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Ultimit Revizjon a 07/10/2006

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Alfabeto/AlphabetKnsonanta/Consonants

B , b /b/ English : badD , d /d/ English : didF , f /f/ English : fallG , g /g/ English : gunK , k /k/ English : catL , l /l/ English : leg

M , m /m/ English : manN , n /n/ English : nowP , p /p/ English : penR , r /r/ Spanish : seorS , s /s/ English : so , // English : lotsT , t /t/ English : teaV , v /v/ English : vanZ , z /z/ English : zoo , // English : godzilla

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Vkala/VowelsA , a // English : catE , e /e/ English : tenO , o /o/ Italian : soloI , i // English : sit

U , u // English : putSmifona/Semivowels J , j Before a vowel

pronounced /j/ (English : yes)After a vowel

Pronounced // (English : sit)H , h Voiceless. Always found in combinations.

short vowel + h = long vowel

The above pattern results in the creation of a long vowel sound.

e.g.

Tih /t/ = tea (could be pronounced like / t -/)

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Kombneta/CombinationsBh /v/ English : vanPh /f/ English : fallDh // English : thisTh // English : thinGh // Greek : Kh /h/ English : how

(before e and i , it sounds

more like German ich)Sh // English : shoeZh // French : jourh // English : chainh // English : jam

NOTE: The use of the above letter combinations within regulawords is minimal. The main interest of the above is the generation o

symbols corresponding to other language-related sounds , so as to

expand the importation of foreign word stems and names.

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Aent/AccentAlmost all words are stressed on the penultimate syllable. Word

stressed on the penultimate syllable dont carry an accent.e.g.Liber /li-ber/ = bookA written acute accent is used only in cases of stress othe

than on the penultimate syllable (antepenultimate , ultimate

over-antepenultimate).NOTE:Although j may be pronounced as an i (as a vowel) , i

cannot form a syllable by itself.e.g.

- volj /vo-le/ = i want to - enta /a-en-ta/ = accents- Aent /a-ent/ = accent (word doesnt need a writtenaccent as the stress falls a priori on the penultimate syllable)- Smifona /se-mi-fo-na/ = semivowels (words stressed on asyllable over the antepenultimate , the main accent falls on the

first syllable , while the last syllable carries a slighter accent)

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Vrbea/VerbsThe verb is the most essential element of a sentence. Always , remembe

that a single phrase can be called sentence only if a verb is present.

A verb actually shows some action. However an activity is quite noself-explanatory. A verb must also provide answers to the following questions

Who performs the action? When does he perform it? Does this action come from the subject or is it simply pointed to th

subject?

Solving the above issue , we therefore haveto consider several axioms :

I. The time of the action will be declared by a single-letter suffix (e,a,o,i,ufollowing the verb stem according to the tense in use (present, past

future, conditional, gerund).

II. The performer of the action will be declared by a single-letter suffi(j,s,t,m,d,n) following the verb stem and the tense definition according tthe person in action (1st, 2nd, 3rd Singular , 1st, 2nd, 3rd Plural).

III. An active verb or a passive one will be recognised by a stress change(passive verbs are same in form with active ones although stressed on th

previous syllable).

NOTE: Any time we refer to a verb , we will use its gerund form.

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Utilizjs Tmpoa/Using TensesPresent Tense :

Used to describe an action taking place on the time being or thecurrent period of time

Equivalent to : Simple Present , Present Continuous 2nd person singular and plural consists the imperative form

Past Tense :

Used to describe an action that happened in the past Equivalent to : Simple Past , Present Perfect , Past Continuous ,

Past Perfect , Present Perfect Continuous , Past PerfectContinuous

Future Tense :

Used to describe a future or scheduled action Equivalent to : Simple Future , Future Continuous , be going to

Conditional Tense : Used in conditional expressions to describe a hypothetical action Equivalent to : I would

Gerund :

Equivalent to : Gerund (to form) Can also be inflected according to the gerunds subject

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Sejt Tempo/Present TenseVerb stem + e (+ suffix) = Present Tense

Person si(to be) abi(to have) kredi(to believe) voli(to want)1st Sing. sej abj kredj volj2nd Sing. ses abs kreds vols3rd Sing. set abt kredt volt1st Plur. sem abm kredm volm2nd Plur. sed abd kredd vold3rd Plur. sen abn kredn voln

Person bevi(to drink)

skrivi(to write)

doni(to give)

vadi(to go)

1st Sing. bevj skrivj donj vadj2nd Sing. bevs skrivs dons vads3rd Sing. bevt skrivt dont vadt1st Plur. bevm skrivm donm vadm2nd Plur. bevd skrivd dond vadd3rd Plur. bevn skrivn donn vadn

e.g.

- Vade (orvadj)a Skola (I go to school)- Beve (orbevs)si Zus! (Drink your juice!)

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Fugjt Tempo/Past TenseVerb stem + a (+ suffix) = Past Tense

Person dormi(to sleep)

parli(to speak)

vinsi(to win)

fugi(to leave)

1st Sing. dormj parlj vinsj fugj2nd Sing. dorms parls vinss fugs3rd Sing. dormt parlt vinst fugt1st Plur. dormm parlm vinsm fugm2nd Plur. dormd parld vinsd fugd3rd Plur. dormn parln vinsn fugn

Person oti(to push)

montri(to show)

meti(to put)

studi(to study)

1st Sing. otj montrj metj studj2nd Sing. ots montrs mets studs3rd Sing. ott montrt mett studt1st Plur. otm montr

mmetm studm

2nd Plur. otd montrd metd studd3rd Plur. otn montrn metn studn

e.g.

Dorma (or dorms)monit rea? (Did you sleep for a long time?)

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Vjenjt Tempo/Future TenseVerb stem + o (+ suffix) = Future Tense

Person vjeni(to come)

manzi(to speak)

vedi(to see)

lezi(to read)

1st Sing. vjenj manzj vedj lezj2nd Sing. vjens manzs veds lezs3rd Sing. vjent manzt vedt lezt1st Plur. vjenm manzm vedm lezm2nd Plur. vjend manzd vedd lezd3rd Plur. vjenn manzn vedn lezn

Person entri(to enter)

preni(to take)

apeli(to call)

reapeli(to remember)

1st Sing. entrj prenj apelj reapelj2nd Sing. entrs prens apels reapels3rd Sing. entrt prent apelt reapelt1st Plur. entrm prenm apelm reapelm2nd Plur. entrd prend apeld reapeld3rd Plur. entrn prenn apeln reapeln

e.g.

- Vjeno (orvjenj)demen. (Im coming tommorow)- Apeloj (peloshould be avoided)vo Maria. (I will be called by Maria)

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Ipotezit Tempo/Conditional TenseVerb stem + u (+ suffix) = Conditional Tense

Person sabi(to know)

dekrivi(to describe)

trovi(to find)

ami(to love)

1st Sing. sabj dekrivj trovj amj2nd Sing. sabs dekrivs trovs ams3rd Sing. sabt dekrivt trovt amt1st Plur. sabm dekrivm trovm amm2nd Plur. sabd dekrivd trovd amd3rd Plur. sabn dekrivn trovn amn

Person poti(can)

erazi(to erase)

lozi(to lose)

eziti(to hesitate)

1st Sing. potj erazj lozj ezitj2nd Sing. pots erazs lozs ezits3rd Sing. pott erazt lozt ezitt1st Plur. potm erazm lozm ezitm2nd Plur. potd erazd lozd ezitd3rd Plur. potn erazn lozn ezitn

e.g.

In jo te zagd, te sabu (orsabj). (If you had told me that , I would know it.)

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erund/GerundVerb stem + i (+ suffix) = Gerund

Person zagi(to say)

gusti(to desire)

ekuti(to hear/to listen)

tiri(to pull)

1st Sing. zagj gustj ekutj tirj2nd Sing. zags gusts ekuts tirs3rd Sing. zagt gustt ekutt tirt1st Plur. zagm gustm ekutm tirm2nd Plur. zagd gustd ekutd tird3rd Plur. zagn gustn ekutn tirn

Person kazi(to hide)

konti(to be happy)

estrati(to extract)

bori(to be bored)

1st Sing. kazj kontj estratj borj2nd Sing. kazs konts estrats bors3rd Sing. kazt kontt estratt bort1st Plur. kazm kontm estratm borm2nd Plur. kazd kontd estratd bord3rd Plur. kazn kontn estratn born

e.g.

- Ne volu (orvolj)vadi (orvadj) a nema. (I wouldnt like to go to the cinema.)- Voln vads a Skola. ( They would like you to go to school.)

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Negoz/Negationne + Verb = Negative Verb

Negation is formed by using the word ne (literally meaning for noreason) just before the verb.

Frgea/QuestionsQuestions are formed just by addign the question mark (?) at the end

of a sentence. No additional sentence change is required.Udefinit verbelit Forma/Indefinite Verb FormWhen the verb (or gerund) subject is obvious or already known , the

person suffix may be omitted. The verbs stress remain

unchanged.

In simple indicative sentences , the obvious subject is 1ssingular or 1st plural.

In simple questions , the obvious subject is 2nd singular or 2ndplural.

In imperative sentences , the obvious subject is 2nd singular o2nd plural.

A gerunds obvious subject is the verbs subject. If the verbsubject is different from the gerund subject , the gerund mus

adopt handle the appropriate person suffix.

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Pathetit Voe/Passive VoicePassive voice is used whenever we want to redirec

subjects action back to the subject.

In order to create a passive verb , the accent of any verb

form must simply move to the previous syllable.

NOTE : Indefinite gerund forms in passive voice should beavoided.

e.g.

Apeloj (pelo) vo Maria. (I will be called by Maria)Notice the stress differentiation :

- apelj /a-pe-lo/ = I will call- apeloj /a-pe-lo/ = I will be called

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rtikela/ArticlesThere are three types of articles :

Definite

Indefinite Demonstrative

They present two numbers (singular and plural) and are no

gender-specific.

NOTE : Articles are not accepted before peoples names and possessiv

adjectives

Articles may be omitted , if they dont provide essential information

singular pluraldefinite et at

indefinite en -demonstrative es ase.g.

- Et Liber set a et Tabel. (The book is on the desk) - Liber set a Tabel. (exactly the same , providing less information which book? which table?)- En Barn zokt a Jard. (A kid is playing in the yard) - As Liber sen rotit. (These books are red)

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Noma/NounsNouns are one of the most essential parts of a sentence.

They may present numbers (singular and plural) but they dont have case

, as far as form changes are concerned. Cases can be formed usin

prepositions.

NOTE : All Nouns have a capital first lettere.g.

Maria , Nom , Pjano , etc

Pluralit Nome/Plural NumberWhen transforming a noun to its plural equivalent , one must consider two

separate factors : IS THERE AN ARTICLE?

YESThe plural is carried by an article change and the noun remains unchangede.g.

Et Liber (The book) -> At Liber (The books)

NOThe plural is formed by adding the suffix -a at the end of the noun. In thplural form , the stress remains on the same syllable as on the singular form

If the new syllable is other then the penultimate , a written acute accent must be used.

NOTE : if the noun already ends in -a , it should become aa or just a longa(/) sound. To solve this, we would use the ah combination.e.g.

Liber (Book) -> Lbera (Books) , Vita (Life) -> Vitah (Lives)

Nom (Noun) -> Noma (Nouns) , Done (Woman) -> Dnea (Women)

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Fornoma/PronounsPronouns as the word suggests can be used to replace a noun.

Personalit Fornoma/Personal PronounsPronoun English equivalent

Ja ISa You (singular)Ta He / She / ItMa WeDa You (plural)Na They

NOTE :Personal pronouns must have a capital first letterPersonal pronouns may be used just in order to create

emphasis and are not obligatory

e.g.Vols manzm aber , Ja , ne vole. (You want us to eat , but I

dont want to)

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Refleksivit Fornoma/Reflexive PronounsReflexive pronouns are adopted when we want to use a personal pronou

as an object. According to this , we distinguish two cases :

The pronoun is used as a direct object The pronoun is used as an indirect object

Personal Pronoun As Direct Object As Indirect ObjectJa je

me

joto me

Sa seyou

soto you

Ta tehim / her / it

toto him / her / it

Ma meus

moto us

Da deyou

doto you

Na nethem

noto them

e.g.

- Vede se! (I see you!)- Skrive en Leter. Te Skrive. (Im writing a letter. Im writing it.)- Maria zaga jo ot vola manzm. Maria jo te zaga.(Maria told me that she wanted us to eat. Maria told me about it.)

- Brota no et Liber. No te brota. (I brought them the book. I brought it to them

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ektifa/AdjectivesThere are two types of adjectives :

Personal Objective

They dont present numbers (singular and plural) and are

not gender-specific.

Personal adjectives are used to describe people and nouns

representing people and always have an -is endingObjective adjectives are used to describe anything else than

people (objects , animals , abstract meanings ,etc) and always

have an -it endinge.g.

- Sej altis. (I am tall)

- Es Kane set fortit. (This dog is strong)

- Veda en belis Done. (I saw a beautiful woman)

- En kapabilis Doter pote salvi monit Vitah. (A capable docto

can save many lives)

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Kompara i ektifa/Comparation of adjectivesComparative Grade

Used to compare two nouns In positive comparation(more than), is formed by adding the -or-

prefix before the adjectives ending

In negative comparation(less than), is formed by adding the -on-prefix before the adjectives ending

The second parameter of the comparation must be in genitive case thus preceded by the preposition i.

e.g.

- Maria set beloris i Peter (Maria is more beautiful than Peter)- At Tortz sen fortonit nimala i Knea (Turtles are weaker [less strong]

animals than dogs)Superlative Grade

Used to express the maximum level of a quality Must be preceded by the definite article In positive comparation(the most ), is formed by adding the -im-

prefix before the adjectives ending

In negative comparation(the least ), is formed by adding the -il-prefix before the adjectives ending

In relative superlative, the second parameter of the comparation musbe in genitive case , thus preceded by the preposition i.

In absolute superlative, there is no second parameter.e.g.

- Maria set et belimis Done i et Situ (Maria is the most beautiful woman of the

city)

- Atom set grandilit Elemente (An atom is the tiniest [the least big] element)

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Pozesit ektifa/Possessive adjectivesPossessive adjectives are used in order to show possession and are placed

just before the noun being described.

NOTE : Possessive adjectives must not be preceded by article. Combinedwith an article , and a capitalised first letter , they can be used unchanged a

possessive pronouns.

Personal Pronoun Possessive AdjectiveJa ji

my

Sa siyour (singular)

Ta tihis / her / its

Ma miour

Da diyour (plural)

Na nitheir

e.g.- Ji Kaza set grandorit i et Si. (My house is bigger than yours.)- Ji Kaza set grandorit i si Kaza. (My house is bigger than your house.

- Jo dont ji Pena. (He gave me my pen.)

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Avrbea/AdverbsAvrbea i Manjera/Adverbs of mannerAdverbs of manner as well as other types can be derived from

adjectives.

Adjective suffix(is,it) + er = Adverb of Manner

e.g.

- bonis , bonit (good) -> boner (well)

- fasilis , fasilit (easy) -> fasiler (easily)

- fortoris , fortorit (stronger) -> fortorer (more strongly)

Thus , all types of comparative and superlatives grades for the

adjective are valid for the adverbs as well.

e.g.

- Ko es Strada , pots vadi fasilorer a et Situ. (By this way , you

would go more easily to the city)Sentj boner. (I feel good)

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Avrbea i Tempo/Adverbs of timeWord Meaningestag todaydemen tomorrowjertag yesterdaysindemen the day after tomorrowforjertag the day before yesterday

nue nowfrekenter frequently / oftenenote sometimesalote alwaysnote neverrarer seldomfor beforesin afterduri during

e.g.- For vadi a Skola , dove manzi. (before going to school , I

must eat)- Enote guste lezi Lbera. (I sometimes like reading books)

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Utilibit Fornoma & Avrbea/Useful Pronouns & AdverbsInterrogativ

e

(k-)

Negativ

e

(n-)

Relativ

e

(-)

Indefinit

e

(en-)

Inclusive

(al-)

Person(-is)

kiswho?

nisnobody

iswho

enissomeone

aliseveryone

Object(-it)

kit

what?

nit

nothing

it

which

enit

something

alit

everythingTime(-ote)

kotewhen?

notenever

otewhen

enotesometimes

alotealways

Place(-u)

kuwhere?

nunowhere

uwhere

enusomewher

e

alueverywher

e

Manner(-er)

kerhow?

nerno way

eras

enersomehow

alerin every

wayCause(-e)

kewhy?

nefor no

reason

- enefor some reason

alefor every reason

Quantity

(-um)

kumhow much?

numno

umwhich

enumsome quantity

alumthe whole

quantity

e.g.

- Kis ses? (Who are you?)

- Kum kostt es Apel? (How much does this apple cost?)

- Et Apel , it set a et Tabel , set rotit. (The apple , which is on the table , is

red.)

- Perda ji Pena. Deve si enu. (I lost my pen. It must be somewhere.)

- Ku sen alis? (Where is everyone?)

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Konsora/ConjunctionsConjunctions are used to connect different sentences.

Koordonjt Konsora/Coordinating Conjunctionsequivalent

and veor ujboth and ve vehse (ve ese)

also eseneither nor .. ne nehse (ne ese)

but aber

e.g.

- Vada a Skola ve studa ji Leson. (I went to school and studied

my lesson.)- Resto uj fugo? (Are you going to stay or are you going to

leave?)

- Ve Maria vehse Peter sen a Skola. (Both Maria and Peter areat school.)- Vada a nema aber sat fermit. (I went to the cinema but it

was closed.)

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Suordonjt Konsora/Subordinating Conjunctionsequivalent

because parif in

unless nin (ne in)so that / in order to uts

so alorthanks to Gras i

because of Koz ibefore forafter sinwhile men

without anefwhen otealthough inve

however pere.g.

- In sa zenoris , potu te fi. (If I was younger , I would be able to do it.

- Ke rite? Par se kontentis! (Why are you laughing? Because Im

happy!)

- Men dorms , studj. (While you were sleeping , I was studying.) - Rena vo rea. Per , nue , Sjel se klarit. (It was raining for two hours

However , now , the sky is clear.)

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Forprtikela/PrepositionsPrepositions are used to show relations with nouns.

NOTE :Prepositions must always precede the noun , article

pronoun , etc

In order to assure fluent pronounciation , thepreposition may be connected to the article

After the connection of i with the article (e.g. et) it gives jet (and not iet)

equivalent

with kofrom / by vo

to / at aof (/ genitive case) i

for proin nel

e.g.

- Et Port jet (or i et) Kaza set rotit. (The Houses door is red.)- Vjene ko Ja. (Come with me.)- Vade aet (or a et)Skola. (Im going to school.)- Es Gat se pro Ja? (Is this present for me?)- Neles (or nel es) Kase , trovs en Klef. (In this box, you will find a key.)- Es skrivat vo Ja. (This was written by me.)

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Nmera/NumbersAsolutit Nmera/Cardinal Numbers

equivalent

0 nul1 en2 vo3 tre4 dor5 fif6 sis7 set8 ut9 nef

decade(s) dek(a)hundred(s) sent(a)thousand(s) mil(a)million(s) mel(a)billion(s) bil(a)

e.g.

- 12 = dek-vo (one decade plus two)

- 34 = tredeka-dor (three decades plus five)- 103 = sent-tre (one hundred plus three)

- 154 = sent-fifdeka-dor (one hundred plus five decades plus four)

- 1986 = mil-nefsenta-utdeka-sis (one thousand plus nine hundreds plus

eight decades plus six)

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Ordinalit Nmera/Ordinal NumbersOrdinal numbers are used just like adjectives and share the same

endings (personal,objective) according to the noun being described.

Cardinal Number + t + it(or is) = Ordinal Number

NOTE :In case the last letter is t (e.g. ut , set , etc) , the second t iomitted

equivalent

first entissecond votisthird tretis

fourth dortisfifth fiftissixth sistisseventh setis

eightth utisnineth neftistenth dektis

eleventh dek-entise.g.

- 12th = dek-votis

- 34th = tredeka-dortis

- 103rd = sent-tretis

- 154th = sent-fifdeka-dortis

- 1986th = mil-nefsenta-utdeka-sistis

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Ezemplit Tstoa/Example TextsOskar Ghujld Et Imz i Drian Grej (Prolog)/Oscar Wilde The Picture of Dorian Gray (Preface)

The artist is the creator of beautiful things. To reveal art and conceal the artist i

arts aim. The critic is he who can translate into another manner or a new material hi

impression of beautiful things.Et Artiste set et Fabriker i belit Mtera. Montri Art ve kazi et Artiste set et Gol je

Art. Et Kritiker set Ta is pote traduki alterer uj koen novit Materit ti Vedete i bel

Mtera.The highest as the lowest form of criticism is a mode of autobiography. Thoswho find ugly meanings in beautiful things are corrupt without being charming. Thi

is a fault. Those who find beautiful meanings in beautiful things are the cultivated. Fo

these there is hope. They are the elect to whom beautiful things mean only beauty.Ve Altimit vehse kortimit Forma i Kritik set Modus i Sebiografja. Na is trovn

malit Sinifika a belit Mtera sen favelis anef si belis. Se faltit. Na is trovn belit Sinifik

a belit Mtera sen at Kultivis. Pro Na , ezistt Spera. Sen at Selektis a is belit Mter

sinifikn soler Bela.There is no such thing as a moral or an immoral book. Books are well written o

badly written. That is all. The nineteenth century dislike of realism is the rage o

Caliban seeing his own face in a glass. The nineteenth century dislike of romanticism

is the rage of Caliban not seeing his own face in a glass.

Ne ezistt en moralit uj en umoralit Liber. Lbera sen boner uj maler skrivjt. Se

alit. Et Ugusto jet dek-neftit Sekel pro Realizmo set et Manjo i Kliban vedjs ti Fa

nelen Glas. Et Ugusto jet dek-neftit Sekel pro Romantizmo set et Manjo i Kliba

uvedjs ti Fas nelen Glas.