Chapter8.Observation Studies

Donald R. Cooper & Pamela S. Schindler

授課老師：洪新原　教授組員：林佳縈

李海微黃天慧

USING OBSERVATION

Observation and the Research Process

Selecting the Data Collection Method

Selecting an Observation Approach

Observation Classification

Nonbehavioral•Record analysis

• Physical condition analysis

• Process or Activity analysis

Behavioral• Nonverbal observation

• Linguistic observation

• Extralinguistic observation

• Spatial observation

Nonbehavioral Observation

Record analysis is the extraction of data from current or historical

records. Data mining is a type of record analysis.

Physical condition analysis is the recording of observations of current

conditions resulting from prior decisions.

relate to a safety audit or an analysis of inventory conditions or an analysis of food preparation areas in a restaurant.

Nonbehavioral Observation(Cont.)

Process or Activity analysis observation by a time study of stages in a

process, evaluated on both effectiveness and efficiency.

relates to any organization that tracks time related to activity or process steps and stages.

Behavioral Observation

• Nonverbal

the most prevalent and refers to recording

physical actions or movements of participants.

• Linguistic

the observation of human verbal behavior during

conversation, presentation, or interaction.

Behavioral Observation(Cont.)

Extralinguistic

Behavioral Observation(Cont.)

Extralinguistic

the observation of human verbal behavior during

conversation, presentation, or interaction.

Spatial

the recording of how humans physically relate to one

another.

EVALUATION OF BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION

Evaluation of Observation

Strengths

• Securing information that is otherwise unavailable

• Avoiding participant filtering/ forgetting

• Securing environmental context

• Optimizing naturalness

• Reducing obtrusiveness

Weaknesses

• Enduring long periods

• Incurring higher expenses

• Having lower reliability of inferences

• Keeping large records

THE OBSERVER-PARTICIPANT RELATIONSHIP

Whether the observation is direct or indirect.• Direct observation occurs when the observer is

physically present and personally monitors what takes place.

• Indirect observation occurs when the recording is done by mechanical, photographic, or electronic means.

The Observer-Participant Relationship

may be viewed from three perspectives:1) Whether the observation is direct or indirect2) Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown to

the participant3) What role the observer plays in the events or effects of

events recorded.

Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown to the participant.• Concealment shields the observer from the

participant to avoid error caused by the observer’s presence.

• A modified approach involves partial concealment. Whether the observer should

participate in the situation while observing.• Participant observation, exists when the

observer enters the social setting and acts as both an observer and a participant.

CONDUCTING AN OBSERVATION STUDY

The Type of Study

Simple observation Its practice is not standardized, as one would expect,

because of the discovery nature of exploratory research.

System observation It employs standardized procedures, trained

observers, schedules for recording, and other devices for the observer.

The Type of Study

Research Class Environment Purpose Research Tool

Completely unstructured

Natural setting

Generate hypotheses

Unstructured Laboratory

Structured Natural setting

Observation checklist

Completely structured

Laboratory Test hypotheses Observation checklist

The Type of Study

Observation checklist It is a measuring instrument for testing hypotheses

of class 4 studies.

Content Specification

Specific conditions, events, or activities that we want to observe determine the observational reporting system.

Observation may be at either a factual or an inferential level.

Content SpecificationFactual Inferential

Introduction/identification of salesperson and customer.

Credibility of salesperson. Qualified status of customer.

Time and day of week Convenience for the customer. Welcoming attitude of the customer.

Product presented. Customer interest in product.

Selling points presented per product.

Customer acceptance of selling points per product.

Number of customer objections raised per product.

Customer concerns about features and benefits.

Salesperson’s rebuttal of objection.

Effectiveness of salesperson’s rebuttal attempts.

Salesperson’s attempt to restore controls.

Effectiveness of salesperson’s control attempt.Consequences for customer who prefers interaction.

Observer Training

General guidelines for the qualification and observers.ConcentrationDetail-orientedUnobtrusiveExperience

Data collection

The data collection plan specifies the details of the task.

It answer the questions who, what, when, how, and where

Data collection-what

The characteristics of the observation must be set as sampling elements and units of analysis.

Event samplingThe researcher records selected behavior that

answers the investigative questions.

Time samplingThe researcher must choose among a time-point

sample, continuous real-time measurement, or a time-interval sample.

Data collection-what

Time-point sampleRecording occurs at fixed points for a specified

length.

Continuous measurementBehavior or the elapsed time of the behavior is

recorded.

Data collection-what

Any of the following could be defined as an act for an observation study:A single expressed thoughtA physical movementA facial expressionA motor skill

UNOBTRUSIVE MEASURES

Unobtrusive Measures

Innovative observational procedures that can be both nonreactive and inconspicuously applied.

Of particular interest are measures involving indirect observation based on physical traces(實體追蹤 ) that include erosion (耗損性 )and accretion(添加物 ).

Physical trace methods present a strong argument for use based on their ability to provide low-cost access to frequency, attendance, and incidence data without contamination from other method or reactivity from participants.

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