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Dalam artikel ini ada 2 soal yang harus

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E#ology

.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bufo_boreas.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:European_honey_bee_extracts_nectar.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hawk_eating_prey.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg

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$oal no! %!"elaskan a&a yang dimaksud dalam &aragra' di bawah ini (

The scientific discipline of ecology addresses the full scale of life, from tiny bacteria to

processes that span the entire planet (above). Ecologists study many diverse and complex

relationsamong species, such aspredationandpollination(middle). The diversity of life is

organized into different habitats, from terrestrial(middle) to aquatic ecosystems(bottom).

E#ology(from Greek: , "house"; -, "study of") is the scientificstudy of there!tions th!t iin# or#!nismsh!e $ith res%ect to e!ch other !nd their n!tur! enironment&'!ri!esof interest to ecoo#ists incude the com%osition, distriution, !mount (iom!ss),numer, !nd ch!n#in# st!tes of or#!nisms $ithin !nd !mon#ecosystems&cosystems !re

hier!rchic! systems th!t !re or#!ni*ed into ! #r!ded series of re#u!ry inter!ctin# !nd semi-inde%endent %!rts (e&, s%ecies) th!t !##re#!te into hi#her orders of com%e+inte#r!ted$hoes (e&, communities)& cosystems !re sust!ined y theiodiersity$ithin them&iodiersity is the fu-sc!e of ife !nd its %rocesses, incudin# #enes, s%ecies !ndecosystems formin# ine!#es th!t inte#r!te into ! com%e+ !nd re#ener!ties%!ti!!rr!n#ementof ty%es, forms, !nd inter!ctions& cosystems cre!teio%hysic!feed!ckmech!nisms et$een iin# (iotic) !nd noniin# (!iotic) com%onents of the %!net& hesefeed!ck oo%s re#u!te !nd sust!in oc! communities, continent! cim!tesystems, !nd#o!io#eochemic! cyces& heioo#ic! or#!ni*!tionof ifesef-or#!ni*esinto !yers ofemer#ent$hoe systems th!t function !ccordin# to nonreducie %ro%erties c!ed hoism&his me!ns th!t hi#her order %!tterns of ! $hoe function! system, such !s !n ecosystem,

c!nnot e %redicted or understood y ! sim%e summ!tion of the %!rts& ".e$ %ro%ertiesemer#e ec!use the com%onents inter!ct, not ec!use the !sic n!ture of the com%onents isch!n#ed&"/01:2

coo#y is ! su-disci%ine ofioo#y,the study of ife& he $ord "ecoo#y" ("3koo#ie")$!s coined in 0244 y the Germ!n scientistrnst 5!ecke(026780909)& ncient

%hioso%hers of Greece, incudin#5i%%ocr!tes!nd ristote, $ere !mon# the e!riest torecord notes !nd oser!tions on then!tur! historyof %!nts !nd !nim!s& odern ecoo#y

r!nched out of n!tur! history !nd m!tured into ! more ri#orous sciencein the !te 09thcentury& seoution!rytre!tise incudin# the conce%t of !d!%t!tion, !s it $!sintroduced in 02?9, is ! %iot! cornerstone in modern ecoo#ic! theory&coo#y is not

synonymous $ith enironment, enironment!ism,n!tur! historyor enironment! science&@t is cosey re!ted to%hysioo#y, eoution!ry ioo#y, #enetics!ndethoo#y& nunderst!ndin# of ho$ iodiersity !ffects ecoo#ic! function is !n im%ort!nt focus !re! inecoo#ic! studies& coo#ists seek to e+%!in:

Aife %rocesses !nd !d!%t!tions =istriution !nd !und!nce of or#!nisms

he moement of m!teri!s !ndener#ythrou#h iin# communities

he succession!deeo%ment of ecosystems, !nd

he !und!nce!nd distriution ofiodiersityin conte+t of the enironment&

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interspecific_interactionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interspecific_interactionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitatshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_climatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_organisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_organisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Odum05-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Haeckelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Haeckelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Haeckelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmentalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmentalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_successionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitatshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_climatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_organisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Odum05-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Haeckelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmentalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_successionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interspecific_interactionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interspecific_interactions

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coo#y is ! hum!n science !s $e& here !re m!ny %r!ctic! !%%ic!tions of ecoo#y inconser!tion ioo#y, $et!nd m!n!#ement, n!tur! resource m!n!#ement(!#ricuture,forestry,fisheries), city %!nnin# (ur!n ecoo#y), community he!th,economics,!sic!nd!%%ied science!nd hum!n soci! inter!ction (hum!n ecoo#y)& cosystems sust!in eery ife-su%%ortin# function on the %!net, incudin# cim!tere#u!tion, $!ter fitr!tion, soi

form!tion (%edo#enesis), food, fiers, medicines, erosion contro, !nd m!ny other n!tur!fe!tures of scientific, historic! or s%iritu! !ue&/B1/61/71

$oal no! 2!

"elaskan istilah istilah yang ditulis tebal dan berwarna merah di bawah ini (

0 Integrati)e le)els, sco%e, !nd sc!e of or#!ni*!tiono 0&0 5ier!rchic! ecoo#y

o 0&B *iodi)ersity

o 0&6 +abitat

o 0&7 Ni#he

0&7&0 .iche construction

o 0&? iome

o 0&4 *ios&here

o 0&C Do%u!tion ecoo#y

0&C&0 et!%o%u!tions !nd mi#r!tion

o 0&2

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o .!% *eha)ioral e#ology

o .!2 $o#ial e#ology

o .!. /oe)olution

o .!0 *iogeogra&hy

.!0!% r1K$ele#tion theory

o .!3 4ole#ular e#ology

7 5um!n ecoo#y

? He!tion to the enironment

o ?&0 =istur!nce !nd resiience

o ?&B et!oism !nd the e!ry !tmos%here

o ?&6 H!di!tion: he!t, tem%er!ture !nd i#ht

o ?&7 Dhysic! enironments

?&7&0 I!ter

?&7&B Gr!ity

?&7&6 Dressure

?&7&7 Iind !nd turuence ?&7&? Jire

?&7&4 io#eochemistry

4 5istory

o 4&0 !ry e#innin#s

o 4&B fter the turn of BFth century

C ee !so

o C&0 Aists

2 Heferences

9 Jurther re!din#

o 9&0 @ntroductory

o 9&B d!nced

0F +tern! inks

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Behavioral_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Social_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Coevolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Biogeographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#r.2FK-Selection_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Molecular_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Human_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Relation_to_the_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Disturbance_and_resiliencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Metabolism_and_the_early_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Radiation:_heat.2C_temperature_and_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Physical_environmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Wind_and_turbulencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Firehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Biogeochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Early_beginningshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#After_the_turn_of_20th_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Listshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Further_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Introductoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Advancedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Behavioral_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Social_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Coevolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Biogeographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#r.2FK-Selection_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Molecular_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Human_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Relation_to_the_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Disturbance_and_resiliencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Metabolism_and_the_early_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Radiation:_heat.2C_temperature_and_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Physical_environmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Wind_and_turbulencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Firehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Biogeochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Early_beginningshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#After_the_turn_of_20th_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Listshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Further_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Introductoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#Advancedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#External_links

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5edit6 Integrati)e le)els7 s#o&e7 and s#ale o' organization

See also:Integrative level

cosystems re#ener!te !fter ! distur!nce such !s fire, formin#mos!icsof different !#e#rou%s structured !cross ! !ndsc!%e&Dictured !re different ser! st!#es in forestedecosystems st!rtin# from %ioneers cooni*in# ! distured site !nd m!turin# in succession!st!#ese!din# to od-#ro$th forests&

he sco%e of ecoo#y coers ! $ide !rr!y of inter!ctin# ees of or#!ni*!tion s%!nnin#

micro-ee (e&, ces) to %!net!ry sc!e (e&, ecos%here)%henomen!&cosystems, fore+!m%e, cont!in%o%u!tionsof indiidu!s th!t !##re#!te into distinct ecoo#ic!communities& @t c!n t!ke thous!nds of ye!rs for ecoo#ic! %rocesses to m!ture throu#h !ndunti the fin! succession! st!#esof ! forest& he !re! of !n ecosystem c!n !ry #re!ty fromtiny to !st& sin#e tree is of itte conseKuence to the c!ssific!tion of ! forest ecosystem,

ut critic!y ree!nt to the sm!er or#!nisms iin# in !nd on it&/?1eer! #ener!tions of !n!%hid%o%u!tion c!n e+ist oer the ifes%!n of ! sin#e e!f& !ch of those !%hids, in turn,su%%ort dierse!cteri!communities&/41he n!ture of connections in ecoo#ic!communities c!nnot e e+%!ined y kno$in# the det!is of e!ch s%ecies in iso!tion, ec!usethe emer#ent %!ttern is neither ree!ed nor %redicted unti the ecosystem is studied !s !ninte#r!ted $hoe& ome ecoo#ic! %rinci%es, ho$eer, do e+hiit coectie %ro%erties $here

the sum of the com%onents e+%!in the %ro%erties of the $hoe, such !s irth r!tes of !%o%u!tion ein# eKu! to the sum of indiidu! irths oer ! desi#n!ted time fr!me&/01

5edit6 +ierar#hi#al e#ology

See also:Biological organisation

ystem eh!iours must first e !rr!yed into ees of or#!ni*!tion& eh!iors corres%ondin# to hi#herees occur !t so$ r!tes&

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e+hiit non-ine!reh!iours; "nonine!rity refers to the f!ct th!t effect !nd c!use !redis%ro%ortion!te, so th!t sm! ch!n#es in critic! !ri!es, such !s the numers of nitro#enfi+ers, c!n e!d to dis%ro%ortion!te, %erh!%s irreersie, ch!n#es in the system

%ro%erties&"/001:07

5edit6 *iodi)ersity

Main article: biodiversity

iodiersity is the !riety of ife !nd its %rocesses& @t incudes the !riety of iin# or#!nisms, the #eneticdifferences !mon# them, the communities !nd ecosystems in $hich they occur, !nd the ecoo#ic! !ndeoution!ry%rocesses th!t kee% them functionin#, yet eer ch!n#in# !nd !d!%tin#&/0B1:?

iodiersity (!n !rei!tion of ioo#ic! diersity) descries the diersity of ife from#enes to ecosystems !nd s%!ns eery ee of ioo#ic! or#!ni*!tion& iodiersity me!nsdifferent thin#s to different %eo%e !nd there !re m!ny $!ys to inde+, me!sure, ch!r!cteri*e,

!nd re%resent its com%e+ or#!ni*!tion&/061/071iodiersity incudess%ecies diersity,ecosystem diersity, #enetic diersity!nd the com%e+ %rocesses o%er!tin# !t !nd !mon#these res%ectie ees&/071/0?1/041iodiersity %!ys !n im%ort!nt roe in ecoo#ic! he!th!smuch !s it does for hum!n he!th&/0C1/021Dreentin# or %rioriti*in#s%ecies e+tinctionsis one$!y to %resere iodiersity, ut %o%u!tions, the #enetic diersity $ithin them !ndecoo#ic! %rocesses, such !s mi#r!tion, !re ein# thre!tened on #o! sc!es !nddis!%%e!rin# r!%idy !s $e& enironment&/B71/B41/BC1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-linearhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Levin99-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Levin99-10http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Noss94-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Noss94-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Noss90-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Scholes08-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Scholes08-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Scholes08-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Wilson00-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Purvis00-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Ostfeld09-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Tierney09-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_serviceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_serviceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_serviceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_capitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_capitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Wilcove08-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Svennin08-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Ceballos02-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Palumbi09-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hammond09-22http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Whittaker73-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Beyer10-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_climatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Whittaker73-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Schoener75-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Vitt97-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-linearhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Levin99-10http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Noss94-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Noss90-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Scholes08-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Scholes08-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Wilson00-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Purvis00-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Ostfeld09-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Tierney09-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_serviceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_serviceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_capitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Wilcove08-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Svennin08-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Ceballos02-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Palumbi09-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hammond09-22http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Whittaker73-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Beyer10-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_climatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Whittaker73-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Schoener75-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Vitt97-26

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iodiersity of ! cor! reef&

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niche is ! centr! conce%t in the ecoo#y of or#!nisms !nd is su-diided into thefundamental!nd the realizedniche& he fund!ment! niche is the set of enironment!conditions under $hich ! s%ecies is !e to %ersist& he re!i*ed niche is the set ofenironment! %us ecoo#ic! conditions under $hich ! s%ecies %ersists&/601/661/671he5utchisoni!n niche is defined more technic!y !s !n "ucide!nhy%ers%!ce$hose

dimensions!re defined !s enironment! !ri!es !nd $hosesizeis ! function of the numerof !ues th!t the enironment! !ues m!y !ssume for $hich !n or#!nism h!spositive

fitness&"/6?1:C0

io#eo#r!%hic!%!tterns !ndr!n#edistriutions !re e+%!ined or %redicted throu#hkno$ed#e !nd underst!ndin# of ! s%ecies tr!its!nd niche reKuirements&/641%ecies h!efunction! tr!itsth!t !re uniKuey !d!%ted to the ecoo#ic! niche& tr!it is ! me!sur!e

%ro%erty,%henoty%e, or ch!r!cteristicof !n or#!nism th!t infuences its %erform!nce& Genes%!y !n im%ort!nt roe in the deeo%ment !nd e+%ression of tr!its&/6C1Hesident s%ecies eoetr!its th!t !re fitted to their oc! enironment& his tends to !fford them ! com%etitie!d!nt!#e !nd discour!#es simi!ry !d!%ted s%ecies from h!in# !n oer!%%in# #eo#r!%hic

r!n#e& he com%etitie e+cusion %rinci%esu##ests th!t t$o s%ecies c!nnot coe+istindefinitey y iin# off the s!me imitin# resource& Ihen simi!ry !d!%ted s%ecies !refound to oer!% #eo#r!%hic!y, coser ins%ection ree!s sute ecoo#ic! differences intheir h!it!t or diet!ry reKuirements&/621ome modes !nd em%iric! studies, ho$eer, su##estth!t distur!nces c!n st!ii*e the coeoution !nd sh!red niche occu%!ncy of simi!r s%eciesinh!itin# s%ecies rich communities&/691he h!it!t %us the niche is c!ed the ecoto%e, $hichis defined !s the fu r!n#e of enironment! !nd ioo#ic! !ri!es !ffectin# !n entires%ecies&/B71

5edit6 Ni#he #onstru#tion

Main article:iche construction

See also:Ecosystem engineering

Lr#!nisms !re suMect to enironment! %ressures, ut they !re !so modifiers of theirh!it!ts& he re#u!tory feed!cket$een or#!nisms !nd their enironment c!n modifyconditions from oc! (e&, !e!er%ond) to #o! sc!es (e&,G!i!), oer time !nd een!fter de!th, such !s dec!yin# o#s or siic!skeeton de%osits from m!rine or#!nisms&/7F1he

%rocess !nd conce%t ofecosystem en#ineerin#h!s !so een c!ed niche construction&cosystem en#ineers !re defined !s: "&&&or#!nisms th!t directy or indirecty modu!te the!!i!iity of resources to other s%ecies, y c!usin# %hysic! st!te ch!n#es in iotic or

!iotic m!teri!s& @n so doin# they modify, m!int!in !nd cre!te h!it!ts&"/701:6C6

he ecosystem en#ineerin# conce%t h!s stimu!ted ! ne$ !%%reci!tion for the de#ree ofinfuence th!t or#!nisms h!e on the ecosystem !nd eoution!ry %rocess& he terms nicheconstruction !re more often used in reference to the under !%%reci!ted feed!ck mech!nismof n!tur! seection im%!rtin# forces on the !iotic niche&/B91/7B1n e+!m%e of n!tur!seection throu#h ecosystem en#ineerin# occurs in the nests of soci! insects, incudin# !nts,

ees, $!s%s, !nd termites& here is !n emer#enthomeost!sisor homeorhesisin the structureof the nest th!t re#u!tes, m!int!ins !nd defends the %hysioo#y of the entire coony& ermitemounds, for e+!m%e, m!int!in ! const!nt intern! tem%er!ture throu#h the desi#n of !ir-conditionin# chimneys& he structure of the nests themsees !re suMect to the forces ofn!tur! seection& oreoer, the nest c!n surie oer successie #ener!tions, $hich me!ns

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Wiens05-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hutchinson57b-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Begon05-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_spacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-dimensional_spacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-dimensional_spacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hardesty75-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hardesty75-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Pearman08-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotypic_traithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotypic_traithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-McGill06-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hardin60-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hardin60-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hardin60-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Scheffer06-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Whittaker73-23http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niche_constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_feedbackhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_hypothesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_hypothesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hastings07-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niche_constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Jones94-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Jones94-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Laland99-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Write06-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_insectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeorhesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Wiens05-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hutchinson57b-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Begon05-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_spacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-dimensional_spacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hardesty75-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Pearman08-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotypic_traithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotypic_traithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-McGill06-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hardin60-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Scheffer06-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Whittaker73-23http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niche_constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_feedbackhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_hypothesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hastings07-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niche_constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Jones94-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Laland99-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Write06-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_insectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeorhesis

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th!t !ncestors inherit oth #enetic m!teri! !nd ! e#!cy niche th!t $!s constructed eforetheir time&/01/B91/6F1/761

5edit6 *iome

Main article:Biome

iomes!re !r#er units of or#!ni*!tion th!t c!te#ori*e re#ions of the !rth>s ecosystemsm!iny !ccordin# to the structure !nd com%osition of e#et!tion&/771=ifferent rese!rchersh!e !%%ied different methods to define continent! ound!ries of iomes domin!ted ydifferent function! ty%es of e#et!tie communities th!t !re imited in distriution ycim!te, %reci%it!tion, $e!ther !nd other enironment! !ri!es& +!m%es of iome n!mesincude: tro%ic! r!inforest,tem%er!te ro!de!f !nd mi+ed forests,tem%er!te deciduousforest,t!i#!, tundr!,hot desert,!nd%o!r desert&/7?1Lther rese!rchers h!e recenty st!rted toc!te#ori*e other ty%es of iomes, such !s the hum!n !nd oce!nic microiomes& o ! microe,the hum!n ody is ! h!it!t !nd ! !ndsc!%e&/741he microiome h!s een !r#ey discoeredthrou#h !d!nces in moecu!r #eneticsth!t h!e ree!ed ! hidden richness of microi!diersity on the %!net& he oce!nic microiome %!ys ! si#nific!nt roe in the ecoo#ic!

io#eochemistry of the %!net>s oce!ns&/7C1

5edit6 *ios&here

Main article:Biosphere

See also:Ecosphere

coo#ic! theory h!s een used to e+%!in sef-emer#ent re#u!tory %henomen! !t the

%!net!ry sc!e& he !r#est sc!e of ecoo#ic! or#!ni*!tion is theios%here: the tot! sum ofecosystems on the %!net&coo#ic! re!tionshi%sre#u!te the fu+ of ener#y, nutrients, !ndcim!te ! the $!y u% to the %!net!ry sc!e& Jor e+!m%e, the dyn!mic history of the

%!net!ry

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"&&&! %o%u!tion $i #ro$ (or decine) e+%onenti!y !s on# !s the enironment e+%eriencedy ! indiidu!s in the %o%u!tion rem!ins const!nt&"/?B1:02

his !thusi!n %remise %roides the !sis for formu!tin# %redictie theories !nd tests th!tfoo$& im%ified %o%u!tion modesusu!y st!rt $ith four !ri!es incudin# de!th, irth,

immi#r!tion, !nd emi#r!tion& !them!tic! modes !re used to c!cu!te ch!n#es in%o%u!tion demo#r!%hicsusin# ! nu mode& nu mode is used !s ! nu hy%othesisforst!tistic! testin#&he nu hy%othesis st!tes th!tr!ndom%rocesses cre!te osered %!tterns&tern!tiey the %!tterns differ si#nific!nty from the r!ndom mode !nd reKuire furthere+%!n!tion& odes c!n e m!them!tic!y com%e+ $here "&&&seer! com%etin# hy%otheses!re simut!neousy confronted $ith the d!t!&"/?61n e+!m%e of !n introductory %o%u!tionmode descries ! cosed %o%u!tion, such !s on !n is!nd, $here immi#r!tion !nd emi#r!tiondoes not t!ke %!ce& @n these is!nd modes the r!te of %o%u!tion ch!n#e is descried y:

$hereis the tot! numer of indiidu!s in the %o%u!tion,Bis the numer of irths,"is the numer of de!ths, b!nd d!re the %er c!%it! r!tes of irth !nd de!th res%ectiey,!nd ris the %er c!%it! r!te of %o%u!tion ch!n#e& his formu! c!n e re!d out !s the r!teof ch!n#e in the %o%u!tion (d#dT) is eKu! to irths minus de!ths (B8")&/?B1/?71

Nsin# these modein# techniKues, !thus> %o%u!tion %rinci%e of #ro$th $!s !tertr!nsformed into ! mode kno$n !s theo#istic eKu!tion:

$hereis the numer of indiidu!s me!sured !siom!ssdensity, ais the m!+imum%er-c!%it! r!te of ch!n#e, !nd$is the c!rryin# c!%!cityof the %o%u!tion& heformu! c!n e re!d !s foo$s: the r!te of ch!n#e in the %o%u!tion (d#dT) is eKu!to #ro$th (a) th!t is imited y c!rryin# c!%!city (0 8O$)& he disci%ine of

%o%u!tion ecoo#y uids u%on these introductory modes to further underst!nddemo#r!%hic %rocesses in re! study %o%u!tions !nd conduct st!tistic! tests&hefied of %o%u!tion ecoo#y often uses d!t! on ife history!nd m!tri+ !#er!todeeo% %roMection m!trices on fecundity!nd suriorshi%& his inform!tion is usedfor m!n!#in# $idife stocks !nd settin# h!rest Kuot!s&/?71/??1

5edit6 4eta&o&ulations and migration

Main article:Metapopulation

See also:%nimal migration

Do%u!tions !re !so studied !nd modeed !ccordin# to the met!%o%u!tionconce%t&he met!%o%u!tion conce%t $!s introduced in 0949:/?41"!s ! %o%u!tion of

%o%u!tions $hich #o e+tinct oc!y !nd recooni*e&"/?C1:0F?et!%o%u!tion ecoo#y is!nother st!tistic! !%%ro!ch th!t is often used in conser!tion rese!rch&/?21

et!%o%u!tion rese!rch sim%ifies the !ndsc!%e into %!tches of !ryin# ees ofKu!ity&/?91et!%o%u!tions !re inked y the mi#r!tory eh!iours of or#!nisms&

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Turchin01-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_modellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emigrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_hypothesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_hypothesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Johnson04-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Turchin01-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Vandermeer03-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_function#In_ecology:_modeling_population_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_function#In_ecology:_modeling_population_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_life_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fecundityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Vandermeer03-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Berryman92-54http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metapopulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_migrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metapopulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metapopulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Levins69-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Levins69-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Levins70-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Levins70-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Smith05-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hanski98-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Turchin01-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_modellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emigrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_hypothesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Johnson04-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Turchin01-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Vandermeer03-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_function#In_ecology:_modeling_population_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_life_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fecundityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Vandermeer03-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Berryman92-54http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metapopulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_migrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metapopulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Levins69-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Levins70-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Smith05-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hanski98-58

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nim! mi#r!tion is set !%!rt from other kinds of moement ec!use it inoes these!son! de%!rture !nd return of indiidu!s from one h!it!t to !nother&/4F1i#r!tionis !so ! %o%u!tion ee %henomenon, such !s the mi#r!tion routes foo$ed y

%!nts !s they occu%ied northern %ost-#!ci! enironments& D!nt ecoo#ists rey on%oen records th!t !ccumu!te !nd str!tify in $et!nds to reconstruct the timin# of

%!nt mi#r!tion !nd dis%ers! re!tie to historic !nd contem%or!ry cim!tes& hesemi#r!tion routes inoed !n e+%!nsion of the r!n#e !s %!nt %o%u!tions e+%!ndedfrom one !re! to !nother& here is ! !r#er t!+onomy of moement, such !scommutin#, for!#in#, territori! eh!iour, st!sis, !nd r!n#in#& =is%ers! is usu!ydistin#uished from mi#r!tion ec!use it inoes the one $!y %erm!nent moementof indiidu!s from their irth %o%u!tion into !nother %o%u!tion&/401/4B1

@n met!%o%u!tion terminoo#y there !re emi#r!nts (indiidu!s th!t e!e ! %!tch),immi#r!nts (indiidu!s th!t moe into ! %!tch) !nd sites !re c!ssed either !s sourcesor sinks& site is ! #eneric term th!t refers to %!ces $here ecoo#ists s!m%e

%o%u!tions, such !s %onds or defined s!m%in# !re!s in ! forest& ource %!tches !re

%roductie sites th!t #ener!te ! se!son! su%%y ofMueniesth!t mi#r!te to other%!tch oc!tions& ink %!tches !re un%roductie sites th!t ony receie mi#r!nts !nd$i #o e+tinct uness rescued y !n !dM!cent source %!tch or enironment!conditions ecome more f!or!e& et!%o%u!tion modes e+!mine %!tch dyn!micsoer time to !ns$er Kuestions !out s%!ti! !nd demo#r!%hic ecoo#y& he ecoo#y ofmet!%o%u!tions is ! dyn!mic %rocess of e+tinction !nd cooni*!tion& m! %!tchesof o$er Ku!ity (i&e&, sinks) !re m!int!ined or rescued y ! se!son! infu+ of ne$immi#r!nts& dyn!mic met!%o%u!tion structure eoes from ye!r to ye!r, $heresome %!tches !re sinks in dry ye!rs !nd ecome sources $hen conditions !re moref!or!e& coo#ists use ! mi+ture of com%uter modes !nd fied studiesto e+%!inmet!%o%u!tion structure&/461/471

5edit6 /ommunity e#ology

Main article: &ommunity ecology

@nters%ecific inter!ctions such !s%red!tion!re ! key !s%ect of community ecoo#y&

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study in community ecoo#y mi#ht me!sure%rim!ry %roductionin ! $et!ndinre!tion to decom%osition !nd consum%tion r!tes& his reKuires !n underst!ndin# ofthe community connections et$een %!nts (i&e&, %rim!ry %roducers) !nd thedecom%osers (e&, fun#i!nd !cteri!)&/441or the !n!ysis of %red!tor-%rey dyn!mics!ffectin# !m%hii!n iom!ss&/4C1Jood $es!nd tro%hic ees!re t$o $idey

em%oyed conce%tu! modes used to e+%!in the ink!#es !mon# s%ecies&/421/491

5edit6 E#osystem e#ology

Main article:Ecosystem ecology

hese ecosystems, !s $e m!y c! them, !re of the most !rious kinds !nd si*es& hey form onec!te#ory of the mutitudinous %hysic! systems of the unierse, $hich r!n#e from the unierse !s! $hoe do$n to the !tom&

!nsey/CF1:B99

Ji#ure 0& ri%!ri!n forestin the Ihite ount!ins,.e$ 5!m%shire(N), !ne+!m%e of ecosystem ecoo#y

he conce%t of the ecosystem $!s fuy synthesi*ed in 096? to descrie h!it!ts$ithin iomes th!t form !n inte#r!ted $hoe !nd ! dyn!mic!y res%onsie systemh!in# oth %hysic! !nd ioo#ic! com%e+es& 5o$eer, the underyin# conce%t c!n

e tr!ced !ck to 0247 in the %uished $ork of Geor#e Derkins !rsh("!n !nd.!ture")&/C01/CB1Iithin !n ecosystem there !re inse%!r!e ties th!t ink or#!nisms tothe %hysic! !nd ioo#ic! com%onents of their enironment to $hich they !re!d!%ted&/CF1cosystems !re com%e+ !d!%tie systems $here the inter!ction of ife

%rocesses form sef-or#!ni*in# %!tterns !cross different sc!es of time !nd s%!ce&/C61

terrestri!,fresh$!ter, !tmos%heric, !nd m!rine ecosystemsery ro!dy coer them!Mor ty%es& =ifferences stem from the n!ture of the uniKue %hysic! enironmentsth!t sh!%es the iodiersity $ithin e!ch& more recent !ddition to ecosystem ecoo#y!re the noe technoecosystemsof the !nthro%ocene&/01

5edit6 ,ood webs

Main article:'ood (eb

See also:'ood chain

food $e is the !rchety%! ecoo#ic! net$ork& D!nts c!%ture !nd conert so!rener#yinto the iomoecu!r onds of sim%e su#!rsdurin#%hotosynthesis& his food

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Brinson81-65http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Davic04-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_webhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_webhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Paine80-67http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Abrams93-68http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Tansley35-69http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Tansley35-69http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_foresthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Mountains_(New_Hampshire)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Hampshirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Perkins_Marshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Marsh64-70http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-O.27Neil01-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-O.27Neil01-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Tansley35-69http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Tansley35-69http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Levin98-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Levin98-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoecosystemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Odum05-0http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_webhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_chainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_sugarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ecoecolfigure1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ecoecolfigure1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Brinson81-65http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Davic04-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_webhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Paine80-67http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Abrams93-68http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Tansley35-69http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_foresthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Mountains_(New_Hampshire)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Hampshirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Perkins_Marshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Marsh64-70http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-O.27Neil01-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Tansley35-69http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Levin98-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoecosystemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Odum05-0http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_webhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_chainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_sugarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis

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ener#y is tr!nsferred throu#h ! series of or#!nisms st!rtin# $ith those th!t feed on%!nts !nd !re themsees consumed& he sim%ified ine!r feedin# %!th$!ys th!tmoe from ! !s! tro%hic s%eciesto ! to% consumer is c!ed the food ch!in& he!r#er interockin# %!ttern of food ch!ins in !n ecoo#ic! community cre!tes !com%e+ food $e& Jood $es !re ! ty%e of conce%t m!%or ! heuristicdeice th!t is

used iustr!te !nd study %!th$!ys of ener#y !nd m!teri! fo$s&/C1/C71/C?1

Gener!i*ed food $e of $!terirds from

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tro%hic %yr!mid (!) !nd ! food-$e () iustr!tin# ecoo#ic! re!tionshi%s!mon#cre!tures th!t !re ty%ic! of ! northern ore!terrestri! ecosystem& he tro%hic

%yr!mid rou#hy re%resents the iom!ss (usu!y me!sured !s tot! dry-$ei#ht) !te!ch ee& D!nts #ener!y h!e the #re!test iom!ss& .!mes of tro%hic c!te#ories!re sho$n to the ri#ht of the %yr!mid& ome ecosystems, such !s m!ny $et!nds, do

not or#!ni*e !s ! strict %yr!mid, ec!use !Ku!tic %!nts !re not !s %roductie !s on#-ied terrestri! %!nts such !s trees& coo#ic! tro%hic %yr!mids !re ty%ic!y one ofthree kinds: 0) %yr!mid of numers, B) %yr!mid of iom!ss, or 6) %yr!mid of ener#y&/01

he Greek root of the $ord troph, RSTU, tro%hV, me!ns food or feedin#& Ainks infood-$es%rim!riy connect feedin# re!tions or tro%hism!mon# s%ecies&iodiersity $ithin ecosystems c!n e or#!ni*ed into ertic! !nd hori*ont!dimensions& he ertic! dimension re%resents feedin# re!tions th!t ecome furtherremoed from the !se of the food ch!in u% to$!rd to% %red!tors& tro%hic ee isdefined !s "! #rou% of or#!nisms !cKuirin# ! consider!e m!Mority of its ener#y from

the !dM!cent ee ne!rer the !iotic source&"/271:626he hori*ont! dimensionre%resents the !und!nceoriom!ss!t e!ch ee&/2?1Ihen the re!tie !und!nce or

iom!ss of e!ch function! feedin# #rou% is st!cked into their res%ectietro%hiceesthey n!tur!y sort into ! >%yr!mid of numers>&/241

Junction! #rou%s !re ro!dy c!te#ori*ed !s !utotro%hs(or%rim!ry %roducers),heterotro%hs(or consumers), !nd detriores(or decom%osers)& utotro%hs !reor#!nisms th!t c!n %roduce their o$n food (%roduction is #re!ter th!n res%ir!tion)!nd !re usu!y %!nts or cy!no!cteri!th!t !re c!%!e of%hotosynthesisut c!n !so

e other or#!nisms such !s !cteri! ne!r oce!n ents th!t !re c!%!e ofchemosynthesis& 5eterotro%hs !re or#!nisms th!t must feed on others fornourishment !nd ener#y (res%ir!tion e+ceeds %roduction)&/015eterotro%hs c!n efurther su-diided into different function! #rou%s, incudin#:%rim!ry consumers(strict heriores), second!ry consumers(c!rniorous%red!tors th!t feed e+cusieyon heriores) !nd terti!ry consumers(%red!tors th!t feed on ! mi+ of heriores !nd

%red!tors)&/2C1Lmnioresdo not fit ne!ty into ! function! c!te#ory ec!use they e!toth %!nt !nd !nim! tissues& @t h!s een su##ested th!t omniores h!e ! #re!terfunction! infuence !s %red!tors ec!use re!tie to heriores they !recom%!r!tiey inefficient !t #r!*in#&/221

ro%hic ees !re %!rt of the hoisticor com%e+ systemsie$ of ecosystems&/291/9F1

!ch tro%hic ee cont!ins unre!ted s%ecies th!t #rou%ed to#ether ec!use theysh!re common ecoo#ic! functions& Grou%in# function!y simi!r s%ecies into !

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_relationshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boreal_ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Odum05-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_webhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hariston93-83http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hariston93-83http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_species_abundancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Duffy07-84http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Elton27-85http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotrophshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_producershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterotrophshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decomposershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Odum05-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_consumershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_dynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivoroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_dynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-David03-86http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnivoreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Oksanen91-87http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holistichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Loehle88-88http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Ulanowicz79-89http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Ulanowicz79-89http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TrophicWeb.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TrophicWeb.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_relationshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boreal_ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Odum05-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_webhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hariston93-83http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_species_abundancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Duffy07-84http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Elton27-85http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotrophshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_producershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterotrophshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decomposershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Odum05-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_consumershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_dynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivoroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_dynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-David03-86http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnivoreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Oksanen91-87http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holistichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Loehle88-88http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Ulanowicz79-89

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tro%hic system #ies ! m!crosco%ic im!#e of the !r#er function! desi#n&/901Ihiethe notion of tro%hic ees %roides insi#ht into ener#y fo$ !nd to%-do$n contro$ithin food $es, it is troued y the %re!ence of omniory in re! ecosystems&his h!s e!d some ecoo#ists to "reiter!te th!t the notion th!t s%ecies ce!ry!##re#!te into discrete, homo#eneous tro%hic ees is fiction&"/9B1:20?.onetheess,

recent studies h!e sho$n th!t re! tro%hic ees do e+ist, ut "!oe the herioretro%hic ee, food $es !re etter ch!r!cteri*ed !s ! t!n#ed $e of omniores&"/961:40B

5edit6 Keystone s&e#ies

Main article:$eystone species

keystone s%eciesis ! s%ecies th!t is dis%ro%ortion!tey connected to more s%eciesin the food-$e& Eeystone s%ecies h!e o$er ees of iom!ss in the tro%hic

%yr!mid re!tie to the im%ort!nce of their roe& he m!ny connections th!t !

keystone s%ecies hods me!ns th!t it m!int!ins the or#!ni*!tion !nd structure of entirecommunities& he oss of ! keystone s%ecies resuts in ! r!n#e of dr!m!tic c!sc!din#effects th!t !ters tro%hic dyn!mics, other food-$e connections !nd c!n c!use thee+tinction of other s%ecies in the community&/971/9?1

e! otters(Enhydra lutris) !re commony cited !s !n e+!m%e of ! keystone s%eciesec!use they imit the density of se! urchinsth!t feed on ke%& @f se! otters !reremoed from the system, the urchins #r!*e unti the ke% eds dis!%%e!r !nd this h!s! dr!m!tic effect on community structure&/9415untin# of se! otters, for e+!m%e, isthou#ht to h!e indirecty ed to the e+tinction of the teer>s e! ssoi ecosystems is c!ed the%edos%here$here ! ery !r#e %ro%ortion of the !rth>s

iodiersity sorts into other tro%hic ees& @nerter!tes th!t feed !nd shred !r#ere!es, for e+!m%e, cre!te sm!er its for sm!er or#!nisms in the feedin# ch!in&

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iotur!tion& iotur!tion he%s to !er!te the sois, thus stimu!tin# hetertro%hic#ro$th !nd %roduction& iom!ss of soi microor#!nisms!re infuenced y !nd feed

!ck into the tro%hic dyn!mics of the e+%osed so!r surf!ce ecoo#y& D!eoecoo#ic!studies of sois %!ces the ori#in for iotur!tion to ! time efore the

%eriod& Lther eents, such !s the eoutionof trees !nd !m%hii!ns moin# into !nd

in the =eoni!n %eriod%!yed ! si#nific!nt roe in the deeo%ment of the ecoo#ic!tro%hism in sois&/4C1/0FB1/0F61

5edit6 E#ologi#al #om&le-ity

Main article: &omple)ity

See also:Emergence

&/0F41/0FC1

"

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reference to the sm!er %!rts& n e+!m%e of the met!%hysic! !s%ect to hoism isidentified in the trend of incre!sed e+terior thickness in shes of different s%ecies&he re!son for ! thickness incre!se c!n e understood throu#h reference to %rinci%!sof n!tur! seection i! %red!tion $ithout need to reference or underst!nd the

iomoecu!r%ro%erties of the e+terior shes&/00?1

5edit6 9elation to e)olution

Main article:Evolutionary ecology

coo#y !nd eoution !re considered sister disci%ines of the ife sciences&.!tur!seection, ife history,deeo%ment,!d!%t!tion,%o%u!tions, !nd inherit!nce!ree+!m%es of conce%ts th!t thre!d eKu!y into ecoo#ic! !nd eoution!ry theory&or%hoo#ic!, eh!ior! !ndOor #enetic tr!its, for e+!m%e, c!n e m!%%ed ontoeoution!ry trees to study the historic! deeo%ment of ! s%ecies in re!tion to their

functions !nd roes in different ecoo#ic! circumst!nces& @n this fr!me$ork, the!n!ytic! toos of ecoo#ists !nd eoutionists oer!% !s they or#!ni*e, c!ssify !ndinesti#!te ife throu#h common system!tic %rinci%!s, such !s%hyo#eneticsor theAinn!e!n system of t!+onomy&/0041he t$o disci%ines often !%%e!r to#ether, such !sin the tite of the Mourn! Trends in Ecology and Evolution&/00C1here is no sh!r%

ound!ry se%!r!tin# ecoo#y from eoution !nd they differ more in their !re!s of!%%ied focus& oth disci%ines discoer !nd e+%!in emer#ent !nd uniKue %ro%erties!nd %rocesses o%er!tin# !cross different s%!ti! or tem%or! sc!es of or#!ni*!tion&/?F1/0021/0091Ihie the ound!ry et$een ecoo#y !nd eoution is not !$!ys ce!r, it isunderstood th!t ecoo#ists study the !iotic !nd iotic f!ctors th!t infuence theeoution!ry %rocess&/0BF1/0B01

5edit6 *eha)ioral e#ology

Main article:Behavioral ecology

oci! dis%!y !nd coor !ri!tion in differenty !d!%ted s%ecies ofch!meeons(Bradypodions%%&)&

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oser!e moement or eh!ior in n!ture& his coud incude inesti#!tions ofmotie s%ermof %!nts, moie%hyto%!nkton, *oo%!nktons$immin# to$!rd thefem!e e##, the cuti!tion of fun#i y $eeis, the m!tin# d!nce of ! s!!m!nder,orsoci! #!therin#s of !moe!&/0B71/0B?1/0B41/0BC1/0B21

d!%t!tion is the centr! unifyin# conce%t in eh!ior! ecoo#y&/0B91eh!iors c!n erecorded !s tr!its !nd inherited in much the s!me $!y th!t eye !nd h!ir coor c!n&eh!iors eoe !nd ecome !d!%ted to the ecosystem ec!use they !re suMect tothe forces of n!tur! seection&/0?15ence, eh!iors c!n e !d!%tie, me!nin# th!t theyeoe function! utiities th!t incre!ses re%roductie success for the indiidu!s th!tinherit such tr!its&/06F1his is !so the technic! definition for fitnessin ioo#y, $hichis ! me!sure of re%roductie success oer successie #ener!tions&/0?1

Dred!tor-%rey inter!ctions !re !n introductory conce%t into food-$e studies !s $e!s eh!ior! ecoo#y&/0601Drey s%ecies c!n e+hiit different kinds of eh!ior!!d!%t!tions to %red!tors, such !s !oid, fee or defend& !ny %rey s%ecies !re f!ced

$ith muti%e %red!tors th!t differ in the de#ree of d!n#er %osed& o e !d!%ted totheir enironment !nd f!ce %red!tory thre!ts, or#!nisms must !!nce their ener#y

ud#ets !s they inest in different !s%ects of their ife history, such !s #ro$th,feedin#, m!tin#, soci!i*in#, or modifyin# their h!it!t& 5y%otheses %osited in

eh!ior! ecoo#y !re #ener!y !sed on !d!%tie %rinci%!s of conser!tion,o%timi*!tion or efficiency&/671/0BF1/06B1Jor e+!m%e,

"he thre!t-sensitie %red!tor !oid!nce hy%othesis %redicts th!t %rey shoud !ssessthe de#ree of thre!t %osed y different %red!tors !nd m!tch their eh!ior !ccordin#to current ees of risk&"/0661

"he o%tim! fi#ht initi!tion dist!nce occurs $here e+%ected %ostencounter fitness ism!+imi*ed, $hich de%ends on the %rey>s initi! fitness, enefits ot!in!e y notfeein#, ener#etic esc!%e costs, !nd e+%ected fitness oss due to %red!tion risk&"/0671

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplanktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplanktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weevilshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamanderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamanderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoebahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Tinbergen63-123http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hamner85-124http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Strassmann00-125http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Sakurai85-126http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Anderson61-127http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-128http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Wilson00-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Gould82-129http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitness_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Wilson00-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Wilson00-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Ives04-130http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Begon05-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Allee49-119http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Krebs93-131http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Webb10-132http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Cooper10-133http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Common_jassid_nymphs_and_ants02.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Common_jassid_nymphs_and_ants02.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplanktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplanktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weevilshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamanderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoebahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Tinbergen63-123http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hamner85-124http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Strassmann00-125http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Sakurai85-126http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Anderson61-127http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-128http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Wilson00-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Gould82-129http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitness_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Wilson00-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Ives04-130http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Begon05-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Allee49-119http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Krebs93-131http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Webb10-132http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Cooper10-133

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$ymbiosis(Ae!fho%%ers(Eurymela fenestrata) !re %rotected y !nts(Iridomyrme)purpureus) in !symioticre!tionshi%& he !nts %rotect the e!fho%%ers from%red!tors !nd in return the e!fho%%ers feedin# on %!nts e+ude honeyde$ from their!nus th!t %roides ener#y !nd nutrients to tendin# !nts&/06?1

!or!te se+u! dis%!ys!nd %osturin# !re encountered in the eh!ior! ecoo#y of!nim!s& heirds of %!r!dise, for e+!m%e, dis%!y e!or!te orn!ments !nd son#durin# courtshi%& hese dis%!ys sere ! du! %ur%ose of si#n!in# he!thy or $e-!d!%ted indiidu!s !nd desir!e #enes& he e!or!te dis%!ys !re drien y se+u!seection !s !n !dertisement of Ku!ity of tr!its !mon# m!e suitors&/0641

5edit6 $o#ial e#ology

Main article: Social ecology

oci! ecoo#ic! eh!iors !re not!e in the soci! insects, sime mouds,soci!s%iders,hum!n society, !ndn!ked moe r!ts$here eusoci!ismh!s eoed& oci!

eh!iors incude reci%roc!y enefici! eh!iors !mon# kin !nd nest m!tes&/0?1/0B41/06C1oci! eh!iors eoe from kin !nd #rou% seection& Ein seectione+%!ins!truism throu#h #enetic re!tionshi%s, $herey !n !truistic eh!ior e!din# to de!this re$!rded y the suri! of #enetic co%ies distriuted !mon# suriin# re!ties&he soci! insects, incudin# !nts,ees!nd $!s%s!re most f!mousy studied for thisty%e of re!tionshi% ec!use the m!e drones !re conesth!t sh!re the s!me #eneticm!ke-u% !s eery other m!e in the coony&/0?1@n contr!st, #rou% seectionistsfinde+!m%es of !truism !mon# non-#enetic re!ties !nd e+%!in this throu#h seection!ctin# on the #rou%, $herey it ecomes seectiey !d!nt!#eous for #rou%s if their

memers e+%ress !truistic eh!iors to one !nother& Grou%s th!t !re %redomin!nty!truists e!t #rou%s th!t !re %redomin!nty sefish&/0?1/0621

5edit6 /oe)olution

Main article: &oevolution

coo#ic! inter!ctions c!n e diided into host !nd !ssoci!te re!tionshi%s& host is!ny entity th!t h!rors !nother th!t is c!ed the !ssoci!te&/06915ost !nd !ssoci!tere!tionshi%s !mon# s%eciesth!t !re mutu!y or reci%roc!y enefici! !re c!edmutu!isms& @f the host !nd !ssoci!te !re %hysic!y connected, the re!tionshi% is

c!ed symiosis& %%ro+im!tey 4FW of ! %!nts, for e+!m%e, h!e ! symioticre!tionshi% $ith !ruscu!r mycorrhi*! fun#i& ymiotic %!nts !nd fun#i e+ch!n#ec!rohydr!tes for miner! nutrients&/07F1ymiosis differs from indirect mutu!isms$here the or#!nisms ie !%!rt& Jor e+!m%e, tro%ic! r!inforests re#u!te the !rth>s!tmos%here& rees iin# in the eKu!tori! re#ions of the %!net su%%y o+y#en intothe !tmos%here th!t sust!ins s%ecies iin# in dist!nt %o!r re#ions of the %!net& hisre!tionshi% is c!ed commens!ismec!use m!ny other host s%ecies receie the

enefits of ce!n !ir !t no cost or h!rm to the !ssoci!te tree s%ecies su%%yin# theo+y#en&/0701he host !nd !ssoci!te re!tionshi% is c!ed%!r!sitismif one s%ecies

enefits $hie the other suffers&

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8arasites( h!restm!n !r!chnidis %!r!siti*ed y mites&his is %!r!sitism ec!usethe h!restm!n is ein# consumed !s its Muices !re so$y sucked out $hie the mites#!in ! the enefits tr!ein# on !nd feedin# off of their host&

Do%u!r ecoo#ic! study systems for mutu!ism incude, fun#us-#ro$in# !ntsem%oyin# !#ricutur! symiosis, !cteri! iin# in the #uts of insects !nd otheror#!nisms, the fi# $!s%!nd yucc! moth%oin!tion com%e+, ichens$ith fun#i !nd

%hotosynthetic !#!e, !nd cor!s$ith %hotosynthetic !#!e&/0761/0771.eertheess, m!ny

or#!nisms e+%oit host re$!rds $ithout reci%roc!tin# !nd thus h!e een r!nded$ith ! myri!d of not-ery-f!tterin# n!mes such !s >che!ters>, >e+%oiters>, >roers>,!nd >thiees>& thou#h che!ters im%ose seer! host cots (e&, i! d!m!#e to theirre%roductie or#!ns or %ro%!#ues, denyin# the serices of ! enefici! %!rtner), theirnet effect on host fitness is not necess!riy ne#!tie !nd, thus, ecomes difficut toforec!st&/07?1/0741

5edit6 *iogeogra&hy

Main article:Biogeography

he $ord biogeographyis !n !m!#!m!tion of biology!ndgeography& io#eo#r!%hyis the com%!r!tie study of the #eo#r!%hic distriution of or#!nisms !nd thecorres%ondin# eoution of their tr!its in s%!ce !nd time&/07C1he Pourn! ofio#eo#r!%hy $!s est!ished in 09C7&/0721io#eo#r!%hy !nd ecoo#y sh!re m!ny oftheir disci%in!ry roots& Jor e+!m%e, the theory of is!nd io#eo#r!%hy,%uished ythe m!them!tici!n Hoert !crthur!nd ecoo#ist d$!rd L& Iisonin 094C/0791isconsidered one of the fund!ment!s of ecoo#ic! theory&/0?F1

io#eo#r!%hy h!s ! on# history in the n!tur! sciences $here Kuestions !riseconcernin# the s%!ti! distriution of %!nts !nd !nim!s& coo#y !nd eoution

%roide the e+%!n!tory conte+t for io#eo#r!%hic! studies&/07C1

io#eo#r!%hic!%!tterns resut from ecoo#ic! %rocesses th!t infuence r!n#e distriutions, such !s

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachnidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus-growing_antshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fig_wasphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yucca_mothhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Herre99-142http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Gilbert90-143http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-144http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-145http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Perenti90-146http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-147http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island_biogeographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island_biogeographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_MacArthurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_O._Wilsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-MacArthur67-148http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Wiens04-149http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Perenti90-146http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Parasitismus.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Parasitismus.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachnidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus-growing_antshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fig_wasphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yucca_mothhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Herre99-142http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Gilbert90-143http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-144http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-145http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Perenti90-146http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-147http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island_biogeographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_MacArthurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_O._Wilsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-MacArthur67-148http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Wiens04-149http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Perenti90-146

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mi#r!tion!nddis%ers!&/0?F1!nd from historic! %rocesses th!t s%it %o%u!tions ors%ecies into different !re!s&/0?01he io#eo#r!%hic %rocesses th!t resut in the n!tur!s%ittin# of s%ecies e+%!ins much of the modern distriution of the !rth>s iot!& hes%ittin# of ine!#es in ! s%ecies is c!ed ic!ri!nce io#eo#r!%hy!nd it is ! su-disci%ine of io#eo#r!%hy&/0?01/0?B1/0?61here !re !so %r!ctic! !%%ic!tions in the fied

of io#eo#r!%hy concernin# ecoo#ic! systems !nd %rocesses& Jor e+!m%e, ther!n#e !nd distriution of iodiersity !nd in!sie s%ecies res%ondin# to cim!tech!n#e is ! serious concern !nd !ctie !re! of rese!rch in conte+t of #o! $!rmin#&/BF1/0?71

5edit6 r!"$ele#tion theory

Main article: r#$ selection

%o%u!tion ecoo#yconce%t (introduced in !crthur !nd Iison>s (094C) ook,The Theory of Island Biogeography) is rOE seection theory, one of the first %redictie

modes in ecoo#y used to e+%!in ife-history eoution& he %remise ehind the rOEseection mode is th!t n!tur! seection %ressures ch!n#e !ccordin# to%o%u!tiondensity& Jor e+!m%e, $hen !n is!nd is first cooni*ed, density of indiidu!s is o$&he initi! incre!se in %o%u!tion si*e is notimited y com%etition, e!in# !n!und!nce of !!i!e resources for r!%id %o%u!tion #ro$th& hese e!ry %h!ses of

%o%u!tion #ro$the+%erience density*independentforces of n!tur! seection, $hichis c!ed r-seection& s the %o%u!tion ecomes more cro$ded, it !%%ro!ches theis!nd>s c!rryin# c!%!city, thus forcin# indiidu!s to com%ete more he!iy for fe$er!!i!e resources& Nnder cro$ded conditions the %o%u!tion e+%eriences density-de%endent forces of n!tur! seection, c!ed$-seection&/0??1

@n the r#$-seection mode, the first !ri!e ris the intrinsic r!te of n!tur! incre!sein %o%u!tion si*e !nd the second !ri!e$is the c!rryin# c!%!city of ! %o%u!tion&/671=ifferent s%ecies eoe different ife-history str!te#ies s%!nnin# ! continuum

et$een these t$o seectie forces& n r-seected s%ecies is one th!t h!s hi#h irthr!tes, o$ ees of %!rent! inestment, !nd hi#h r!tes of mort!ity efore indiidu!sre!ch m!turity& oution f!ors hi#h r!tes of fecundityin r-seected s%ecies& !nykinds of insects !nd in!sie s%eciese+hiit r-seected ch!r!cteristics&@n contr!st, !

$-seected s%ecies h!s o$ r!tes of fecundity, hi#h ees of %!rent! inestment inthe youn#, !nd o$ r!tes of mort!ity !s indiidu!s m!ture& 5um!ns !nd ee%h!nts!re e+!m%es of s%ecies e+hiitin#$-seected ch!r!cteristics, incudin# on#eity !nd

efficiency in the conersion of more resources into fe$er offs%rin#&/0791/0?41

5edit6 4ole#ular e#ology

Main article:Molecular ecology

he im%ort!nt re!tionshi% et$een ecoo#y !nd #enetic inherit!nce %red!tes moderntechniKues for moecu!r !n!ysis& oecu!r ecoo#ic! rese!rch ec!me morefe!sie $ith the deeo%ment of r!%id !nd !ccessie #enetic technoo#ies, such !sthe%oymer!se ch!in re!ction (D

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%!yed ! e!din# roe in this !re! of science $ith the %uic!tion of his ook,Molecular Mar+ers, atural History and Evolution&/0?21.e$er technoo#ies o%ened !$!e of #enetic !n!ysis into or#!nisms once difficut to study from !n ecoo#ic! oreoution!ry st!nd%oint, such !s !cteri!, fun#i !nd nem!todes& oecu!r ecoo#yen#endered ! ne$ rese!rch %!r!di#m for inesti#!tin# ecoo#ic! Kuestions

considered other$ise intr!ct!e& oecu!r inesti#!tions ree!ed %reiousyoscured det!is in the tiny intric!cies of n!ture !nd im%roed resoution into %roin#Kuestions !out eh!ior! !nd io#eo#r!%hic! ecoo#y&/0?21Jor e+!m%e, moecu!recoo#y ree!ed%romiscuousse+u! eh!ior !nd muti%e m!e %!rtners intrees$!o$s%reiousy thou#ht to e soci!y mono#!mous&/0?91@n ! io#eo#r!%hic!conte+t, the m!rri!#e et$een #enetics, ecoo#y !nd eoution resuted in ! ne$ su-disci%ine c!ed%hyo#eo#r!%hy&/04F1

5edit6 +uman e#ology

Main article:Human ecology

5um!n ecoo#y is the interdisci%in!ryinesti#!tion into the ecoo#y of our s%ecies&"5um!n ecoo#y m!y e defined: (0) from ! io-ecoo#ic! st!nd%oint !s the study ofm!n !s the ecoo#ic! domin!nt in %!nt !nd !nim! communities !nd systems; (B)from ! io-ecoo#ic! st!nd%oint !s sim%y !nother !nim! !ffectin# !nd ein#!ffected y his %hysic! enironment; !nd (6) !s ! hum!n ein#, someho$ differentfrom !nim! ife in #ener!, inter!ctin# $ith %hysic! !nd modified enironments in !distinctie !nd cre!tie $!y& truy interdisci%in!ry hum!n ecoo#y $i most ikey!ddress itsef to ! three&"/0401he term hum!n ecoo#y $!s form!y introduced in09B0, ut m!ny socioo#ists, #eo#r!%hers, %sychoo#ists, !nd other disci%ines $ere

interested in hum!n re!tions to n!tur! systems centuries %rior, es%eci!y in the !te09th century&/0401/04B1ome !uthors h!e identified ! ne$ unifyin# science in cou%edhum!n !nd n!tur! systemsth!t uids u%on, ut moes eyond the fied hum!necoo#y&/0461coo#y is !s much ! ioo#ic! science !s it is ! hum!n science&/01"Derh!%s the most im%ort!nt im%ic!tion inoes our ie$ of hum!n society&Homo

sapiensis not !n e+tern! distur!nce, it is ! keystone s%ecies $ithin the system& @nthe on# term, it m!y not e the m!#nitude of e+tr!cted #oods !nd serices th!t $idetermine sust!in!iity& @t m!y $e e our disru%tion of ecoo#ic! recoery !ndst!iity mech!nisms th!t determines system co!%se&"/CB1:6B2B

5edit6 9elation to the en)ironmenthe enironment is dyn!mic!y interinked, im%osed u%on !nd constr!ins or#!nisms!t !ny time throu#hout their ife cyce&/0471Aike the term ecoo#y, enironment h!sdifferent conce%tu! me!nin#s !nd to m!ny these terms !so oer!% $ith the conce%tof nature& nironment "&&&incudes the %hysic! $ord, the soci! $ord of hum!nre!tions !nd the uit $ord of hum!n cre!tion&"/04?1:4Bhe enironment in ecosystemsincudes oth %hysic! %!r!meters !nd iotic !ttriutes& he %hysic! enironment ise+tern! to the ee of ioo#ic! or#!ni*!tion under inesti#!tion, incudin# !ioticf!ctors such !s tem%er!ture, r!di!tion, i#ht, chemistry, cim!te!nd #eoo#y& he

iotic enironment incudes #enes, ces, or#!nisms, memers of the s!me s%ecies

(cons%ecifics) !nd other s%ecies th!t sh!re ! h!it!t&/0441he !$s of thermodyn!mics!%%ies to ecoo#y y me!ns of its %hysic! st!te& rmed $ith !n underst!ndin# of

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Avise94-157http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Avise94-157http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promiscuoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_swallowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_swallowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_swallowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monogamoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Obryan07-158http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogeographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Avise00-159http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Young74-160http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Young74-160http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Gross04-161http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupled_human_and_natural_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupled_human_and_natural_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Liu09-162http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Odum05-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-O.27Neil01-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-O.27Neil01-71http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Mason57-163http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Kleese01-164http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-165http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-165http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Avise94-157http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Avise94-157http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promiscuoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_swallowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_swallowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monogamoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Obryan07-158http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogeographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Avise00-159http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Young74-160http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Young74-160http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Gross04-161http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupled_human_and_natural_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupled_human_and_natural_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Liu09-162http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Odum05-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-O.27Neil01-71http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Mason57-163http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Kleese01-164http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-165http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamics

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met!oic !nd thermodyn!mic %rinci%es ! com%ete !ccountin# of ener#y !ndm!teri! fo$ c!n e tr!ced throu#h !n ecosystem&/04C1

nironment! !nd ecoo#ic! re!tions !re studied throu#h reference to conce%tu!ym!n!#e!e !nd iso!ted %!rts& Lnce the effectie enironment! com%onents !re

understood they conce%tu!y ink !ck to#ether !s ! holocoenotic/0421system& @n other$ords, the or#!nism !nd the enironment form ! dyn!mic $hoe (or um$et)&/0491:B?Bs !tmos%here tr!nsformed from ein#domin!ted y hydro#en, to one com%osed mosty of meth!ne!nd!mmoni!& Ler thene+t iion ye!rs the met!oic !ctiity of ife tr!nsformed the !tmos%here to hi#herconcentr!tions of c!ron dio+ide, nitro#en, !nd $!ter !%or& hese #!ses ch!n#ed the$!y th!t i#ht from the sun hit the !rth>s surf!ce !nd #reenhouse effects tr!%%edhe!t& here $ere unt!%%ed sources of free ener#y $ithin the mi+ture ofreducin#!ndo+idi*in##!sses th!t set the st!#e for %rimitie ecosystems to eoe !nd, in turn, the!tmos%here !so eoed&/0C21

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Kormondy95-166http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-167http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umwelthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-billions52-168http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Singh06-169http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Marcello58-170http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resilience_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hughes10-171http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Levin92-172http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hughes10-171http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Holling73-173http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Folke04-174http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Folke04-174http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Ernst03-175http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Ernst03-175http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Ernst03-175http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-All.C3.A8gre95-176http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reducinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reducinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Wills01-177http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Kormondy95-166http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-167http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umwelthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-billions52-168http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Singh06-169http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Marcello58-170http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resilience_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hughes10-171http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Levin92-172http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Hughes10-171http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Holling73-173http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Folke04-174http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Folke04-174http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Ernst03-175http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-All.C3.A8gre95-176http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reducinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Wills01-177

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he e!fis the %rim!ry site of%hotosynthesisin most %!nts&

hrou#hout history, the !rth>s !tmos%here !ndio#eochemic! cycesh!e een in !dyn!mic eKuiirium$ith %!net!ry ecosystems& he history is ch!r!cteri*ed y

%eriods of si#nific!nt tr!nsform!tion foo$ed y miions of ye!rs of st!iity&/0C91he eoution of the e!riest or#!nisms, ikey !n!eroic meth!no#enmicroes,

st!rted the %rocess y conertin# !tmos%heric hydro#en into meth!ne (75BX

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5edit6 :ater

Main article:%2uatic ecosystem

Iet!nd conditions such !s sh!o$ $!ter, hi#h %!nt %roductiity, !nd !n!eroic sustr!tes

%roide ! suit!e enironment for im%ort!nt %hysic!, ioo#ic!, !nd chemic! %rocesses&ec!use of these %rocesses, $et!nds %!y ! it! roe in #o! nutrient !nd eementcyces&:B9/0201

he r!te of diffusion of c!ron dio+ide !nd o+y#en is !%%ro+im!tey 0F,FFF timesso$er in $!ter th!n it is in !ir& Ihen sois ecome fooded, they Kuicky ose o+y#en!nd tr!nsform into ! o$-concentr!tion (hy%o+ic- LBconcentr!tion o$er th!nB m#Oiter) enironment !nd eentu!y ecome com%etey (!no+ic) enironment$here !n!eroic !cteri!thrie !mon# the roots& I!ter !so infuences the s%ectr!com%osition!nd !mount of i#ht !s it refects off the $!ter surf!ce !nd sumer#ed

%!rtices&/0201Ku!tic %!nts e+hiit ! $ide !riety of mor%hoo#ic! !nd %hysioo#ic!

!d!%t!tions th!t !o$ them to surie, com%ete !nd diersify these enironments&Jor e+!m%e, the roots !nd stems deeo% !r#e !ir s%!ces (erenchym!) th!t re#u!tethe efficient tr!ns%ort!tion #!ses (for e+!m%e, %hysioo#ic! !d!%t!tions, such !s the deeo%ment of s%eci! or#!ns for sheddin#s!t !nd osmo-re#u!te their intern! s!t (.!

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5edit6 ,ire

Main article:'ire ecology

Jorest fires modify the !nd y e!in# ehind !n enironment! mos!ic th!t diersifies the !ndsc!%e into differentser!st!#es !nd h!it!ts of !ried Ku!ity (eft)& ome s%ecies !re !d!%ted to forest fires, such !s %ine trees th!t o%entheir cones ony !fter fire e+%osure (ri#ht)&

D!nts conert c!ron dio+ide into iom!ss !nd emit o+y#en into the !tmos%here&/0921%%ro+im!tey 6?F miion ye!rs !#o (ne!r the =eoni!n %eriod) the %hotosynthetic

%rocess rou#ht the concentr!tion of !tmos%heric o+y#en !oe 0CW, $hich !o$edcomustion to occur&/0991Jire ree!ses

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cycesof the !rth& Nnderst!ndin# the re!tions !nd cyces medi!ted et$een theseeements !nd their ecoo#ic! %!th$!ys h!s si#nific!nt e!rin# to$!rd underst!ndin##o! io#eochemistry&/BF91

he ecoo#y of #o! c!ron ud#ets #ies one e+!m%e of the ink!#e et$een

iodiersity !nd io#eochemistry& Jor st!rters, the !rth>s oce!ns !re estim!ted tohod 7F,FFF #i#!tonnes (Gt) c!ron, e#et!tion !nd soi is estim!ted to hod BFCF Gtc!ron, !nd fossi fue emissions !re estim!ted to emit !n !nnu! fu+ of 4&6 Gtc!ron&/B0F1t different times in the !rth>s history there h!s een m!Mor restructurin#in these #o! c!ron ud#ets th!t $!s re#u!ted to ! !r#e e+tent y the ecoo#y ofthe !nd& Jor e+!m%e, throu#h the e!ry-mid ocene oc!nic out#!ssin#, theo+id!tion of meth!ne stored in $et!nds, !nd se!foor #!ses incre!sed !tmos%heric

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e+!mined the inter!ction of or#!nisms $ith oth their enironment !nd theircommunity& .!tur! histori!ns, incudin# P!mes 5utton!nd Pe!n-!%tiste A!m!rck,contriuted si#nific!nt $orks th!t !id the found!tions of the modern ecoo#ic!sciences&/BBB1he term "ecoo#y" (Germ!n: 1e+ologie) is of ! more recent ori#in !nd$!s first coined y the Germ!n ioo#ist rnst 5!eckein his ook 0enerelle

Morphologie der 1rganismen(0244)& 5!ecke $!s ! *ooo#ist, !rtist, $riter, !nd!ter in ife ! %rofessor of com%!r!tie !n!tomy&/BB61/BB71

y ecoo#y $e me!n the ody of kno$ed#e concernin# the economy of n!ture-theinesti#!tion of the tot! re!tions of the !nim! oth to its inor#!nic !nd its or#!nicenironment; incudin#, !oe !, its friendy !nd inimic! re!tions $ith those !nim!s !nd

%!nts $ith $hich it comes directy or indirecty into cont!ct-in ! $ord, ecoo#y is the studyof ! those com%e+ interre!tions referred to y =!r$in !s the conditions of the stru##e ofe+istence&

5!ecke>s definition Kuoted in sMorn-5!r#ens/BB?1:4

rnst 5!ecke(eft) !nd u#enius I!rmin#(ri#ht), t$o founders of ecoo#y

L%inions differ on $ho $!s the founder of modern ecoo#ic! theory& ome m!rk

5!ecke>s definition !s the e#innin#,/BB41others s!y it $!su#enius I!rmin#$iththe $ritin# of Lecoo#y of D!nts: n @ntroduction to the tudy of D!nt %hr!se on the economy or polity of nature&/BB61Ainn!eus $!s the first to fr!me the!!nce of n!ture!s ! test!e hy%othesis&5!ecke, $ho !dmired =!r$in>s $ork, defined ecoo#y in reference to the economyof n!ture $hich h!s ed some to Kuestion if ecoo#y is synonymous $ith Ainn!eus>conce%ts for the economy of n!ture&/BB21

he modern synthesis of ecoo#y is ! youn# science, $hich first !ttr!cted sust!nti!form! !ttention !t the end of the 09th century (!round the s!me time !s eoution!rystudies) !nd ecome een more %o%u!r durin# the 094Fs enironment! moement,/BBB1thou#h m!ny oser!tions, inter%ret!tions !nd discoeries re!tin# to ecoo#ye+tend !ck to much e!rier studies in n!tur! history& Jor e+!m%e, the conce%t onthe !!nce or re#u!tion of n!ture c!n e tr!ced !ck to5erodotos(died c& 7B? s students,

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