Handbook of Improving Performance in the Workplace: Volumes 1-3 (ISPI/Handbook of Improving Performance in the Workplace - Set) || Performance Aids

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S SCHAPTER FOURTEEN

Performance AidsMiki Lane

INTRODUCTION

Job aids are dead! Job aids are dead! Long live performance aids!

Now for all of you who have used or still use job aids, please don’t burn this

chapter. While the title may be provocative, I postulate that the term ‘‘job aids’’

has become genericised, much like the term Kleenex. ‘‘Job aid’’ has become a

term used when describing most any performance aid, even if it has nothing to

do with on-the-job performance. While job aids have focused on providing the

worker with specific knowledge and skills to complete the immediately required

job task, performance aids are any one of a number of different interventions

specifically designed to remove barriers to, as well as facilitate performance. So I

suggest that we call them performance aids to more accurately reflect the all-

encompassing usage they now enjoy.

Those of youwho are not familiar with performance aidsmay havewondered

how a busy and harried waitress with over thirty customers remembers to not

only bring your decaf coffee but also remembers to refill your cup with decaf?

When you are on board a flight between New York and Los Angeles, have you

wondered how the pilot remembers the hundreds of required pre-flight checks

that ensure the safety of all the passengers? The simple answer to these

questions is performance aids. While you may think that performance aids

are relatively new to our environment, it can be argued that prehistoric cave

344 Handbook of Improving Performance in the Workplace, Volume TwoEdited by K. H. Silber, W. R. Foshay, R. Watkins, D. Leigh, J. L. Moseley and J. C. DessingerCopyright © 2010 by International Society for Performance Improvement. All rights reserved. ISBN: 978-0-470-52543-2

E1C14_1 10/14/2009 345

drawings were a form of job aid that helped new learners visualize hunting

strategies and locations.

In this chapter we will look at the history, current usage, and development of

performance aids. We will also examine the learning multiplying effect of

combining performance aids with other performance interventions listed in

this book.

DESCRIPTION

We all have favorite performance aid stories, and mine comes from two

different dry cleaners in my neighborhood. When I went to the first cleaner, a

new employee was evidently learning the job. There was one person in front

of me in the process of dropping off his cleaning. The new employee was

trying to calculate the ticket, which included some pants to be cleaned, shirts

to launder, and a suit that had a wine stain. He looked at the bill book, wrote

some numbers down, and gave an outrageous price to the customer. The

customer complained and the owner of the establishment came over to rectify

the situation. He said to the employee; ‘‘You have this all wrong . . . remem-

ber when we learned the pricing yesterday . . . the pants are . . . .’’ He then

proceeded to review the pricing structure on the spot. This was repeated when

it was my turn. Two weeks later I went to a different cleaner with an armful of

a variety of items for both dry cleaning and laundering and my ticket was

calculated, accurately, within a couple of seconds. I asked the employee how

long she had been working there and she said that she doesn’t work there; she

was just filling in for a friend for the day. When I said that I was surprised at

how efficient she was, she pointed to a chart on the wall that I hadn’t noticed.

It was a matrix that listed all of the calculations for single or multiple pieces of

clothing for both cleaning and laundering. All she had to do was to count up

my items, look at the list and complete the bill. The matrix even listed special

situations like stains, alterations, silk, and leather. I remembered the previous

cleaner and saw that this was a wonderful example of instant performance

without training.

It may have surprised you earlier that cave drawings can be construed as

early performance aids, but man has been leaving messages to decode since he

could make a permanent mark in his environment. When the message to

be decoded has task performance implications, it can be defined as a perform-

ance aid. We have all been exposed to and have used these ‘‘mind mnemonics’’

for as long as we can remember. It is part of our shared cultural and genetic

heritage.

PERFORMANCE AIDS 345

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Let’s take the example of a trail in the woods. Originally trails were marked

(blazed) to show a path from one location to another. Perhaps the initial

marking was made just to ensure that the marker or ‘‘trailblazer’’ would not

travel in circles and could get to a new place or back to his original location.

Different trailblazers used different markings and a subsequent traveler needed

to learn to follow whatever marking was used on that trail. Eventually, travelers

learned to look for any markings in the woods that would lead them to the

desired destination. What was learned was not to follow a specific marking, but

to follow the concept of marking whether it was a cut in a tree, a wooden disk, a

painted stripe or a sign that said ‘‘Bridge Out.’’

Similar to the notion of trail markings, it is not what specific job aid is used, it

is the concept of performance aids that is important. The critical part of trail

marking in relation to performance aids is that it is much better to follow a trail

of red painted dots on trees than to remember: ‘‘Oh, you want to get to the next

town . . . well you walk into the woods for 100 yards, turn right at the fourth

poplar tree, then head east for a mile until you come to a stream. Cross the

stream, turn left at the big rock and head north . . . you can’t miss it!’’ Well, of

course, you miss it unless you have a phenomenal memory and can visualize

the directions from the description. That is why performance aids are so

important: they are external tools that help you accomplish a task or procedure.

Harold Stolovitch and Erica Keeps define performance aids in 2006’s Beyond

Training Ain’t Performance Fieldbook as ‘‘anything that improves job perform-

ance by guiding, facilitating, or reminding performers what to do in accom-

plishing job tasks.’’ They further state that performance aids are one category in

a group of non-learning interventions which are

‘‘Actions or events designed to change conditions that facilitate attainment of

performance (for example, eliminates an inefficient procedure, removes a physical

obstacle to facilitate the flow of goods, or reduces a level of supervision that

hampers rapid decision making) or adds a facilitative element to the performance

system (for example, provides more efficient, safer tools; introduces a new

procedure that speeds up order processing; or adds speed bumps to reduce

accidents) qualifies as a non-learning intervention.’’

Expanding Your Options

Labeling and color-coding—simple, yet often overlooked, thelabeling or color-coding of the tools, equipment, document, folders,and other resources used by employees can significantly improveperformance at little cost.

346 HANDBOOK OF IMPROVING PERFORMANCE IN THE WORKPLACE

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Many of the other categories of non-learning interventions are discussed in

other chapters of this book.

Currently, there are two opposing viewpoints of the efficacy of performance

aids. In 1979, Gagn�e and Briggs defined learning as acquiring knowledge and

skills to change behavior. It can be argued that providing a pilot a safety

checklist before a flight ensures correct performance of the safety check without

having the pilot learn anything new that changes his or her behavior. But it can

be equally argued that the constant, required use of the performance aid causes

the pilot to think in a safety-focused process that will change the way he or she

reacts in emergency situations. In this case the performance aid can work as a

prompt or scaffolding to effect a change in the pilot’s behavior. Going back to the

trailblazer analogy, following a particular performance aid (trail marking) can

lead the performer to learn to look for markings (whatever they might be)

whenever they head out on a trail.

Some, however, argue that the constant use of performance aids in

completing tasks might have just the opposite effect and cause the performer

to always rely on the performance aid to perform the task. Like an automaton,

the performer would then never use the experience to acquire new knowledge

and skills that would eventually lead to a change in the performer’s behavior.

Indeed, Doug Leigh, editor and contributing author of this book, provides a

personal experience he and his wife have had in using a global positioning

satellite (GPS) system in their automobile: ‘‘We certainly get from point A to B

(and often many interesting waypoints along the route), but we have the

growing sense that that we are not learning the gestalt of the map . . . a matter

which impairs not only our driving, but our development of familiarity with

our surroundings.’’

Both of these viewpoints are valid and dependent on the specific situation. To

explore this point and see the relationship to theories of human performance

improvement, let’s now look at performance aids in greater detail.

Like anything that has had a long life, performance aids have evolved

considerably over the years. Technology has changed the scope, design,

development, and implementation of performance aids. Today performance

aids are also categorized with both electronic performance support systems

(EPSSs) and performance support tools (PSTs). As Marci Paino and Allison

Rossett note in their 2008 Performance Improvement journal article, ‘‘EPSSs

and PSTs are terms used more or less interchangeably to describe technologi-

cal tools that help people make decisions, plan for activities, and perform

tasks.’’ They are a natural extension of performance aids based on the

capability of technology to advance the field. Performance aids, PSTs, and

EPSSs are all external to the performer and provide information and instruc-

tions for completing tasks that do not have to be memorized (see Chapter

Thirteen).


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Since other chapters in this book will look at EPSSs and PSTs in much more

detail, this chapter focuses on their antecedent, but still relevant, performance

helper: performance aids. Performance aids in relation to improving perfor-

mance at work are anything that helps the performer succeed in achieving the

required results. This help can take the form of facilitating the task, guiding the

accomplishment of the task, or simply reminding the performerwhat to do. Let’s

look at finalizing the definition of performance aids that wewill use in the rest of

the chapter.

Performance aids have ‘‘critical attributes’’ and ‘‘variable attributes.’’ In their

1992 book Teaching Concepts, M. David Merrill and his colleagues described a

critical attribute as a characteristic of the concept that must be present in all

examples of the concept, while variable attributes can be useful for distinguishing

one performance aid from another. The critical attributes of performance aids are

� The performer must use the performance aid during performance of the

task;

� The performer must already have all of the knowledge and skills required

to use the performance aid;

� The performer must have all of the skills and knowledge necessary for

accomplishing the task solely using the performance aid;

� The performance aid must either contain the instructions for using the

performance aid or be self-evident; and

� The performer must be able to use the performance aid without external

instruction.

Often, the sum of the critical attributes translates into a good definition of the

concept. So in this case we can define a performance aid as:

A performance tool that provides information during the performance of a task that

the performer needs to complete the task. In order to use it effectively the performer

must already have the knowledge and skills to both use the performance aid and

complete the task. The performance aid must be able to be used without external

instruction.

Variable attributes that are useful for differentiating related concepts and

approaches can relate to:

� Content (work procedures, safety requirements, organizational tasks, etc.);

� Size (three to four lines of text, one page, several pages, etc.);

� Design (color, pictures, drawings, graphic elements); and

� Family (checklists, tables, etc.).

While all of the variables are important, the family that the performance

aid belongs to ultimately determines how the end-user will employ it. To the


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designer of the performance aid, the family choice is usually made after a

thorough user and task analysis. Different performance aid families can include:

� Flowcharts or algorithms;

� Examples or models of the completed task;

� Text-based procedures;

� Tables;

� Text or picture lists; or

� Checklists.

To provide a clearer idea of the performance aid families, let’s look at each

one and discuss how they are used, how they can be constructed and what an

example might look like.

Flowcharts or Algorithms

The terms flowchart and algorithm can be used interchangeably. Most people

are familiar with what one looks like. It usually depicts, in a graphical format, a

procedure for accomplishing a task. There is a language of flowcharts, complete

with representational symbols that let the user know when to start, when to

input something, when to process something, when a decision has to be made,

when to move to another part of the procedure, and when to end.

Novices or experts typically use flowcharts or algorithms equally well.

They do, however, lend themselves more to procedures that have multiple

actions and multiple decisions that lead the performer to a wide range of

results. As such they tend to be used extensively by expert performers.

Imagine that you are an expert in a particular procedure. You have all of

the prerequisite knowledge and skills to accomplish any task related to that

procedure. To accomplish any task that you have not committed to memory,

all you would need is a flowchart on that specific procedure. If you were not an

expert, you would need more information than the flowchart could provide.

That additional information could include: definitional issues regarding what

appears in the flowchart, the conceptual issues that the terms presented refer

to, the ‘‘language’’ of the symbols of the flowchart, and any other information

required by the flowchart novice. So the greater the expertise of your

performers, the more likely it is that their preferred performance aids would

be flowcharts or algorithms.

Flowcharts and algorithms have been used from everything from simple

tasks, like setting a personal video recorder, to highly complex ones like

shutting down a nuclear reactor. Construction of a flowchart or algorithm is

similar in design and development to that of all the families of performance aids.

The example in Figure 14.1 demonstrates a job aid for a company-wide

performance improvement process.


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Examples or Models of the Completed Task

Have you ever tried to put together a 1,000-piece jigsaw puzzle? What is it that

helps you with the process? It is the picture on the box cover of the completed

puzzle. Can you imagine the difficulty you would have in constructing the

puzzle just by listening to someone describing the scene you were to reproduce?

It would be close to impossible.

The picture serves as a model or example of the finished task. It is used to

help the novice performer achieve the required task performance without

intervention. Models or examples can be specific to the task, exact replicas

of the finished product, or more general in nature. They provide the form and

parts of the finished product or task, within which the performer replaces the

general content with the task-specific content. Application forms, sample

proposals, do-it-yourself legal forms, all are examples of this family of perform-

ance aids. In using them, the performer either fills in the blanks or replaces the

Monitor performanceor environment

Yes

Conduct correctiveinterview

Conduct informalinvestigation (if applicable)

Conduct formalinvestigation

No

Incident or chronicpoor performance

Take “on the spot”actions if required

Is performancemanagementinterventionwarranted?

Prepare for intervention

Dertmine appropriatecorrective action/discipline

Communicate withemployee andcomplete paperwork

Figure 14.1 Sample Job Aid for a Company-Wide Performance Improvement

Process.


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example content with his or her own content. The end result is a completed task

or product that meets specified criteria.

Models can also be graphical representations of ideas and concepts, such as

the International Society for Performance Improvement’s the Human Perform-

ance Technology Model. While models may sometimes look like flowcharts

or algorithms, they differ in that they are not the procedure outlining how to

complete the final task, but are examples of what the final task might look like.

Using a model or example leaves accomplishing the final task to the previously

attained skills and knowledge of the performer.

Table 14.1 presents an example of a model that is a worksheet template for

developing competencies. This completed worksheet shows one example of an

Table 14.1 Worksheet Example of Commitment to Action

Competency to develop: Delegate and empower staff

Developmental goals: � Be able to delegate easily and effectively

� Be able to empower direct reports to reduce their

dependency on me for routine tasks

Developmental Actions

Developmental

Strategy

Actions I Will Take Resources I Will Use Target Dates

Self-study Read up on

delegating

Articles and blogs on

the Internet; order

self-help books from

amazon.com

Immediate and

ongoing

Training Attend the next

series of in-house

supervisory

workshops

HR to register and

my manager for okay

Last two weeks

of May

Learn on the

job

Practice delegating

with a direct report

and assess the

results

Delegate the stats

report to Sam Brown

Over the next

two weeks

Coaching Ask other

supervisors to show

me how they dele-

gate and get feed-

back on how I do

Jim Hawes and Betty

Lewis in production

As soon as they

are able


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action in each type of strategy. In your own plan, you may have several actions

in one or two strategies, and none in others. It will depend on the competency to

be developed and the resources that you have available to you.

Text-Based Procedures

How to use your new digital camera, how to make your grandmother’s lasagna,

and how to troubleshoot a computer problem: all are examples of text-based

procedures. Any situation that calls for performers to carry out without error a

task or procedure that they do not often perform is a candidate for this family of

performance aids.

What makes text-based procedures useful is that they prevent errors of

omission. If you are following the instructions of an expert in completing a

task, the expert may take a step in the procedure for granted and inadvertently

leave it out or modify it. Documenting the process in a text-based proceduremay

not help prevent that problem from occurring, but it will make the revision

process easier and more accurate.

A text-based procedure is a list of the steps required to reach the desired

outcome. It outlines both the way to do it (required behaviors) and what the

results (accomplishments) should be. If the desired results are not achieved,

then it is likely that either a step was missed in writing the procedure, a step was

done incorrectly, or a fault occurred in the equipment. Table 14.2 illustrates a

text-based procedure.

What makes constructing this performance aid different from other families

of performance aids is the total reliance on the expert performer or—in the

case of pre-existing documentation—the certification of that documentation by

the expert performer.

Decision Tables

If there are rules to be followed in completing a task and the performer has to

make decisions on how to follow those rules, then a decision table is the per-

formance aid family to use. We are most familiar with them in ‘‘if/then’’

situations. Take, for example, choosing a color scheme for a room. If the

room is small, and you want it to appear to be larger, then use a neutral,

monochromatic color scheme. You would set this up in a table format that

would provide options for making decisions about complimentary, analogous,

and monochromatic color schemes. Table 14.3 an example of a decision table

that helped participants learn and use the appropriate Union Collective Agree-

ment Provisions.

Tables help the user to make decisions about fairly complex issues that might

have multiple aspects to the ultimate decision. They allow the user to make

accurate decisions as long as the issues to be determined remain within the

parameters of the criteria in the table.


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Text or Picture Lists

Look around you. If you are sitting at a desk reading this, you probably have

any number of text or picture lists in front of you. You might have a list of

phone numbers for extensions within your company. You also might have a

phone list for people outside of the company whom you may call, but have not

committed their numbers to memory. You might have instructions for what to

do in case an alarm goes off. If you are like me, you also have a calendar on

your desk or wall.

Small text lists can be relevant to matters like how to make a conference call,

and large text lists can take forms such as phone books and dictionaries. Picture

lists usually provide directions or instructions in pictorial format. Road maps,

subway maps, bus routes, airline safety cards, cooking instructions, medical

care instructions, the trail markers we talked about earlier, are all examples of

Table 14.2 A Text-Based Procedure for Conducting Successful Meetings

Strategies Description

Start the meeting and

welcome participants

� Greet participants as they arrive. Introduce

participants who don’t know each other.

State the purpose of the

meeting

� Remind participants of the desired outcome of the

meeting. This will help keep the participants focused.

Give background

information

� Ensure all participants are up-to-date on activities

or issues previously discussed.

Review ‘‘topics’’ � Review the topics to be discussed and make any

additions or changes. This is especially important if

adjustments are required to the list of topics that you

communicated at the time the meeting was called.

� Be prepared to deal with participant suggestions for

topics. Either accept or reject with reference to topic

compatibility with purpose of the meeting.

State times for topics,

presentations,

discussions

� Allocate appropriate time to each meeting topic,

presentation, or discussion. Do this by importance

or complexity, keeping in mind the overall duration

of the meeting and the meeting goal.

Communicate ground

rules

� State the ground rules when people are meeting for the

first time, when new people are participating, or when

people seem to have forgotten what the rules are.


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picture lists or displays. Figure 14.2 presents a partial example of a picture list on

how to tie a bow line knot.

Checklists

Checklists occupy a unique niche in human performance technology. They can

be used as a performance aid, a training tool, or an on-the-job evaluation

Table 14.3 Informal Investigation: Collective Agreement Provisions Sample

Collective Agreements

3.1, 3.5 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 6.2, 6.3 3.1

Informal

process

No Yes No Yes

Maximum

discipline

10 demerits,

but cannot

result in

discharge

from

accumulation

5 demerits,

but cannot

result in

discharge

from

accumulation

10 demerits,

but cannot

result in

discharge

from

accumulation

15 demerits,

but cannot

result in

discharge

from

accumulation

Discipline

record

limitation

Employee

must have less

than 40

demerits

Employee

must have

less than 40

demerits

Employee

must have less

than 35

demerits

Employee

must have

less than 25

demerits

Representation No Yes No Yes

Decision

made within

20 days of

meeting

15 days of

meeting

20 days of

meeting

10 days of

meeting

Time for

employee to

respond to

decision

72 hours to

request formal

investigation;

15 days to

grieve level of

discipline

15 days to

request

formal

investigation;

30 days to

grieve level of

discipline

72 hours to

request formal

investigation;

20 days to

grieve level of

discipline

15 days to

request

formal

investigation;

15 days to

grieve level of

discipline

Training N/A Company

must train

union reps

and

supervisors

N/A Company

must train

union reps

and

supervisors


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instrument. As a matter of fact, the same checklist can be used for all three

purposes. In training, the learner uses the checklist to ensure that he or she is

practicing the required behavior correctly. At the end of the training, the

checklist can be used by an observer to record whether or not the behavioral

procedures have been followed accurately. On the job, performers can use the

same performance aid to ensure that they are following correct procedures.

A checklist can be a simple three-to-five item ‘‘to do’’ list that you check off

after accomplishing each item on the list. Alternatively, it can be a set of

complicated procedures that the achievement or recognition of each step or

item builds to the completion of the next one. The pilot’s safety checklist used

before each flight is a good example of this type of performance aid. Checklists

can also have examples of what the desired behavior looks like embedded in

each item on the checklist. A behaviorally anchored rating scale is an example

of this type of checklist. Checklists can also be used to ensure that a product

Example of a completed Bow Line Knot

A

B

C

A Make a loop by crossing the blue end to the right under the rope.

B Bring the blue end to the left over the rope into the middle of the loop.

C Pass the blue end under the top of the loop which forms a little loop.

Figure 14.2 Tying a Bow Line Knot (Partial Sample).


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meets specified quality criteria. Aside from noting whether or not the required

performance step has been completed, a quality rating scale can measure how

well the step was accomplished. Exhibits 14.1 and 14.2 present two examples

of checklists.

Note: 1=Poor; 2=Needs some improvement; 3=Meets expectations

Exhibit 14.1 Checklist for Proposal/Contract.

Content: The proposal/contract includes 1, 2, 3 Commentsthe following components:

Description in the info/context andobjectives that demonstrates anunderstanding of the client’s needs

Work plan appropriately detailed forthe scope of the project

Clear statement of potential benefitsfor the client that does not overstatewhat can be achieved

Cost breakdown detailing professionalfees and other expenses

Final budget appropriate to the scopeof project

Description of the project deliverables

Description of the project scheduleincluding milestones

Roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders

Description of past work that demonstratesexpertise required in proposed project

Relevant information about the externalconsultant and his or hercapabilities

Terms of payment that are in accordancewith the policy of the bank or approved bythe managing partner or vice president

Accurate information about the client andclient needs in the contract section


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Exhibit 14.2: On-the-Job Coaching Evaluation Checklist.

Did the coach: Give specific examples of what the coach

did well or suggest improvements

� Prepare the coachee by:

� Providing a rationale?

� Stating the objective(s)?

� Providing an overview of what

will happen?

� Confirming the coachee’s level

of knowledge and skill?

� Explain the skill by:

� Being logical?

� Explaining the ‘why’?

� Being clear and precise?

� Checking for understanding?

� Demonstrate the skill by:

� Presenting in stages?

� Being visible?

� Previewing what the coachee

will see?

� Supporting with an explanation?

� Observe practice by:

� Having the coachee verbally

walk through steps?

� Having the coachee

demonstrate?

� Give feedback by:

� Having the coachee self-assess?

� Telling the coachee how he or

she did?

� Recognizing what the coachee

did well or correctly?

� Providing information to correct

errors or poor techniques?

� Wrap up by:

� Reviewing the learning objective

� Discussing development actions


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WHAT WE KNOW FROM RESEARCH

Performance aids, despite being such a critical instructional and performance

tool, have not been the subject of extensive research over the years. A likely

reason for this is simply that they work, and they work quite well. That is

not to say that performance aids always do what they are supposed to do or

that sometimes they interfere with achieving the accomplishments they

were meant to achieve. However, if the need for the performance aid was

well analyzed and the performance aid was designed, produced, and tested

effectively, the performance aid usually achieves its purpose. It is difficult

to argue with something so elegantly simple and effective. Performance

aids have a proven track record and they can substantially reduce the

training time required for many tasks. To measure their success would be

redundant.

Nevertheless, there has been some interesting research into the efficacy of

performance aids. Under the auspices of the United States Government, study

grants were provided to examine ways to help increase drug compliance in third

world patients. A landmark study done by Wendy N. Edson and her colleagues

in 2002 looked at the role of research in developing performance aids for

pneumonia treatment in Niger. The researchers knew going into the study that

there would be reluctance on the part of caregivers to use the medications in the

dosages and regimens required. This was caused by barriers in communica-

tions, traditional versusmodernmedicine, attitudes toward health care systems,

and perceptions of severity of the illness. To combat these barriers, the team

conducted qualitative research that enabled them to design and produce

effective performance aids. Through focus groups, interviews, home visits,

and clinic observations, they analyzed current knowledge and practices of

health care workers and patient caregivers. They then determined with subject-

matter experts the desired behaviors of these two groups. The subsequent

design and development of the performance aids were based on the information

gathered in the qualitative research. These performance aids, posters, and

counseling cards for health care workers and medication packets with pictorial

messages for caregivers were then tested and revised. The qualitative research

provided the information to develop performance aids that overcame the

previously mentioned barriers.

For the performance improvement specialist, the critical outcome of this

study was not that performance aids significantly helped in achieving drug

compliance, but that the front-end analysis done before the performance aids

were designed and produced contributed to the adoption and use of the

performance aids.


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In most of the books and materials on developing performance aids written

by performance improvement specialists, the authors clearly state that the

job aid should be developed in consideration of both the needs of the

learners as well as what will achieve the desired results. Interviewing

the performer, subject-matter experts, and sometimes representatives of

the management of the organization can accomplish this. The focus of

these interviews should be on what behaviors the performer uses to realize

the desired goals. What Edson and her colleagues point out is that there can be

many barriers to the effective use of the job aid, not the least of which is

the culture of the organization and circumstances in which the performance

aid is used.

In Edson and her colleagues’ study, the front-end analysis pointed out that

the culture of the caregivers caused a reluctance to use modern medicine and

only turned to it when traditional medicines didn’t work. When we look at

developing performance aids for our clients, what are the hidden messages and

cultural issues that could interfere with the efficacy of the job aid?

Learning from the Research and Experience

Historically, performance aids have been designed and developed by people

using them or those helping them to perform the task more effectively or

efficiently. The focus has always been on the task and the performer.

Whenwe look at what performance aid to use for certain tasks or content, the

decision should be based on how it will support the performance required. This

may mean that multiple performance aids might be required depending on the

complexity of the task(s). As an example, to help ensure drug compliance in

Africa, performance aids were produced as posters, reference cards, medication

envelopes, checklists for healthcare professionals, and materials for caregivers.

This multiple approach led to the desired results. Frank Nguyen’s contribution,

Chapter Thirteen in this volume of the handbook, summarizes the additional

recent research in this area.

The research that Edson et al. and others have conducted on performance

aids points to another focus for the future of performance aids. They stressed the

need for analysis as a way of providing information not only about the user of

the performance aid, but also the environment or context the performance aid

was used in.

Humans have used performance aids since they were first curious about

improving the way things were done. While they have had a long history in

improving performance, they still are viable in today’s environment. As long as

we need ways to provide guidance, information, how to’s and confidence to

performers in a just-in-time manner, performance aids will be there.


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RECOMMENDED DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT, ANDIMPLEMENTATION PROCESS

Flowcharts or Algorithms

These are the common developmental processes for all families of performance

aids, along with a few flowchart-specific ones:

� Decide what end result you want your performance aid to achieve.

� Look for tasks that require total accuracy and include a number of action

and decision steps.

� Have an expert both perform and explain the task to you.

� If it is not an observable task, have the expert talk you through the covert

(hidden) parts of the procedure.

� Be sure to obtain the rationale from the expert for why he or she is making

the decisions.

� Construct a prototype of the performance aid and review itwith your expert.

� Try to accomplish the task yourself using the performance aid prototype.

� Have the expert watch you as you talk through the steps of the procedure.

� Revise as necessary and re-test with a new performer.

Examples or Models

While there are similarities to the methods used in developing other families of

performance aids, what differs with examples and models is that design

involves the following steps:

� Gather as many examples or models that you think might be relevant

to the one you want to produce. If none are available, ask experts to design

them.

� Make a first cut, with your experts, to make the numbermore manageable.

� Create a set of instructions to use with the models or samples.

� Test them out with inexperienced performers and revise as necessary.


The steps to developing text-based procedures include:

� Observe and document the steps performed by an expert performer in all

stages of completing the task or product.

� Ask the expert questions to be sure your observations are correct (separate

true on-target behaviors from those that might be superstitious or idio-

syncratic behaviors).


E1C14_1 10/14/2009 361

� Ensure that the text is both appropriate for the level of the performer and

graphically laid out in a manner that helps rather than hinders task

achievement.

� Test and revise as necessary.

Decision Tables

To construct a decision table:

� Identify experts in the decision-making process. This is especially true if

there are any legal or health and safety issues.

� Test each one of the if/then decision steps with an expert.

� Build and test scenarios to ensure accuracy of the entire decision-making

process.

� Verify the table with members of the target audience and revise, if

necessary, with the help of the experts.


In order to design and develop text or picture lists:

� Determine what content needs to be in the performance aid.

� Determine the best format or formats to display the content (remember

that with this family of performance aids, the easier it is for the performer

to access the information in the performance aid, the better).

� Test a variety of formats with appropriate target population members.

� Revise as necessary.

Checklists

In order to create an effective checklist:

� Work with a subject-matter expert to ensure accuracy of required be-

haviors/procedures.

� Ensure that the items in the checklist follow a logical sequence (checked

by an expert).

� Test the checklist with target population performers and revise as

required.

CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

As stated earlier in the chapter, there are a number of critical steps, required

information, and points to look out for in order to ensure the success of

performance aids. In summation these are


E1C14_1 10/14/2009 362

� The performer must use the performance aid during performance of

the task.

� The performer must have all of the skills and knowledge necessary for

accomplishing the task solely using the performance aid.

� The performance aid must either contain the instructions for using the

performance aid or be self-evident.

� The performer must be able to use the performance aid without external

instruction.

� Look for tasks that require total accuracy and include a number of action

and decision steps.

� Have an expert both perform and explain the task to the performer.

� If it is not an observable task, have the expert explain the covert (hidden)

parts of the procedure.

� Be sure to obtain a rationale from the expert for why he or she is making

the decisions he or she makes.

� Construct a prototype of the performance aid and reviewwith your expert.

� Try to accomplish the task yourself using the performance aid prototype.

� Have the expert watch you as you talk through the steps of the procedure.

CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

Models or Examples

� Gather as many examples or models that you think might be relevant to

the one you want to produce. If none are available, ask experts to design

them.

� Make a first cut, with your experts, to make the numbermore manageable.

� Create a set of instructions to use with the models or samples.


� Observe and document the steps performed by an expert performer in all

stages of completing the task or product.

� Ask the expert questions to be sure your observations are correct (separate

true on-target behaviors from those that might be superstitious or idio-

syncratic behaviors).

� Ensure that the text is both appropriate for the level of the performer and

graphically laid out in a manner that helps rather than hinders task

achievement.


E1C14_1 10/14/2009 363

Decision Tables

� Identify experts in the decision-making process. This is especially true if

there are any legal or health and safety issues.

� Test each one of the if/then decision steps with an expert.

� Build and test scenarios to ensure accuracy of the entire decision-making

process.

� Verify tables with members of the target audience and revise, if necessary,

with the help of the experts.


� Determine the best format or formats to display the content (remember

that with this family of performance aids, the easier it is for the performer

to access the information in the performance aid the better).

Checklists

� Ensure that the items in the checklist follow a logical sequence (checked

by an expert).

� Test them out with inexperienced performers and revise as necessary.

References

Clark, R. C. (2007). Leveraging multimedia for learning. Adobe Systems Inc. White Paper.

San Jose, CA: Adobe.

Clark, R. C., Nguyen, F., & Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiency in learning. San Francisco:

Pfeiffer.

Edson,W., Koniz-Booher, P., Boucar, M., Djbrina, S., & Mahamane, I. (2002). The role of

research in developing job aids for pneumonia treatment in Niger. International

Journal for Quality in Health Care, 14(1), 35–45.

Gagn�e, R. M., & Briggs, L. J. (1979) Principles of instructional design (2nd ed.) (p. 43).

New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Harless, J. H. (1986). Guiding performance with job aids. In Introduction to performance

technology (pp. 106–124). Silver Spring, MD: International Society for Performance

Improvement.

Merrill, D. M., Tennyson, R. D., & Posey, L. O. (1992). Teaching concepts. An instruc-

tional design guide. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Nguyen, F., Klein, J. D., & Sullivan, H. (2005). A comparative study of electronic

performance support systems. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 18(4), 71–86.

Paino, M., & Rossett, A. (2008, January). Performance support that adds value to

everyday lives. Performance Improvement, 47(1), 37–44.

Rossett, A., & Gautier-Downs, J. (1991). A handbook for job aids. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.


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Stolovitch, H., & Keeps, E. (2006). Beyond training ain’t performance fieldbook. Alex-

andria, VA: American Society for Training and Development.

S EDITORIAL CONNECTIONS SPerformance aids (job aids) have been a mainstay of performance improvement

efforts for decades. From quick-reference pilots’ manuals to diagrams used by

grocery store baggers, performance aids can provide valuable support at the time

of performance. Nevertheless, these low-tech performance interventions are

frequently overlooked as more complex or high-tech solutions are considered.

Be creative and consider your options when improving performance, and in

many cases you will find performance aids to be a low-tech, low-cost option that

make a substantial contribution to improving performance in your organization.

Both EPSS and performance aids, as described in the previous chapters,

provide critical information and just-in-time support for the accomplishment of

significant results. As a consequence, both are valuable performance interven-

tions that provide useful tools to the individual and teams that are in the process

of achieving desired results. In the next chapter, knowledge management is

presented as an intervention that is designed to ensure that important informa-

tion is available to individuals and teams. Knowledge management, both as a

tool and as a process, offers organizations practical solutions for what would

otherwise be an almost continuous loss of data, information, and knowledge.

Expanding Your Options

Ergonomics—the scientific discipline concerned with designingaccording to human needs, and the profession that applies theory,principles, data, and methods to design in order to optimize humanwell-being and overall system performance. Ergonomics isconcerned with the ‘fit’ between people and their work and takesaccount of the workers’ capabilities and limitations in seeking toensure that tasks, equipment, information, and the environment suiteach worker. Workstation design, workspace planning, and safetyplanning are just some of the many performance interventions youcan use in relation to ergonomics.

Based on wikipedia.org definition (January 2009)


E1C14_1 10/14/2009 365

WHAT’S COMING UP

Within organizations knowledge management is often discussed solely in

relation to the tools (especially software systems) that are used to facilitate

the gathering, storing, and later dissemination of information. While this

represents a valuable component of knowledge management, as you will see

in Chapter Fifteen, knowledge management has much broader and more wide-

ranging applications within organizational improvement efforts. From devel-

oping an organizational culture that promotes the sharing of information to

building individual capacity for converting information into knowledge, this

performance intervention is routinely intertwined with numerous other activi-

ties to improve human and organizational performance.


Documents

Handbook of Improving Performance in the Workplace: Volumes 1-3 (ISPI/Handbook of Improving Performance in the Workplace - Set) || Performance Aids