unit of electricity, the power-generating plant must buy 0.4 units of
service, 0.1 units of its own production, and 0.5 units of oil.
3. Finally, the oil production company requires 0.3 units of service, 0.6 units of
electricity and 0.2 units of its own production to produce 1 unit of oil.
Find the production level of each of these industries in order to satisfy the external and the
internal demands assuming that the above model is closed, that is, no goods leave or enter the
system.
Solution Consider the following variables:
1. p1= production level for the service industry
2. p2= production level for the power-generating plant (electricity)
3. p3= production level for the oil production company
Since the model is closed, the total consumption of each industry must equal its total
production. This gives the following linear system:
The input-output matrix is
and the above system can be written as (A-I)P=0. Note that this homogeneous system has
infinitely many solutions (and consequently a nontrivial solution) since each column in the
coefficient matrix sums to 1. The augmented matrix of this homogeneous system is
which can be reduced to
.
To solve the system, we let p3=t (a parameter), then the general solution is
and as we mentioned above, the values of the variables in this system must be nonnegative in
order for the model to make sense; in other words, t≥0. Taking t=100 for example would
give the solution
2) The Leontief open Model The first Leontief model treats the case where no goods
leave or enter the economy, but in reality this does not happen very often. Usually, a
certain economy has to satisfy an outside demand, for example, from bodies like the
government agencies. In this case, let di be the demand from the ith
outside industry,
pi, and mij be as in the closed model above, then
for each i. This gives the following linear system (written in a matrix form):
where P and A are as above and
is the demand vector.
One way to solve this linear system is
Of course, we require here that the matrix I-A be invertible, which might not be always
the case. If, in addition, (I-A)-1
has nonnegative entries, then the components of the vector
P are nonnegative and therefore they are acceptable as solutions for this model. We say in
this case that the matrix A is productive.
Example Consider an open economy with three industries: coal-mining operation, electricity-
generating plant and an auto-manufacturing plant. To produce $1 of coal, the mining
operation must purchase $0.1 of its own production, $0.30 of electricity and $0.1 worth of
automobile for its transportation. To produce $1 of electricity, it takes $0.25 of coal, $0.4 of
electricity and $0.15 of automobile. Finally, to produce $1 worth of automobile, the auto-
manufacturing plant must purchase $0.2 of coal, $0.5 of electricity and consume $0.1 of
automobile. Assume also that during a period of one week, the economy has an exterior
demand of $50,000 worth of coal, $75,000 worth of electricity, and $125,000 worth of autos.
Find the production level of each of the three industries in that period of one week in order to
exactly satisfy both the internal and the external demands.
Solution The input-output matrix of this economy is
and the demand vector is
By equation (*) above,
where
Using the Gaussian-elimination technique (or the formula B-1
=(1/det(B))adj(B)), we find that
which gives
So, the total output of the coal-mining operation must be $229921.59, the total output for the
electricity-generating plant is $437795.27 and the total output for the auto-manufacturing
plant is $237401.57.
If you like to know more about the subject and the life and achievements of W. Leontielf,
check the following links:
Wassily Leontief (life and achievements of W. Leontielf)
http://online.redwoods.cc.ca.us/instruct/darnold/laproj/Fall2001/Iris/lap
http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/ap030/Math345LAApplications/Flow.html
Flow: From Traffic to Pipes -
An Application of Linear
Algebra
The most practical applications of mathematics are
those that apply to the most people. When it comes
to linear algebra, one wide-reaching application is to
the problem of flow. Whether it is data through a
network, water through pipes, or cars through traffic,
arranging an efficient flow is a crucial element of
design. Just these three examples already show that
solving flow problems is a wide topic that has
relevance in many aspects of everyday life.
Many of the problems that arise with networks and
traffic involve optimizing the flow through the
system. This can be done in many ways and depends
a lot on the particular situation. However, by looking
at systems of linear equations, we can simplify flow
problems. Linear algebra allows us to study these
systems using matrices and determine which
variables have forced values and which are free to be
chosen. After this distinction has been made using
linear algebra, we can use other techniques to choose
the free variables.
In order to begin understanding these types of
problems, it is best to look at a simple example.
Consider a system of streets with traffic flow as
described in the diagram below, where each number
represents the number of cars passing through in one
hour. In order to optimize traffic flow, the city
planners need to determine how to set the traffic
lights and how many cars to let through streets A, B,
C, D, and E each hour.
First, the picture yields the following four equations:
B + E = 20 + A
C + 30 = B + 40
60 = C + D
D = E + 15
Next, the equations can be rearranged:
-A + B + E = 20
-B + C = 10
C + D = 60
D - E = 15
Now they can be placed into a matrix:
After row-reducing, the matrix becomes:
Finally, this gives four new equations:
A = 15
B + E = 35
C + E = 45
D - E = 15
From these equations, the city planners can see that
A must be 15 cars per hour but they have some
choice for the other streets. If they set E at 10 cars
per hour, for example, B must be 25, C must be 35,
and D must be 25. As another example, consider
shutting down E street completely. Then it follows
that B = 35, C = 45, and D = 15. And if the city
reverses the direction of traffic flow on E and then
allows 20 cars per hour the other streets are affected
as follows: B = 55, C = 65, and D also changes
direction and must admit 5 cars per hour.
When looking at the other applications mentioned
earlier, such as data through a network or water
through pipes, the system can be set up similarly.
The reason that linear algebra is so key in solving
these types of problems is that it allows for solving
many linear equations simultaneously. Matrices use
the symmetry of the equations to solve for the
variables.
Now that it is clear how useful linear algebra can be
in this application, it is important to look at the
process in much more detail.
The Process
The first step is to come up with equations after
looking at the picture, or actual situation. For a more
general map, there needs to be one equation for each
node on the graph. A node is a point where two or
more lines intersect. At each node, the incoming
traffic or flow needs to equal the outgoing traffic or
flow.
The second step is to rearrange these equations in
order to get the constant on one side and all of the
variables on the other side. This is a very simple
process and can be done with general algebra
knowledge.
The third step is to create a matrix. This step is a
little bit more involved. Matrices are measured by
how many rows and columns they have. In general,
we call a matrix with m rows and n columns an m-
by-n matrix . The number of equations from steps 1
and 2 will be the number of rows the matrix has and
the number of columms will be equal to the number
of variables plus 1. Next, the matrix needs to be
filled in. Each column of the matrix corresponds to
one variable, so the coefficients of that variable in
each respective equation should be filled in that
column. The final column will contain the constants
from each equation.
The fourth step is to row-reduce the matrix. There
are four rules that have to be followed:
The Four Rules:
1. All nonzero rows must have a 1 as the furthest left
nonzero entry (called a leading 1).
2. All columns containing leading 1s must have only
zeros everywhere else.
3. All leading 1st must be further to the right than
leading 1s in the above rows.
4. All rows containing only zeros must be at the
bottom.
This step can be accomplished by using the three
elementary row operations below:
The Three Operations:
A. Any two rows can be switched.
B. A row can be multiplied by a nonzero constant, if
each element of the row is multiplied by the same
constant.
C. A row can be replaced by the sum of itself plus
another row.
The fifth step is to convert this matrix back into
linear equations by using the reverse process of step
3 and using the entries in the matrix to determine the
coefficients of the variables and the constants in the
equations.
Now these equations can be used to see which
variables have forced values and which are free to be
chosen. Depending on the goal of the exercise,
different methods can be used to choose the free
variables. Free variables exist when there are more
variables than there are equations. In the above
example, we had five variables, but only four
equations (because there were four nodes).
In problems involving data flowing through
networks, a key issue that arises is efficiency and
speed of travel, but also having a large amount of
data traveling at once. When it comes to water
flowing through pipes, the capacity of the pipes
needs to be taken into consideration, and also any
valves that might restrict flow to only one direction.
For street traffic, the needs of the intersections might
be dependent on time, capacity, direction, or a
number of other factors. In all three situations, cost
can also play a large role as companies and cities
always need to reduce costs. The strength of linear
algebra is that it is broad enough to be used in any
and all of these possible situations and can be applied
to help solve all of these issues.
Linear algebra can be used to solve increasingly
more complex systems of equations, with hundreds
or even thousands of variables. The reason linear
algebra is so useful for these types of problems is
that it can be thought of as an algorithm and the steps
can be used in a computer program to facilitate the
process. Many programmers use matrices to store
and manipulate data due to these reasons. The
concepts explained here can be applied to a variety
of situations in the real world.
A Last Example
Now examine the following pipe flow problem:
One optimization problem could be to maximize the
quantity of water flowing through pipe B. Using the
process described above, the picture can be
transformed into four equations, which can in turn be
turned into a matrix. After row reduction, the
following four equations will be apparent:
A + E = 60
B - F = 80
C - D = -10
D + E + F = 0
Because the goal in this particular situation is
maximizing B, the focus should be on the equation
involving B. Because B and F are output pipes, F
cannot have negative flow. Therefore the minimum
flow F can have is zero, making the maximum value
for B equal to 80. Interestingly, the flow through B
does not actually depend on A or D even though
those pipes interact with the same node as B.
In the real world, it frequently occurs where many
variables are not significant to the final solution of
the system. It all depends on what the network is
designed to do and what parameters are relevant.
There are many directions in which to take this
application.
Sami Prehn
Bucknell University
Math 345, Fall 2009
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