1

GE 2021/ENVIRONMENTAL

SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING B.E. Mechanical Engineering

June 2014 Nov 2014

Prepared by

Dr. P. GOPI KRISHNA

SLAEC

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ECOSYSTEM AND BIODIVERSITY

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ECOSYSTEM Defined area in which a community lives with interaction taking place among the organisms between the community and its non-living physical environment

An ecosystem is formed by the interaction between all living and non-living things

Structure:

Living (biotic)

Nonliving (abiotic)

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ABIOTIC components:

Solar energy provides practically all the energy for ecosystems.

Inorganic substances, e.g., sulfur, boron and carbon cycle through ecosystems.

Organic compounds, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and other complex molecules, form a link between biotic and abiotic components of the system.

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BIOTIC components: The biotic components of an ecosystem can be classified

according to their mode of energy acquisition.

In this type of classification, there are:

Autotrophs Organisms that produce their own food from an energy source, such as the sun, and inorganic compounds.

Heterotrophs Organisms that consume other organisms as a food source.

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Producers are able to capture the sun's energy through

photosynthesis and absorb nutrients from the soil, storing them for future use by themselves and by other organisms. Grasses, shrubs, trees, mosses, lichens, and cyanobacteria.

Consumers are organisms that do not have the

ability to capture the energy produced by the sun, but consume plant and/or animal material to gain their energy for growth and activity. Consumers are further divided into three types based on their ability to digest plant and animal material

Herbivores eat only plants Deer, Elephant and Goat 6 GE2021-EVS 08/06/2014

Carnivores eat only animals, such as the snake, lion, tiger etc.,

Omnivores eat both plants and animals, such as the black bear, mice, rat, human etc.,

Decomposers they feed on dead organic matter that includes the insects, fungi, algae and bacteria both on the ground and in the soil that help to break down the organic layer to provide nutrients for growing plants. There are many millions of these organisms in each square metre of grassland.

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Tropic Levels

A tropic level is the position occupied by an organism in a food chain.

Tropic levels can be analyzed on an energy pyramid.

Producers are found at the base of the pyramid and compromise the first tropic level.

Primary consumers make up the second tropic level.

Secondary consumers make up the third tropic level.

Finally tertiary consumers make up the top tropic level.

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Food web

In nature simple food chains occur rarely

The same organism may operate in the ecosystem at more

than one tropic level i.e. it may derive its food from more

than one source. Even the same organism may be eaten by

several organisms of a higher tropic level or an organism

may feed upon several different organisms of a lower

tropic level. usually the kind of food changes with the age

of the organism and the food availability. Thus in a given

ecosystem various food chains are linked together and

interested each other to form a complex network called

food Web.

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ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

In a particular area, one community of species may be replaced by another community; The progressive replacement of one community by another till the development of stable community in a particular area is called as ecological succession.

TYPES OF SUCCESSION

Primary succession.

If an area in any of the basic environments (such as terrestrial, fresh-water or marine) is established by organisms for the first time, the succession is called primary succession.

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Secondary succession.

If the area under established has been cleared by whatsoever agency (such as burning, grazing, clearing, felling of trees, sudden change in climatic factors, etc.) of the previous plants, it is called secondary succession.

Autogenic succession.

After the succession has begun, in most of the cases, it is the community itself (as a result of its reactions with the environment) modifies its own environment and, thus, causing its own replacement by new communities. This course of succession is known as autogenic succession.

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ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM:

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. For living organisms, it is the basic force responsible for running all the metabolic activities. The flow of energy from producer level to top consumer level is called energy flow.

The flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional. It flows from producer level to consumer level.

The process of energy flow involves transfer of energy from autotrophs to various components of heterotrophs and help in maintaining bio diversity. The main source of energy in the ecosystem is sunlight. About 80% of energy is lost during flow of energy from one tropic level to the next one.

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Food Chain in Ecosystem

In an ecosystem one can observe the transfer or flow of energy from one tropic level to other in succession.

A tropic level can be defined as the number of links by which it is separated from the producer, or as the which position of the organism in the food chain.

Thus, primary producers trap radiant energy of sun and transfer that to chemical or potential energy of organic compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

When a herbivore animal eats a plant (or when bacteria decompose it) and these organic compounds are oxidized, the energy liberated is just equal to the amount of energy used in synthesizing the substances (first law of thermodynamics), but some of the energy is heat and not useful energy (second law of thermodynamics).

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If this animal is eaten by another one, along with transfer of energy from a herbivore to carnivore a further decrease in useful energy occurs as the second animal (carnivore) oxidizes the organic substances of the first (herbivore or omnivore) to liberate energy to synthesize its own cellular constituents.

Such transfer of energy from organism to organism sustains the ecosystem and when energy is transferred from individual to individual in a particular community, as in a pond or a lake or a river, we come across the food chains.

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Ecological Pyramids

In the successive steps of grazing food chain producers, herbivorous, carnivores and decay bacteria-the number and mass of the organisms in each step is limited by the amount of energy available. Since some energy is lost as heat, in each transformation the steps become progressively smaller near the top. This relationship is sometimes called "ecological pyramid". The ecological pyramids represent the tropic structure and also tropic function of the ecosystem.

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Definition:

Graphical representation of structure and

function of tropic levels of an ecosystem.

Types of Ecological Pyramids

The ecological pyramids may be of following three kinds

Pyramid of number

Pyramid of biomass

Pyramid of energy

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Pyramid of number

It depicts the number of individual organisms at different tropic levels of food chain. The animals at the lower end (base of pyramid) of the chain are the most abundant. Successive links of carnivores decrease rapidly in number until there are very few carnivores at the top. The pyramid of number ignores the biomass of organisms and it also does not indicate the energy transferred or the use of energy by the groups involved. The grassland ecosystem provides a typical example for pyramid of number.

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Pyramid of biomass

The biomass of the members of the food chain present at any one time forms the pyramid of the biomass. Pyramid of biomass indicates decrease of biomass in each tropical level from base to apex. For example, the total biomass of the producers ingested by herbivores is more than the total biomass of the herbivores in an ecosystem. Likewise, the total biomass of the primary carnivores (or secondary consumer) will be less than the herbivores and so on.

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Pyramid of energy

When production is considered in terms of energy, the pyramid indicates not only the amount of energy flow at each level the actual role the various organisms play in the transfer of energy. the pyramid of energy is constructed is the quantity of organisms produced per unit time.

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Classification of Ecosystems / Ecology

Terrestrial Ecosystems -which encompass the activities that take place on land. Aquatic ecosystems - the system that exists in water bodies.

Terrestrial ecosystem Forest ecosystem Desert ecosystem Grassland ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystem Pond ecosystem River or stream ecosystem Marine ecosystem Estuarine ecosystem

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FOREST ECOSYSTEM

A forest ecosystem is the one in which a tall and dense trees grow that support many animals and birds.

Forest occupies 40%

Total land area is 19% in India.

There are three important types of forests are

Tropical rain forests.

Temperate deciduous forests.

Coniferous forests.

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Tropical rain forests

They are found near the equator.

These forests have a warm annual mean temperature.

These forests have high humidity and heavy rainfall almost daily.

These forests consists of broadleaf ever green plants.

These trees have larger surface on their leaves that allows them to collect more sunlight and do photosynthesis extensively.

Tropical rain forests have wide varieties of species.

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Temperate Deciduous forests: Temperate deciduous forests can be found in the eastern part of the United States and Canada, Europe ,China and Japan

Winter, spring and summer. Winters are cold and summers are warm.

Temperate deciduous forests have a great variety of plant species.

Conifers like spruce, fir and pine trees can also be found mixed in with the hardwood trees.

There is great diversity of life. Insects, fox,deer etc., are common.

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Coniferous forests:

The temperate coniferous forest includes areas South America, New Zealand North America, northwest Europe and Iceland and southern Japan

Many softwood trees such as fir, pine, spruce.

Most animals are herbivores, however some carnivores and omnivores are thrown in. Animals in Coniferous Forests include the red fox, moose and owl.

Coniferous Forests are the largest land of the World.

A Conifer is a tree that produces its seeds in cones. The Pine tree is the most common example. Conifer leaves conserve water with the thick, waxy layer that covers their leaves.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan

STRUCTURE OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:

Climate factors(Temp,light,rainfall)

BIOTIC COMPONENTS: 1.Producers: Trees,shrubs etc., 2.Consumers: Primary consumers : ants,flies & insects Secondary consumers : snakes,birds. Tertiary consumers : tiger,lion. 3.Decomposers: Bacteria,fungi 35 GE2021-EVS 08/06/2014

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM

20% of earth surface.

It improves the production of grasslands.

Overgrazing leads to desertification.

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There are three types of grasslands

A. Tropical grasslands

B. Temperate grasslands

C. Polar grasslands

Tropical grasslands

They has high temperature and moderate rain fall, 40-100cm.They have tall grasses with scatteres shrubs.They are the shelter for animals like zebras, giraffes and African elephant. Savanna grassland in Africa is good example for tropical grassland.

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Temperate grasslands: Cold in Winters and hot in summers, annual

precipitation is less and falls unevenly through the year. Pampas in South America and Veldt in Africa are examples for temperate grasslands.

Polar grasslands:

It is also known as arctic polar region. Severe cold and strong winds along with ice and snow. They have animals like arctic fox.

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STRUCTURE OF GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:

Climate factors(Temp,light,rainfall),C,H,O,N.,

BIOTIC COMPONENTS: 1.Producers: Grass,shrubs etc., 2.Consumers: Primary consumers : cow,deer. Secondary consumers : snakes,birds. Tertiary consumers : hawks,eagle 3.Decomposers: Bacteria,fungi 39 GE2021-EVS 08/06/2014

DESERT ECOSYSTEM

Deserts are dry places with unpredictable and infrequent precipitation.

Desert occupies about 35%

It is characterizes by 25 cm rain fall.

The atmosphere is dry.

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STRUCTURE OF DESERT ECOSYSTEM ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:

Climate factors(Temp,light,rainfall)

BIOTIC COMPONENTS: 1.Producers: Trees,grass etc., 2.Consumers:Squirrels,foxes,rabbits. 3.Decomposers: Bacteria,fungi

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WATER or AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS The aquatic system deals with water bodies.The

major types of organism found in this ecosystem.

1.Fresh water ecosystem :Ponds,river,stream,lake.

2.Salt water ecosystem: oceans and estuaries.

POND ECOSYSTEM:

It contains algae,plants,insects,fish.

Characteristic :

1.Pond is temporary,seasonal,get polluted easily.

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Lake ecosystem:

Littoral zone light penetrates to the bottom, allowing aquatic

plants to grow. Limnetic zone

the open water area where light does not generally penetrate all the way to the bottom. Euphotic zone

the layer from the surface down to the depth where light levels become too low for photosynthesis. Benthic zone

the bottom sediment.

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LAKE ECOSYSTEM:

Lakes are natural shallow water bodies.

Characteristic:

1.Permanent water body.

2.It helps in irrigation and drinking.

3.It is fresh water body.

RIVER ECOSYSTEM or STREAM ECOSYSTEM:

Well oxygenated,no.of animals are less.

1.It is fresh,flowing water,DO is high,rich in nutrients.

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ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM:

An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area at the mouth of river, where river joins the sea.

Characteristic:

1.Estuaries are transition zone.

2.Water characteristic are periodically changed.

3.The living organism in this ecosystem have tolerence.

4.Salinity is highest during the summer

5.Salinity is lowest during the winter.

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STRUCTURE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:

Climate factors(Temp,light,water,organic and inorganic compounds.

BIOTIC COMPONENTS: 1.Producers: phytoplankton 2.Consumers: Primary consumers : zooplankton Secondary consumers : small fish Tertiary consumers : big fish 3.Decomposers: Bacteria,fungi

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ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

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Pollution

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem .

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem

Types of pollution

Air pollution

Water pollution

Land or soil pollution

Noise pollution

Thermal pollution

Marine pollution

Nuclear pollution

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AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is the presence of contaminants in atmosphere in quantities such that it is injurious to human, plant animal life and property.

Sources of air pollution :

Natural sources : Volcanic eruption, forest fires, biological decay.

Manmade sources :thermal power plant ,fuel burning, agriculture activities.

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Classification of Air pollutants:

1.Primary air pollutants: CO,NO & SO2.

Emitted directly in the atmosphere. INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS:

Radon gas emitted from building materials like bricks,concrete,tiles etc.,

It is present in natural gas and ground water.

burning of fuel in the kitchen,cigaratte, smoke.

2.Secondary air pollutants:HNO3,H2SO4

Primary pollutant may react with one another to form new pollutants.

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Sulphur dioxide:

The combustion of sulphur containing fuels such as coal and oil.

It can be converted into sulphuric acid.

Human Sources :

Coal burning in power plant (88%)

Industrial processes (10%)

Environmental effects :

In humans : it causes eye irritation, cough, lung diseases including lung cancer and asthma

In plants: it causes damage of leaves, bleaching of chlorophyll which turns leaves brown, damage to crops and to growth of plants.

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Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)

Nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and nitrous oxide are the three main oxides of nitrogen found in the atmosphere

Sources:

The sources for the oxides of nitrogen are:

Bacterial decomposition of nitrogenous compounds

Combustion during lightning : During lightning, oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere combine to give oxides of nitrogen.

Industries and automobile exhaust - Air is sucked into the IC engines. At high temperatures, nitrogen and oxygen in the air combine to form nitric oxide.

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Effects:

The oxides of nitrogen combine with moisture in the atmosphere to form nitrous and nitric acid. This leads to increase in the acidity of rain water.

Formation of photochemical smog: oxides of nitrogen combine with hydrocarbons present in the atmosphere forming peroxyacyl nitrate.

Control:

Using catalytic converter in automobiles, Catalytic converters use Pt/ Rh catalyst. the presence of these catalysts, the oxides of nitrogen are converted to nitrogen and oxygen .

2NOx ---- N2 + x O2

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Carbon monoxide

Sources:

Cigarette smoking,incomplete burning of fuels.

Automobile exhaust- carbon monoxide is formed during the combustion of fuel such as petrol.(77%)

Industries: carbon monoxide is released by industries such as iron and steel and petroleum .

CO2 + C ------- 2CO

2CO2 --------- 2CO + O2

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Effects:

In humans:

When the atmosphere is polluted with carbon monoxide, on inhalation, CO combines with the hemoglobin to form car boxy hemoglobin and hence oxygen carrying capacity of the blood decreases.

This causes, headache, dizziness, unconsciousness.

When inhaled for a long duration it may cause even death.

In environment : it increase globe temp.

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Lead pollutant:

Sources:

The exhaust from automobiles which use lead tetraethyl as antiknocking agent.

Paint pigments : Litharge and red lead ( oxides of lead ) and lead chromate are used as pigments. These cause lead pollution.

Effects:

It leads to anaemia and blood cancer in human beings.

Lead enters the blood and various organs of the body including the brain and the Kidneys leading to dysfunction of the kidney and damage to the brain.

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Control of air pollution

Source Control:

Use only unleaded petrol. Use petroleum products and other fuels that have low sulphur and ash content. Reduce the no. of private vehicles Ensure the houses, schools are not located on busy streets. Plant trees along busy streets to reduce particulates, CO and noise. Industries should be situated outside the city Use catalytic converters to control CO &hydrocarbons

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Control measures in industries

The emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by industries.

Air pollution control equipments must be made mandatory.

Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for the pollutants, to know the pollution levels.

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EQUIPMENTS USED TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION

Use sufficient supply of oxygen in combustion chamber, so that the combustion is complete.

Use mechanical devices such as

scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and electro-static precipitators to reduce particulate pollutants

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Electrostatic precipitator

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Bag house filter/cyclone separator

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Wet scrubber

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WATER POLLUTION

Any alteration in physical, chemical or biological properties of water, as well as the

addition of any foreign substance makes it unfit for health and which decreases the

utility of water, is known as water pollution.

Definition of effluent: Liquid waste flowing out of a factory, farm, commercial

establishment, or a household into a water body such as a river, lake, etc.,

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http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Nrborderborderentrythreecolorsmay05-1-.JPG

Main sources of water pollution are:

Domestic and municipal sewage Industrial waste Agricultural waste Radioactive materials, etc.,

POINT AND NONPOINT SOURCES Two types of water pollutants exist; Point source Point sources of pollution occur when harmful substances are

emitted directly into water. e.g.,Oil spill Nonpoint source. A non-point source delivers pollutants indirectly through

environmental changes. e.g., Fertilizer from a field is carried into a stream by rain

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Types of pollutant:

1.Infectious agents: Bacteria, viruses, protozoa

source : animal waste.

Effect : variety of diseases

2.Oxygen demanding waste:

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in given quantity of water at a particular P and T. The saturation point 8-15mg/lit.

Sources: Sewage, paper waste, food processing waste.

Effects: affect to water quality, affect fish survival and migration.

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3.Inorganic chemicals : Acids, pb, arsenic, selenium,

sodium chloride and fluorides.

Causes : surface runoff, effluents

Effects: Cause skin cancer, damage nervous system,harm to fish and aquatic life, lower crop yields.

4.Organic chemicals:Oil, gasoline,plastics,

solvents ,detergents.

Causes: Industrial efflents, surface runoff forms.

Effects: Causing effect nervous system ,cancer, harm fish and wild life.

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5.Plant nutrients:

Nitrate, phosphate and ammonium ions

Causes: sewage, runoff water from agriculture,fertillizer.

Effects: Excessive growth of algae, lower the oxygen carrying capacity.

6.Sediment: Soil

Causes: Land erosion.

Effects: Can reduce photosynthesis, Affect aquatic food webs.

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Sewage treatment

In primary treatment, the suspended solids and floating objects are removed using coarse screens

and sieves.

In secondary treatment, the maximum proportions

of the suspended inorganic/ organic solids are

removed from the liquid sewage. The liquid material

passes into the sedimentation tank and finely

suspended particles are allowed to settle by adding

coagulants like Alum.

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Tertiary treatment

Remove detergents, metal ions, nitrates and pesticides, as these are not removed in the earlier treatments.

The phosphates are removed as calcium phosphates by adding calcium hydroxide at pH 10-11. At this pH, ammonium salts are also converted into ammonia.

The effluent is chlorinated to remove pathogenic bacteria's and finally passed through activated charcoal to absorb gases.

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Control of water pollution:

Avoid Pesticides and fertilizers on sloped land areas.

The nutrient rich water can be used as fertilizer in the

fields.

Separate drainage of sewage and rain water should be

provided to prevent overflow of sewage with rain water.

Planting more trees.

Use nitrogen fixing plants to supplement the use of

fertilizers.

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SOIL POLLUTION

Soil pollution is caused by the presence of human-made chemicals

or other alteration in the natural soil environment.

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http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Soilcontam.JPG

This type of contamination typically arises from,

Application of pesticides and fertilizers

Percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping.

Discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy metals.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solventshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metals

Effects of soil pollution:

Chronic exposure to chromium, lead and other metals, petroleum, solvents, and many pesticide and herbicide formulations can be carcinogenic.

Chronic exposure to benzene leads to leukemia.(blood cancer)

Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher incidences of kidney damage.

Sewage sludge has many types of bacteria, viruses and worms which cause types of diseases and also emits toxic vapours.

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Radioactive fallout cause abnormalities .eg., Strontium-90 instead of calcium gets deposited in the bones.

Soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences for ecosystems.

Effects occur to agricultural lands which have certain types of soil contamination.

Alteration of metabolism of endemic microorganisms.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganism

N & P from fertilizer in soil reach water bodies with agricultural runoff cause Eutrophication.

Chemicals contaminates ground water resources.

Acids, alkalis, heavy metals affect soil fertility.

Inhibit non target organism like flora,fauna and soil productivity.

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Control of soil pollution :

Effluents should be properly treated before discharging on the soil.

Solid waste should be properly collected and disposed off by appropriate method.

From the waste, recovery of useful products should be done.

Cattle dung should be used for methane generation.

Microbial degradation of biodegradable substance for reducing soil pollution.

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NOISE POLLUTION

Definition: Noise Pollution can be defied as unwanted or unpleasant sounds

that causes discomfort for all living things.

The various sources of noises are associated with urban development; road-air and rail transport; Industrial noise.

In our country, indiscriminate use of loud speakers, generator sets and firecrackers has given new dimensions to the noise pollution problem.

The commonly used parameter for noise is the sound level in decibel(dB). Human ears are sensitive in the frequency range of 20Hz to 20000Hz

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Major Noise Sources:

1. Road Traffic:

Road traffic noise is one of the most widespread and growing environmental problems in urban area. The impact of road traffic noise on the community depends an various factors such as road location and design, land use planning measures, building design, Vehicle standards and deriver behavior. Motor vehicle ownership in India has increased substantially over the last 30 years and general levels of road traffic noise throughout India have increased through out the period.

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2. Air Traffic: The extend of aircraft noise impact depends on the

type of aircraft flown, the number of flights and flight paths. The increase in number of flights, an important factor is overall noise levels, the led to an increase in general noise levels associated with air traffic.

3. Rail Traffic: The two main sources of noise and vibration relating to

the operation of the rail network is 1. The operation of trains and the maintenance

2. Construction of rail infrastructure.

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4.Neighborhood & Domestic Noise:

Other significant source of noise annoyance is car alarms, building construction and household noise,Celebrations- religious function,social and elections.

5.Noise generated by noise levels of 125dB as per Environmental rules 1999.

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Effects:

1. Noise can disturb out work, rest, sleep and communication.

2. It can damage our hearing and evoke other psychological, physiological and possibly pathological reactions.

3.It effects health efficiency and behaviour.It may cause damage to heart,brain,kidneys and liver.

4.It causes muscles to contract leading to nervous

breakdown, tension.

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5.Change in hormone content of blood, which turn increase the rate of heart beat.

6.Recently it has been reported that blood is also thickened by excessive noise.

7. Hearing damage : it can cause permanent hearing loss.

:In noise area communication is affected.

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Sound Source Sound Level

dB

Subjective Feeling

of Human Beings

Rockets and missiles,

heavy explosives

160 Unbearable

Jet Planes and cannons,

explosives

140 Unbearable

Aircraft Propeller and

Machine Guns

130 Unbearable

Diesel, steam engine and

ball mills, crackers

120 Unbearable

Electric saws and looms,

heavy trucks

110 Unbearable

The CPCB-The central pollution control board recommended noise levels.

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CONTROL MEASURES OF NOISE POLLUTION:

1.REDUCTION IN SOURCE OF NOISE : Heavy vehicles and old vehicles may not be allowed in populated areas.

2. Noise making machines should be kept in containers with sound absorbing media.

3. Proper oiling will reduce the noise from the machinery.

4. Use sound absorbing silencers: Silencers can reduce noise by absorbing sound.

5. Planting more trees having broad leaves.

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6. Through law:

sound production is minimized at various social function.

7. The use of fireworks or fire crackers shall not be permitted except between 6.00a.m and 10.00p.m.No fireworks or fire crackers shall be used between 10.00p.m and 6.00a.m.

8. Silence zone in area comprising not less than 100meters around hospitals, educational institutions ,courts and religious places.

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THERMAL POLLUTION

Energy is the basic necessity for the economic development of a country.

The electrical energy is produced in power plants or generating stations. The conventional power plants are:

- Steam or Thermal Power station,

- Hydro-electric Power station,

- Nuclear Power station

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Steam or Thermal Power station

In the thermal power station, the steam is produced in the boiler, using the heat released by the combustion of coal, oil or natural gas.

The steam is used to rotate the steam turbine (impulse/ reaction).

The steam turbine drives the alternator, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.10-16oC higher than initial temp.

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Hydro-electric Power station

Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower.

The production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water.

It is the most widely used form of renewable energy.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydropowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy

Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably lower output level of the greenhouse gas & carbon dioxide (CO2).

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide

Nuclear Power station

Nuclear power is produced by controlled (i.e., non-explosive) nuclear reactions.

Commercial and utility plants currently use nuclear fission reactions to heat water to produce steam, which is then used to generate electricity.

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