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2014/08/01 | 1. Core perspectives 0
2014年 7月
JICA Strategy Paper on
Solid Waste Management [文書のサブタイトルを入
力
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Japan International Cooperation Agency
1
JICA Strategy Paper on Solid Waste Management
Global Environment Department
Japan International Cooperation Agency
Contents
1. Core perspectives ........................................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Basic cooperation policy ............................................................................................................................................... 3
(a) Integrated solid waste management to achieve the 3Rs ..................................... 3
1) Cooperation that builds solid waste management implementation
frameworks .................................................................................................................... 4
2) Assistance for process-wide improvements ..................................................... 5
(b) Assistance based on development stages ........................................................... 6
1) Stage I: Improving public health and sanitation ................................................ 7
2) Stage II: Reducing environmental impacts and pollution control .................... 8
3) Stage III: Using 3R initiatives to establish a sound material-cycle society ..... 9
3. JICA cooperation models with specific examples ............................................................................................ 10
(a) Comprehensive assistance models ..................................................................... 10
(b) Local government partnership models ............................................................... 11
(c) Private sector partnership models ...................................................................... 13
1) Outsourcing operations to the private sector ...................................................... 13
2) Promoting private-sector investment and technologies ..................................... 13
(d) Institution-building assistance models ............................................................... 14
Cover photos
(Top) Residential waste collection in South Sudan under the “Project for Capacity
Development on Solid Waste Management in Juba (2011–2014)”
(Bottom) Sanitary landfill site prepared with assistance from the “Project on
Integrated Solid Waste Management for Municipalities in El Salvador (2005–2009)”
Japan International Cooperation Agency
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1. Core perspectives Global population increases and economic growth have brought with them increasing amounts of
waste each year. Waste discharge for 2010 was 10.4 billion tons, and this figure is expected to grow
to 14.8 billion tons by 20251. The amount generated by developing countries accounts for 56% of
the world’s total waste2, and a variety of problems associated with waste stem from particular
conditions and stage of development in those countries. Problems include underdeveloped collection
and transportation capacity, open dumping of untreated waste, improper treatment of hazardous
waste, and more. The urbanization and excessive population concentration that come from rapid
development have also led to marked increases in littering, illegal dumping, and other threats to the
environment and public health. Resources are being wasted with the dramatic rise of mass
consumption in newly emerging and middle-income countries. These and other problems can then
worsen public health and sanitation conditions, have adverse impacts on the environment, and result
in the loss of precious natural resources.
Japan experienced similar problems during its postwar recovery and years of rapid economic
growth, and it has come close to achieve a sound material-cycle society in recent years. This
achievement is due not only to the efforts of its national government (which was responsible for
setting up the necessary legislative frameworks), but also to a host of cooperative initiatives by local
governments, private companies, associations, and citizens who have worked and played respective
roles to optimize collection and transport, recycling and intermediate treatment, final disposal of
waste, and more. In the course of these efforts, Japan has set up extensive systems to promote
technological innovation and 3R (reduce, reuse, recycle) initiatives3 while raising awareness about
waste reduction—which in turn has led to changes of mindset and behavior among its citizens. The
entire process has given Japan a wealth of knowledge and experience in this sector.
It has been said that waste-related issues are a reflection on the state of a society4. They are
rooted in various factors—including economic, historical, cultural, and environmental conditions—and
change depending on the country, city, or region. For this reason, cooperation in the solid waste
management5 sector requires clearly identifying the type of problems that the partner country is
facing as well as its specific needs. It is required to assist developing countries effectively based on
the past experience of cooperation between public and private sectors in Japan.
Today, Japan is working to create environmentally sustainable cities through the effective and
efficient use of energy and resources, and the solid waste management sector plays a major part in
these efforts. Specifically, the focus is on reducing the amount of waste resulting from production
processes in “artery” industries while developing the “vein” industries in charge of recycling that waste.
Other initiatives include developing environmentally friendly products that are easily recycled and
utilizing the gases produced during waste incineration. JICA also contributes to disseminating such
1Tanaka, Masaru (2011). Article in the FY2011 Environmental White Paper.
2World Bank (2012). What a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management. p. 8-9.
3Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry website on 3R policy initiatives in Japan (http://www.meti.go.jp/policy/recycle/)
4Sakurai, Kunitoshi (2000). “Urban waste management in developing nations: Strategies for effective international
cooperation”. Journal of the Japan Society of Material Cycles and Waste Management. 11, 142–151. 5Definition of “solid waste management”: In JICA projects, the term “solid waste management” is used to refer the
management of the series of processes that starts with discharge/storage and extends through collection, intermediate, treatment, and final disposal of all waste materials (both hazardous and non-hazardous).
Japan International Cooperation Agency
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solutions based on Japan’s insights and experience with modifications to address specific conditions
in developing countries experiencing rapid economic growth.
2. Basic cooperation policy
JICA’s basic cooperation policy6 is to implement integrated solid waste management to achieve
the 3Rs while providing development stage–based assistance appropriate to the status of each
partner country. JICA offers a variety of assistance options designed to meet the needs of the partner
with the overall purpose of achieving sustainable development.
(a) Integrated solid waste management to achieve the 3Rs
In the year 2000, the international community established a set of Millennium Development Goals
to be achieved by 2015. Under Goal 7, ensure environmental sustainability, is target 7A: integrate the
principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs. Integrated solid waste
management (ISWM) is a concept receiving broad attention in the waste management sector as one
of the keys to achieving the seventh Millennium Development Goal. ISWM represents a move away
from the “end-of-pipe” approach to waste treatment (a straight-line process from collection/transport
to final disposal) and towards the more integrated perspective of “resource management”, where
waste is considered as a resource within a cyclical process. Since ISWM was first proposed in 19937,
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the European Union, the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)8, and other organizations have gradually been developing
this concept. Based on its past experiences geared towards creating a sound material-cycle society,
Japan has also contributed to deepen ISWM policies with the proposal of its 3R Initiative at the 2004
Sea Island Summit. JICA is committed to cooperating with this world wide movement by assisting
developing countries in establishing integrated solid waste management frameworks of their own.
6JICA (2005). Supporting Capacity Development for Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries: Towards Improving
Solid Waste Management of Entire Society. (Revised Edition). JICA Institute for International Cooperation 7Tchobanoglous, G. (1993) Integrated Solid Waste Management: Engineering Principles and Management Issues.
McGraw-Hill, New York. 8USEPA (2002). What is Integrated Solid Waste Management? UNEP.
Japan International Cooperation Agency
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1) Cooperation that builds solid waste management implementation frameworks
Implementing proper solid waste
management practices in developing countries
requires increasing solid waste management
capacity throughout the entire society as well
as building sustainable implementation
frameworks. Proper assessment must be
carried out on all levels, such as individual,
organizational, institutional, and social in order
to understand the existing capacity of targeted
governments or municipal councils so that
appropriate assistance could be provided to
partner governments to establish integrated
solid waste management frameworks. In
working from this perspective, JICA has defined
seven aspects from which it offers cooperation:
(1) legal and institutional improvements, (2)
organizational improvements, (3) financial
improvements, (4) private sector involvement,
(5) waste producer initiatives, (6) citizen
participation, and (7) cultural and social
considerations. These aspects are selected
and combined, to consider cooperation
activities that meet the needs of each partner
country (see figure 2).
Experience with past projects has shown “citizen participation” to be particularly critical as of late.
Figure 2. Waste management aspects
(1) Legal and institutional improvements
Classify types of waste, create standards for each type and designate
responsible parties, ensure thorough implementation by local governments
based on national policies and plans, establish laws to encourage 3R practices.
(2) Organizational improvements
Set up coordinated systems among departments involved in waste management
responsibilities, inspect and evaluate services, prepare statistical information,
improve labor management and working environments, continually develop
human resources.
(3) Financial improvements
Review budget allocation and perform in-depth analyses to reduce costs,
educate/raise awareness to ensure collections from beneficiaries, start charging
for garbage bags and encourage the use of reusable bags for shopping in order
to reduce waste volume and waste treatment costs.
(4) Private sector involvement
Have the private sector participate in waste management duties in various
capacities (from partial outsourcing to complete privatization), define optimum
public-/private-sector roles and responsibilities, set up effective supervisory
frameworks.
(5) Waste producer initiatives
Have companies take action to ensure proper waste management, curtail waste
output and encourage recycling through production process improvement.
(6) Citizen participation
Raise waste management awareness among the public to encourage proper
behavior, publically promote/educate on good practices through community
organizations and the media
(7) Cultural and social considerations
Create programs that make it easy for women (those who manage household
garbage) to get involved in waste management, establish rules for operating
final disposal sites in collaboration with site managers and informal waste
collectors
Figure 1. Overview of JICA solid waste management cooperation
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Waste management in developing countries frequently suffers from limited citizen participation and
inefficient collection because citizens do not recognize that government waste management services
are reliable or are not aware that there are tremendous costs involved in collection-to-disposal
operations. When local governments are on shaky financial footing and get most of their revenue
from fees collected from citizens, this can lead to unpaid fees and worsening financial conditions. For
these reasons, promotional efforts and other initiatives to raise resident awareness and encourage
citizen participation are extremely critical.
“Cultural and social considerations” is also important. Because many informal waste pickers (those
who make a living by collecting and selling valuables from disposal sites) and waste collectors come
from impoverished groups, it is important to introduce solid waste management systems that can
improve the social status of these citizens and not adversely affect their livelihoods. In other words,
cooperation schemes must consider the socially vulnerable as well.
2) Assistance for process-wide improvements
Solid waste management involves a waste management flow that starts with
production/consumption and moves through the generation/discharge of waste, collection and
transport, intermediate treatment or reuse/recycling, and final disposal (see figure 3).
For this reason, cooperation first focuses on pinpointing specific problematic processes within the
overall solid waste management flow. Once the underlying causes for technical issues or problems
within each process are identified, cooperation measures are designed and implemented in
consideration of five different processes: (1) optimizing production and consumption; (2) minimizing
generation and optimizing discharge; (3) improving collection and transport; (4) encouraging
intermediate treatment, reuse, and recycling; and (5) improving final disposal. Interest in
waste-to-energy measures (e.g. incineration/biomass power generation, heat recovery from waste
treatment) is increasing even among developing countries; however, cooperation must carefully
consider the appropriate sustainable technologies based on conditions in each partner country.
These include the scope of waste treatment operations (amount of waste generation and amount of
waste at landfill) as well as the country’s stage of development—since in many cases it is difficult to
introduce sophisticated technologies if the country is not reaching the level of medium income country
due to the costs involved. . Cooperation must then move forward if it is feasible after careful
assessment of the capacity of the partner country and utilize technologies of the private sector in
Japan.
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(b) Assistance based on development stages
The amount of waste generated and its composition depend heavily on the level of economic
development of the partner country. The problems that must be addressed and the goals that must be
achieved change as economic development progresses. JICA offers assistance based on the
following three stages of development.
Stage I: Improving public health and sanitation Countries that are urbanizing experience
increasing waste discharge as their populations concentrate in smaller areas, a situation that leads to
worsening public health and sanitation conditions. The most critical task during this stage is improving
these conditions by implementing proper collection and disposal that can keep up with the amount of
waste.
Stage II: Reducing environmental costs and pollution control As countries industrialize (and
particularly as secondary industries emerge), they enter a second stage where pollution and
contamination become significant threats. The types of waste generated during Stage II become
increasingly diverse, and environmental contamination can trigger health hazards and other problems
with increasingly broad ramifications. Active assistance for municipal solid waste management must
continue during this stage, with the addition of proper treatment and management of hazardous
wastes to limit negative environmental impact and prevent contamination.
Stage III: Using 3R initiatives to establish a material-cycle society As economic development
progresses even further and citizens become more socially conscious, countries reach a stage where
they are more aware of their environment. The goal during this stage is to firmly establish material
Figure 3. The integrated solid waste management process
• Encourage waste separation
• Improve output methods
• Expand collection areas
• Improve collection services and efficiency
• Stop illegal dumping
(2) Minimize generation
Optimize discharge
• Reduce volume (e.g. through crushing/incineration)
• Encourage recycling
• Encourage composting
• Construct/upgrade facilities based on proper planning
• Introduce landfills designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
• Implement waste-to-energy measures (collect landfill gases for
use as an energy source)
On-site treatment
Illegal dumping
Collect Final disposal
Market for valuables
Reuse
Clean public areas
(3) Improve collection/transport
StoreGenerate Output
(4) Introduce/improve intermediate
processing, reuse, and recycle
(5) Improve final
disposal sites
Consume
Produce
Intermediate
treatment
Collect
valuables
(1) Optimize production/consumption
• Improve production processes to reduce waste
(e.g. through cleaner production initiatives)
• Encourage the use of reusable bags/bottles to
curb consumption
Reduce
Recycle
Japan International Cooperation Agency
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cycle society with reduced adverse environmental impact such as greenhouse gases through
reduction of waste amount and promotion of recycling efforts.
Although Japan has experienced all three of these development stages, economic conditions in
today’s developing countries are characterized by the rapid emergence of consumer societies driven
by globalization. This has drastically reduced the timeframe in which countries move through the
three stages—and some countries may even experience multiple stages simultaneously or may not
go through them in the same order. The situation makes it critical that the capacity and challenges of
each partner country are properly assessed before moving forward.
1) Stage I: Improving public health and sanitation
Solid waste management initiatives have a significant and direct impact on citizens in countries
undergoing the first stage of development. For the countries under the first stage of development,
assistance is designed to improve public health and sanitation conditions by focusing on two key
elements having a significant direct impact on citizens which are collection as the most costly
operation and disposal as the greatest impact on the surrounding environment.
In countries with insufficient waste collection practices, the garbage is not properly removed away
from the generation site. As a result, rotting food scraps and other waste remains uncollected,
attracting flies, rodents, and other organisms that promote the spread of communicable disease and
cause other public health and sanitation issues. There is also the risk of environmental pollution and
the subsequent health problems due to noxious odors, smoke from open burning of waste, and heavy
metals or other toxic chemical substances present in the waste. Assistance focuses on collection
operations includes improving collection rates, making collection work and transport more efficient,
enhancing collection services, and preventing illegal dumping. This separates waste from living
spaces, ultimately creating a healthier environment.
JICA has provided a large number of countries with assistance to improve their collections
operations. These projects have taken a variety of forms, including door-to-door collection, bell
collection 9 , hub-based collection, community-based collection, and other methods. Collection
efficiency has been improved thanks to this extensive experience as well as time-and-motion
studies10. JICA will continue to build on its positive track record, proposing collection methods ideally
suited to individual partner countries. In addition to improving collections practices, assistance also
includes occupational safety and health aspects for collection workers while placing importance on
getting residents proactively involved in waste collection efforts.
Open dumping, a simple waste disposing method in an empty area, is typically practiced in regions
that have little capacity to practice basic solid waste management operations. The first step in
improving open dumping is landfilling garbage in a controlled manner and then covering it with soil,
which cut back on odors, reduce the risk of fire, limit flies and other organisms that carry infectious
9Bell collection is a method where garbage collection vehicles play a tune as they drive by to alert residents that they have
come to collect the garbage. Residents come out of their homes and hand garbage to the collection workers when the trucks arrive. 10
Time and motion studies follow the movements of different types of garbage collection vehicles for a full day to see how much time it takes to carry out various tasks. This information is then used to figure out how to most effectively utilize the capacity of each vehicle.
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diseases, prevent flyaway garbage, and otherwise limit the impact of the disposal site on nearby
residents and the surrounding environment.
2) Stage II: Reducing environmental impacts and pollution control
The most basic environmental measure for final disposal sites is reducing pollution with measures
that limit the negative environmental impact of leachate as well as methane and other anaerobic
gases. Proper final disposal practices include introducing sanitary landfills, leachate treatment, and
reducing anaerobic gas emissions. Since the 1960s, the Faculty of Engineering at Fukuoka University
and the Fukuoka City government have been jointly developing a semi-aerobic landfill structure,
which is now the standard configuration for landfills for municipal solid waste s in Japan. JICA
assistance focuses on offering a low-cost version of this approach, known as the Fukuoka Method,
that is affordable and flexible enough to be adopted by developing countries to meet their individual
needs.
Once countries have begun industrializing, they
need to build sustainable solid waste management
systems that promote the circulation of resources
and regulation of hazardous waste. In expanding its
perspective on production cycles, JICA has come to
prioritize cooperation strategies that include proper
management of hazardous waste—particularly
“e-waste”, or discarded electric and electronic
devices—while also assisting measures to address
climate change in terms of waste management.
E-waste has become a problematic issue in recent
years—even in developing countries. Electric and
electronic devices contain lead, cadmium, zinc,
mercury, and other toxic substances that can cause
a variety of environmental hazards (including soil
and water pollution) if disposed of improperly. Because many developing countries have not yet
established reliable e-waste treatment procedures, they risk contaminating their environments or
creating health hazards for workers due to inappropriate handling practices. Another concern is the
wasting of rare metals and other nonrenewable resources. JICA assists developing countries by
enabling them to transition to more proper e-waste treatment procedures.
Proper management of hazardous waste also requires that countries pay attention to industrial
waste, medical waste, agricultural waste, mining waste, and other types of waste that contain
chemical substances. It is critical that JICA build on the outcomes and training from projects currently
underway to help establish of Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (PRTR) systems (see case
study #1), specifying target hazardous wastes and offering broader assistance for measures that
incorporate chemical substance management.
Photo 1. Cathode ray tube glass from old television sets
contains lead, which is a toxic metal (taken at an e-waste
sorting facility in Sao Paolo, Brazil)
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3) Stage III: Using 3R initiatives to establish a sound material-cycle society
Policy issues related to Japan’s transition to a sound material-cycle society are shifting from 3R
initiatives that focus on the quantity of materials in circulation and seek to reduce the volume of waste
to a new stage that focuses on the quality of materials in circulation and seeks to more effectively use
waste and other materials as sources of energy or other resources11.
Since 2009, Japan’s Ministry of the Environment and the United Nations Centre for Regional
Development (UNCRD) have hosted the Regional 3R Forum in Asia and the Pacific (known as the
Regional 3R Forum in Asia prior to 2013) with the aim of advocating for 3R practices that transcended
national boundaries. One of the challenges that is being addressed is the need for the world to come
together to promote reduction, reuse and recycling in developing countries facing rapidly increasing
amounts of waste.
Promoting the 3Rs requires cooperation between national and local governments, citizens, and the
private sector. JICA’s assistance encourages developing legal systems and formulating plans at the
national and local government levels, promoting 3R-related activities such as waste minimization,
separate collection, composting, promotion of 3Rs initiatives and developing recycling industry and
so on. JICA projects build institutions and develop human resources with a focus on sharing with
11
Japan Ministry of the Environment (2013). Annual Report (White Paper) on the Environment, the Sound Material-Cycle Society and the Biodiversity in Japan 2013. p.109.
Case study #1: PRTR systems to reduce environmental impact
Pollutant Release and Transfer Register systems track potentially hazardous chemical substances by
identifying, calculating, and reporting where they originate and in what amounts, whether (and in what
quantities) they are being released into the environment (atmosphere, water, soil, etc.), and whether (and
in what quantities) they are being transferred as waste or other materials.
Near the Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate, Thailand’s largest industrial park, several dozen children and
teachers at a nearby elementary school were suddenly hospitalized due to atmospheric pollution from an
unknown source. Many local residents also began to complain about noxious odors, some of them even
filing lawsuits against the government and companies at the site. Incidents like these are raising
environmental awareness among Thai citizens. The aims of the project were to encourage companies to
enhance ongoing management of chemical substances, prevent the barriers to environmental
conservation these substances may cause, and identify the total amount of chemical substances
discharged from factories, vehicles, farms, households, and so on. In order to achieve these aims, (1) the
government collected data on chemical substances, (2) a “right to know” policy was put in place for local
residents, and (3) business operators were encouraged to voluntarily curtail emissions. All three initiatives
were carried out with the ultimate goal of systematically implementing a nationwide PRTR framework.
For more information, visit http://www.jica.go.jp/project/english/thailand/013/
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developing countries the advanced resource recovery and waste-to-energy technologies held by
private Japanese companies and on developing business opportunities for them to utilize their
technology within those countries.
Finally, JICA takes steps to specifically address climate change while identifying specific
requirements (e.g. levels of economic and technological development within the partner country) for
each project. These efforts include composting to help reduce greenhouse gases, converting waste
into biogases or biofuels, improving disposal sites and/or waste collection and treatment systems to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and more.
3. JICA cooperation models with specific examples
(a) Comprehensive assistance models
Developing countries simultaneously face challenges in both “soft” aspects (lack of trained
personnel, weak organizations, lack of interest among citizens) and “hard” aspects (lack of materials,
equipment, and infrastructure). Past JICA cooperation projects have applied optimized schemes to
the specific problems occurred in target areas. JICA will adequately grasp the needs of developing
countries and combine optimized schemes to address identified challenges. Utilizing this
program-based approach, JICA conducts comprehensive assistance. JICA will also carry out
continuous assistance, for example, starting from developing Master Plans (M/Ps) followed by
technical cooperation to enhance capacity together with financial assistance to develop infrastructure
such as final disposal site improvements (see table 1 and case example #2). Cooperation in
Bangladesh and Mongolia
started with technical
cooperation for development
planning to support formulation
of a Master Plan (M/P),
followed by grant aid with the
required materials and
equipment (garbage collection
vehicles, bulldozers, and other
heavy equipment) proposed by
the M/P. In addition, the M/P
assistance was followed by the
implementation of technical
cooperation projects to assist
developing capacity for the
implementation of the M/P. In
the period of about ten years,
JICA’s assistance was planned
in the first place to combine
multiple schemes to facilitate
Table 1. Key cooperation efforts by scheme
Category Scheme Key cooperation efforts in the waste management sector
Technical
cooperation
Technical cooperation
projects
Capacity-building, support for policy/plan formulation and
implementation, improvements to organizational management
and finances, civic education to promote the 3Rs
Technical cooperation
for development
planning
Formulating national policies and plans, formulating master
plans for target cities, formulating short-term action plans
Training Accepting trainees from waste management, disposal site
improvement, and other sectors to Japan or a third country
Dispatch of experts Dispatching policy advisors or other experts to look over
cooperation details, support system-building, and oversee the
closing of open dumping sites
JICA partnership
programs
Grassroots technical cooperation through local governments
and NGOs
Follow-up cooperation
Follow-up for provided equipment and materials and/or
implementation of action plans of trainees that have returned
home
ODA loan account
technical assistance
Technical assistance for the operation and management of
facilities developed through the use of ODA loans
Financial
assistance
Grant aid
Provision of equipment for garbage collection and heavy
equipment used at final disposal sites
ODA loan
Development support and systems improvement for final
disposal sites intermediate treatment facilities, operation and
management of treatment facilities, etc.
Other Japan Overseas
Cooperation
Volunteers
Public awareness and environmental education by volunteers at
the grassroots level
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the execution of the M/Ps. Cooperation like this uses a program-based approach, which means it is
carried out from a long-term perspective that goes beyond isolated individual projects. This type of
cooperation is also effective in encouraging self-help efforts within the partner countries, which has
led to concrete outcomes such as the establishment of new government organizations in charge of
waste management. JICA will continue to effectively select and put together whatever financial
assistance and technical cooperation schemes it can, in order to carry out strategic, comprehensive
cooperation programs.
(b) Local government partnership models
There is very little citizen awareness about garbage-related issues in many developing countries,
yet initiatives to address these issues cannot move forward without citizen participation. The local
governments that provide waste management services also suffer from a host of problems, and there
Case study #2: Phased multi-scheme assistance in Dhaka
JICA carried out several phases of assistance in Dhaka, Bangladesh. To ensure that cooperation effectively
improves the personnel at the Dhaka City Corporation (DCC) in charge of solid waste manageme, government
organizations, institutional and social systems, multiple projects were combined in a way that addressed both
“hard” and “soft” aspects of partner city capacity. In 2000, JICA dispatched experts to the DCC in order to discuss
the specifics of upcoming cooperation policies. The results of those discussions were then used to formulate the
Clean Dhaka Master Plan under a development study called the Solid Waste Management Study in Dhaka City
(2003–2006). The following assistance for both soft and hard components was then carried out in a stepwise
manner. These cooperation efforts succeeded in establishing a solid waste management bureau, increasing the
amount of waste collected and transported, introducing and establishing sanitary landfill technology, raising public
awareness, and other outcomes that improved the capacity to respond to Dhaka’s waste management challenges.
Positive ripple effects are expected in the future as Dhaka shares its experiences with other Bangladeshi cities
grappling with emerging waste-related issues.
Photo 2. Transferring garbage to collection Photo 3. Leachate treatment reservoir at the
vehicles provided by JICA Matuail final disposal site
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is still substantial room for improvement when it comes to improving the efficiency and labor
management methods (for example) used in collection and transport operations. Local governments
and offices often have very little capacity to deal with these problems at both an individual and
organizational level, and the situation requires that awareness be fostered within the government
providing the services as well.
Local governments in Japan have accumulated a wealth of expertise and personnel able to
address challenges like these as a result of the services they have been providing to local residents.
Citizen cooperation is essential to overcoming the enormous challenge of establishing a stable sound
material-cycle society, and local governments in Japan have gathered precious value-added
knowledge and information through efforts to achieve this goal—efforts that focus on building citizen
consensus and securing public participation. For this reason, JICA will continue strengthening its ties
with local governments in Japan as it moves forward with its projects in developing countries.
Between June 2011 and March 2014, JICA worked with Shibushi City to implement grassroots
technical cooperation projects in the Pacific (primarily Fiji) that promoted a 3R garbage-sorting model
(see case study #3). Since September 2013 till March 2015, JICA has been working with the Tokyo
Metropolitan government to implement grassroots technical cooperation to improve solid waste
management in Yangon, Myanmar. Other past forms of JICA cooperation include the dispatch of
experts and the provision of on-site observation opportunities from the cities of Nagoya, Kawasaki,
Yokohama, Okayama, and Chiba.
Case study #3: The Shibushi model
The city government of Shibushi in Kagoshima Prefecture is actively working with its citizens to reduce
garbage and promote recycling. Residents have organized a number of sanitation councils to carry out
thorough garbage separation, which has led to remarkable improvements in recycling rates. As a result,
the amount of waste disposed of at the landfill site has been dramatically reduced, which in turn has
significantly extended the service life of the landfill. Sorted recyclables are collected and taken to
recycling facilities, where recyclables are sorted further and sold off to recyclers. Cooking oil is
converted to diesel fuel, while organic matter is recycled as compost. It was thought that the
experiences in Shibushi would be effective in Pacific island countries where technological and
economic limitations make it difficult to introduce intermediate treatment facilities. A grassroots
technical cooperation project was implemented from 2011 to March 2014 with the help of the city.
Starting in January 2014, similar waste reduction and recycling support program was initiated targeting
Samoa and Vanuatu. It is hoped that this model will be rolled out further in the Pacific to promote 3R
initiatives in the region
For more information, visit http://www.jica.go.jp/topics/2011/20110929_01.html (Japanese)
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(c) Private sector partnership models
1) Outsourcing operations to the private sector
In the move towards more efficient solid waste management services, national and local
governments in developing countries are increasingly outsourcing their operations to private
companies or privatizing their own operations. Many tasks associated with waste collection, road
cleaning, vehicle maintenance, fee collection, facilities management, and so on, are considered to be
activities in which the private sector can participate. Private outsourcing is beneficial in many
regards—it helps governments simplify their operations, makes tasks more efficient, and maximizes
the vitality of the private sector. However, this transition must be thoroughly considered before it is
implemented, since it will have a negative impact on a region’s solid waste management activities if
the government does not have sufficient capacity to implement a fair contractor selection process or
manage the contractors once they are selected. JICA offers assistance to enhance capacity on the
government side so that private outsourcing can be properly encouraged (see case study #4).
2) Promoting private-sector investment and technologies
Solid waste management involves more than just improving basic collection and transport services.
Development must also extend to infrastructure such as intermediate treatment facilities and final
disposal sites. These developments require inputs such as money, technology, and knowledge, but
the reality is that many developing countries suffer from insufficient funds and do not have the
technology or expertise that they need. In recent years, there has been a move to expand
infrastructure development (in the areas of facility construction, operation, and maintenance) through
public-private partnerships (PPP). The goal of these PPPs is to further boost outcomes and efficiency
by partially or completely introducing private-sector activities into these projects. It is necessary for
JICA to move beyond its traditional assistance schemes (i.e., technical cooperation, grant aids, and
ODA loans) to also consider solid waste management sector PPP projects and projects that support
Japanese small and medium-size enterprises. JICA is now pushing initiatives aimed at utilizing the
insights and expertise of private companies—for example, by carrying out feasibility studies
(Preparatory Surveys for PPP Infrastructure Project) to assess PPP projects for solid waste
management sectors in developing countries based on proposals from private companies themselves.
There are many cases where recycling technologies, incineration technologies, operational expertise
for intermediate and waste treatment facilities, and other insights from Japanese small and
medium-size enterprises can be used to help resolve issues in the solid waste management sector. In
turn, making use of JICA technical cooperation or financial assistance can help these smaller
companies expand their operations into developing countries. JICA will continue to search for
cooperation strategies that bring together the technology of these companies and the know-how of
the local governments on the ground.
Japan International Cooperation Agency
14
(d) Institution-building assistance models
It has always been common for developing countries to have industrial structures that place a
heavy toll on the environment, and pollution levels are rapidly increasing. Strengthening regulatory
frameworks and providing economic incentives are two effective ways to address this situation and
prevent the contamination from spreading. Another effective approach is transitioning the industrial
structure itself towards more environmental conscious one. JICA offers assistance aimed at building
institutional frameworks that give partner governments unified control over the whole country; it also
tests specific solid waste management framework models through local governments in certain
regions and then rolls those models out to the entire nation (see case studies #5 and #6).
The kinds of assistance JICA offers for institution-building are diverse, and target not only the laws
at the national level, but also the detailed implementation rules and guidelines needed to enact those
laws, the manuals needed to carry out daily tasks, local government by-laws and regulations, and
more. In cases where the organizational frameworks that handle daily operations are weak, internal
regulations outlining work procedures and other rules are laid out, accounting systems are introduced,
and other organizational assistance is provided with the aim of building a cohesive, practically
functional framework.
Case study #4: Capacity development support in Nairobi
Garbage collection in the city of Nairobi, Kenya is carried out directly by the city government, by both
contracted and licensed companies, and by illegal collectors. However, the city does not sufficiently
manage this complicated system. To address this issue, a franchising program was introduced to grant
licenses to companies who could then monopolize services for certain zones—resulting in more
efficient and higher-capacity waste collection and transport operations. To make the government
services more efficient, a public solid waste management corporation is to be established in the City of
Nairobi and steps have been taken to set up a special account for the new organization. JICA is
currently implementing a project begun in February 2012 to develop capacity within Nairobi City Hall.
The key outcomes of this project include (1) improved direct garbage collection by the City of Nairobi,
(2) the introduction of a franchise-based garbage collection program, (3) improved collections in slum
areas and other regions through community tie-up activities, and (4) better financial management
through the introduction of special accounting procedures.
For more information, visit http://www.jica.go.jp/kenya/office/activities/project/21.html (Japanese)
Japan International Cooperation Agency
15
Case study #5: Institutional assistance for 3R and proper waste management in
Indonesia
In 2008, the Indonesian government enacted a waste
management law that included measures to promote 3R
initiatives. However, the local governments in charge of
waste management did not have sufficient capacity to
formulate related policy for waste reduction. For this reason,
the country needed to enact ordinances and other
regulations from the Ministry of Environment (MOE) based
on the waste management law and also needed to boost
policy formulation and implementation capacity among
regional governments. This JICA initiative included pilot
projects designed to formulate ordinances related to 3R
promotion as well as create mid-range waste reduction plans and encourage garbage sorting in the cities of
Palembang in South Sumatra and Balikpapan in East Kalimantan. Through these pilot projects, JICA is looking
to introduce 3R activities and proper waste management in the two cities in line with the waste management law
while developing a model project that can be rolled out to other cities in the future.
For more information, visit
http://gwweb.jica.go.jp/km/ProjectView.nsf/4f3700b697729bb649256bf300087d02/d2f933758fbef00b492576f70025bb98
(Japanese)
Case study #6: National waste management system and capacity development
project in the Dominican Republic
The Dominican Ministry of Environment and Natural
Resources (MARENA) had created general laws related to
waste management, but had not yet started discussions on
related statues (ordinances and regulations) for enacting
them. This project, which began in January 2014, is
working to enhance capacity on several aspects (including
institutionally, personnel-wise, and technologically) with the
aim of provide guidance and support for local governments
throughout the nation under MARENA’s existing laws. In
addition, because the country needs broad-based waste
treatment initiatives that go beyond local government
jurisdictions (e.g. constructing disposal sites), JICA is also
taking advantage of a movement towards cooperative waste management alliances among local
governments and is supporting planning efforts by these local government teams. JICA is also sharing the
outcomes of this project with neighboring countries in Central America and the Caribbean region.
For more information, visit
http://gwweb.jica.go.jp/km/ProjectView.nsf/VIEWParentSearch/5CE64946005198BA49257BF60079DD5D?OpenDocument&pv=VW02
040104
Photo 4. Project steering committee in Balikpapan,
Indonesia
Photo 5. Solid waste policy workshop at the
Dominican Ministry of Environment and Natural
Resources (MARENA)