EFFECT OF PERCIEVED STRESS, SELF-EFFICACY AND MENTAL HEALTH

ON PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS IN IJEBU

NORTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT OF OGUN STATE

BY

Azeez, R. Olugbenga

rsqazeez@yahoo.com

+234805-521-8237

&

Adenuga, Olusegun A.

obaadenuga@yahoo.com

+234805-777-3634

Educational Foundations and Counseling

Olabisi Onabanjo University Ago-Iwoye,

Ogun State, Nigeria

Abstract

This study examined the joint and relative effect of perceived stress, self-efficacy, and mental health on psychological wellbeing of secondary teachers. The study adopted the survey research design. Data were collected from randomly selected 238 teachers from the existing 19 public secondary schools in Ijebu North Local Government area of Ogun state, using four standardized instruments. Two research questions were raised and answered. The analysis of variance for the multiple regression yielded (F (3,237) = 10.17), and significant at p<0.05 level. It also shows that the t-values associated with perceived stress and self-efficacy were significant at p<0.05 level. This implies that perceived stress (β = -.118, t = -1. 931, P< .05) and self-efficacy (β = 0.277, t = 4.562, P< .05) were the best predictors of psychological wellbeing. The result further shows that mental health (β = -0.168, t = -1.439, P> .05) did not show significant independent prediction of the criterion variable. The results were discussed in relation to teachers’ psychological wellbeing and recommendations were made based on the findings.

Key Words: Stress, Self-efficacy, Mental Health, Psychological Wellbeing

Background and Problem Overcoming suffering and distress and developing positive feelings are at the core

of mental health and wellbeing. All normal people wish to live in peace and happiness.

The feeling of happiness and satisfaction subjectively experienced by individuals has

been termed as psychological wellbeing (Okun and Stock, 1987). One form of this was

defined as ‘the extent to which respondents endorse high level of autonomy,

environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations with others, purpose in life

and self-acceptance’ (Urry, et al., 2004: p.367). another form ‘hedonic wellbeing’ was

referred to as satisfaction with life, satisfaction with important domains such as work,

frequently experienced positive emotions and infrequently experienced negative emotions

(Martin, Carlson & Buskist, 2007)

We often measure wellbeing as happiness or satisfaction with life. The search for

happiness is often confused with the pursuit of pleasure, but wellbeing is about more than

living ‘the good life’; it is about having meaning in life, about fulfilling our potential and

feeling that our lives are worthwhile (Bond, 2003). A few other terms like subjective

wellbeing, quality of life, mental health and life satisfaction have been used as synonyms

of psychological wellbeing (PWB).

In recent years there has been global interest in the study of PWB and quality of

life. This affective reaction of satisfaction is not necessarily related to material gain or the

objective conditions of life. One may be dissatisfied with his life in spite of having plenty

of wealth and family riches (Lawton, 1983). Psychological or subjective wellbeing is

more a question of our attitude and approach to life situations. Freedman (1978) has

shown how cognitive processes such as aspiration, social comparison and adaptation

level are related to it.

Psychological wellbeing is a multi-dimensional concept. Results of factor analysis

done by researchers confirm this and instruments have been produced to measure it.

Cheerfulness, optimism, playfulness, self-control, a sense of detachment and freedom

from frustration, anxiety and loneliness have been accepted as indications of

psychological wellbeing by certain researchers (Sinha and Verma, 1992). McCulloch

(1991) has shown that satisfaction, morale, positive affect, and social support constitute

PWB. In a factor analysis study, Bhogle and Prakash (1995) have found that PWB

1

consists of twelve factors which include both positive and negative components such as

meaninglessness, self-esteem, positive affect, life satisfaction, suicidal ideas, personal

control, tension etc. and they can be tapped by their scale developed to measure

psychological wellbeing. In other words, a person high in PWB not only carries higher

levels of life satisfaction, self-esteem, positive feelings and attitudes, but also manages

tensions, negative thoughts, ideas and feelings more efficiently.

Research has demonstrated a clear relationship between perceived stress and

wellbeing (Udoh & Ajala; 2001). The word stress, like success, failure, or happiness,

means different things to different people and no-one has really tried to define it,

although it has become part of our daily vocabulary (Seyle, 1956, 1991). Stress,

generally, can be defined as reaction of individuals to demands (stressors) imposed upon

them (Erkutle & Chafra, 2006). However, work related stress is caused when there is a

mismatch between job requirements and the individual's capabilities, resources or needs

(National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1999).

The World Health Organization (WHO) calls stress a “worldwide epidemic”. This

is because it has recently been observed to be associated with 90% of visits to physicians.

Also 40% of employee turnover are due to stress-related problems (Akinboye, 1992).

Stress is thus a composite and multi-dimensional condition impacting with profound

consequences on living organisms (Akinboye, 2002).

Another variable of interest in this study is mental health. Research has

established a link between mental health and wellbeing (Martin, Carlson & Buskist,

2007; Musah & Salome, 2007; Tim & Rockey, 1992). Sunderland & Cooper (1992)

reported that nearly three in every ten employees will have a mental health problem in

any one year, the great majority of which will be anxiety and depressive disorders.

Mental health problems account for the loss of over 91 million working days each year.

Half of all days lost through mental ill health are due to anxiety and stress conditions.

The Confederation of British Industry (CBI) estimates that 30 times as many days are lost

from mental ill health as from industrial disputes.

Research findings have shown that one’s belief may be a source of stress and

performance. One type of belief that has received considerable attention in the research is

self-efficacy. Research findings have shown that one’s own beliefs of efficacy function as

2

an important determinant of motivation, affect, thought and action (Bandura, 1992). Self-

efficacy refers to beliefs about ones capabilities to learn and perform behaviours at

designated levels (Bandura, 1986, 1997). Schwarzer (1999) posits that self-efficacy can

make difference to people’s ways of thinking, feeling and acting. With respect to

feelings, a low sense of self-efficacy is associated with depression, anxiety and

helplessness. People with low self-efficacy also harbour pessimistic thoughts about their

performance and personal development.

Research has shown that Self-Efficacy can influence behavior (Bandura, 1982;

Delcourt & Kinzie, 1993 and Maitland, 1996). Seligman and Schulman (1986) have

found that people who can find something positive in less-than-desirable circumstances

are generally more successful than are people who view those circumstances negatively.

Self-efficacy has been argued to be an increasingly important construct in the

organizational sciences (Gist and Mitchell, 1992), often examined as an individual

difference factor capable of influencing the relationship between antecedents and

consequences. Research has shown that employees who report perceptions of personal

efficacy cope better when faced with change (Hill, 1987), resist the acceptance of

negative feedback (Meece, Wigfield, & Eccles, 1990), and persist at performing tasks

longer, even in the face of adversity (Lent, Lopez & Bieschke 1991).

While it is very heartening to see a growing interest in the psychological

wellbeing of people, we are still at low pace at studying its relevance to organizational

growth. In short, psychological wellbeing is not just a moderator variable to our

performance as reported by Sultana (1996), rather it makes life meaningful and

purposeful. Rightly therefore, efforts are being made by psychologists to investigate the

socio-psychological correlates of PWB (Sinha and Verma, 1992). Based on the above

background, the following two research questions are raised in other to achieve the

objective of this study: (i) what is the combined effect of perceived stress, self-efficacy

and mental health on psychological wellbeing of secondary teachers? And (ii) what is the

relative contribution of perceived stress, self-efficacy and mental health on psychological

wellbeing of secondary teachers.

3

Method

Design

The present study adopts the Ex-post-facto research design. The predictor

variables examined have already occurred; hence there was no manipulation of the

variables. The predictor variables in this study are perceived stress, self-efficacy and

mental health

Instrumentation

Four standardized instruments were used for data collection. The instruments are

described below.

-Perceived Stress Scale

It is a 10-item scale designed and developed by Blau (1970). The scale has a

response format ranging between “never” (0), “almost never” (1), “sometimes” (2), fairly

often” (3), and very often” (4). High scores in the scale reflect high level of perceived

stress while low scores reflect low level of perceived stress. In this study, a Cronbach’s

alpha of 0.72 and a Guttman Split-half reliability coefficient of 0.77 were reported for the

scale.

-Generalized Perceived Self-Efficacy Scale

The Generalized Perceived Self-Efficacy Scale (GPSS) developed by Jerusalem

and Schwarzer (1995) was adopted to measure the self-efficacy of the respondents. The

German version of the scale was developed and used by Matthias Jerusalem and Ralf

Schwarzer in 1980 as a 20-item version and later improved to 10-items version.

Examples of the items on the scale are (1) “I can remain calm when facing difficulties

because I can rely on my coping abilities” and (2) “I can usually handle whatever comes

my way”

4

-Mental Health Scale

The Mental Health Inventory (MHI-5) developed by Viet and Ware (1983) was

used to measure mental health of the subjects. The inventory is a 5-item scale based on a

5-point scale ranging from 1 = none of the time to 5 = all of the time. The MHI-5 has a

minimum score of 5 and a maximum score of 25. Higher scores imply desirable

experience of psychological wellbeing and absence of psychological distress during the

past month.

-Psychological Wellbeing Scale

The Psychological Well-Being (PWB) Inventory (Ryff, 1989) was used to collect

data on the psychological wellbeing of the respondents. The PWB is designed to measure

psychological well-being through assessing six dimensions (Ryff, 1989). The six

dimensions are self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental

mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth. The original form contains 20 items per

dimension measured on a 6-point Likert-type scale. The shorter version used in this study

has 14-items per dimension. Ryff reports that the correlations between the original form

of the PWB and the 14-item shorter version of the PWB range from .97 to .98.

5

Procedure

The researchers personally administered the scales to the respondents. Completed

scales were thoroughly checked to ensure that they were properly filled. The data analysis

involved multiple regression analysis, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and the T-test

statistics.

Data Analysis

The tables presented below show the composite effects and the relative contributions of

each independent variable to the psychological wellbeing of the subjects.

Table 1: Analysis of the Composite Effects of Predictor Variables on Psychological

Wellbeing

R = 0.332a

R square = 0.110

Adjusted R Square = 0.099

Std Error of the Estimate = 7.30

Model Sum of Squares Df Means of Squares F Sig.

Regression

Residual

Total

1626.612

13117.788

14744.400

3

234

237

542.204

53.324

10.17 .000 a

P<0.05 level

Table1 shows the regression value for the combined effect (.332) and the adjusted

R2 (.099). This implies that 9.9% of the variance in the psychological wellbeing of

respondents is accounted for by the predictor variables. The table also shows that the F-

value (10.17) is significant at 0.00, a level that is less than 0.05. This shows that the

predictor variables have significant effect on psychological wellbeing of teachers.

6

Table 2: Test of Significance of the Regression Coefficients

Variables Standardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

T value Sig.

B Std.

Error

Beta

(Constant)

Perceived Stress

Self-Efficacy

Mental Health

13.728

-.225

.382

1.293

5.596

.116

.084

.951

-.118

.277

.803

2.453*

-1.931*

4.562*

1.359

<.05

<.05

<.05

>.05

*Significant at 0.05 level

Table2 shows the relative contribution of each predictor variable to the variance

in psychological wellbeing of respondents. Self-efficacy has the highest beta value

(4.562) and significant at .05, followed by perceived stress (-1.931) and also significant,

followed by mental health (1.359) which is not significant. Therefore self-efficacy

predicts psychological wellbeing of respondents most, followed by perceived stress and

mental health the least. While self-efficacy and mental health have positive effect

perceived stress has negative effect psychological wellbeing of respondents.

Discussion

The finings of the study indicated that the independent variables – perceived

stress, self-efficacy, and mental health – were significant predictors of psychological

wellbeing of teachers. The study further found that perceived stress and self-efficacy had

higher individual predictive relationship with teachers’ wellbeing than mental health. It is

not surprising to find self-efficacy as a better predictor than other predictor variables.

Earlier studies have confirmed self-efficacy to be a good predictor of psychological

wellbeing. Lavin, and Pennington (1996) and Mabekoje (2003) found high correlations

between self-efficacy and psychological wellbeing.

It is revealing that mental health affects psychological wellbeing. This finding

supports the finding of Udoh & Ajala (2001) which found that mental health is a crucial

7

psychological factor to human behaviour. Research evidence has demonstrated that

mental health offers opportunities for resource development. Since wellbeing has to do

with optimal functionality, the result of this study, supports that of Sumberg’s (1989)

study which found mentally healthy persons as ones who function adequately in family

and in society most of the time. The study also confirmed that the absence of stress

enhances the psychological wellbeing of teachers. This supports the work of Posen

(1995) which proved that understanding stress leads to deriving personal as well as

professional benefits and ultimately wellbeing.

Recommendations

Consequent upon the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made for

the improvement of teachers’ psychological wellbeing.

i. Employees should be provided with genuine control over their work and an

appropriate degree of self-management of workload. Roles should be clearly

demarcated with defined responsibilities and expectations in order to avoid stress.

ii. Employees should part of planning and decision making. The physical workplace

environment should be of a high standard, including natural light where possible,

good ventilation; good health and safety practices are readily available.

iii. Employees should be actively discouraged from working excessively long hours.

A supportive working environment should be provided for people with mental

health problems.

iv. There should be on-the-job support and mentoring schemes. There should be

ways of tackling employment discrimination and providing support during

periods of ill health.

v. Industrial psychologists also need to maintain extensive connections with

specialist mental health agencies within the community in order to make

appropriate referrals for workers who are dealing with more serious psychological

problems.

vi. Training programme on self-efficacy, mental health and stress management be

organized to assist staffers in improving their psychological wellbeing.

8

References

Akinboye, J. O. (1992). Stress Management Strategies in Akinboye Behaviour Therapy and Other

Treatment Strategies. Ibadan: Paperback Publishers.

Akinboye, J. O. (2002). Success without Stress in the Workplace, In Akinboye J. O. (ed)

Psychological Principles for Success in Life and Workplace. Ibadan: Stirling-Holden

Publishers.

Bandura, A. (1982). Self-Efficacy Mechanism in Human Agency. American Psychologist

37, 122-147.

Bandura, A. (1986) Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall

Bandura, A. (1992). Exercise of Personal Agency Though The Self-Efficacy Mechanism. In R.

Schwarzer (Ed.) Self-Efficacy: Thought Control of Action. Berlin: Taylor & Francis.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York, NY: Freeman.

Bhogle, S. & Prakash, I.J. (1995). Development of the Psychological Wellbeing (PWB)

Questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies, 11, 5–9

Blau, P.M. (1970). A Formal Theory of Differentiation in Organization. American

Sociological Review, 35: 201-218

Bond, M. (2003) The Pursuit of Happiness, New Scientist, 4, 40-47.

Delcourt, M. A. B & Kinzie, M. B. (1993) Computer Technologies in Teacher Education:

The Measurement of Attitudes and Self-Efficacy. Journal of Research and

Development in Education 27 (1). 35-41.

Erkutle, H.V., & Chafra, J. (2006) Relationship between Leadership Power Base and Job Stress

Subordinates: Example from Boutique Hotels. Management Research News, 29, 5, 287-297

Freedman, J. (1978) Happy People. New York: Harper Row

Lawton, M.P. (1983). The Varieties of Wellbeing. Experimental Ageing Research, 9, 65–

72

Lent, R. W., Lopez, F. G. and Bieschke, K. J. (1991). Mathematics Self-Efficacy:

Sources and Relation to Science-Based Career Choice. Journal of Counseling

Psychology, 38, 424–430.

Mabekoje, S. O. (2003) Psychological Wellbeing among Nigerian Teachers: A

Discriminant Function Analysis. Journal of Research in Counselling Psychology 9, 1,

48-57

9

Maitland, C. (1997) Measurement of Computer/Internet Self-Efficacy: A Preliminary

Analysis of Computer Self-Efficacy and Internet Self-Efficacy Measurement

Instruments. www.Tc.Msu.Edu/TC960/CSE.HTM.

Martin, G. N., Carlson, N. R. and Buskist, W. (2007) Psychology 3rd Ed. Harlow: Pearson

Education Limited

McCulloch, B.J. (1991). A Longitudinal Investigation of the Factor Structure of

Subjective Wellbeing: The Case of the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale.

Journal of Gerontology, 46, 251–258

Meece, J. L., Wigfield, A. and Eccles, J. S. (1990). Predictors of Math Anxiety and its

Influence on Young Adolescents’ Course Enrollment and Performance in

Mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 60–70.

Musah, K. T. and Salomi, M. O. (2007) The Combined and Relative Effects of Stress and

Mental Health on Job Satisfaction among Nurses in State Hospital, Ijebu-Ode, Ogun

State. Ogun Journal of Counselling Studies, 1, 1, 116-122

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, (1999) Stress at work, DHHS

Publication no. 99-101. Available at www.cdc.gov/niosh/stresswk.html

Okun, M.A. & Stock, W.A. (1984). Correlates and Components of SWB. Journal of

Applied Gerontology, 6, 95–112

Posen, D. B. (1995) Stress Management for Patient and Physician. Canadian Journal of

Continuing Medical Education http://www.mentalhealth.com/p.html

Ryff, C. D. (1989) Happiness is Everything, or is it? Explorations on the Meaning of

Psychological Wellbeing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069-

1081

Schwarzer, R. & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale.

http://www.Ralfschwarzer.de/. Retrieved September 17, 2005 from Academic Index

serial], 1 (1). Available http://www.eiconsortium.org.

Seligman, M. E. P. and Schulman, P. (1986) Explanatory Style as a Predictor of

Productivity and Quitting among Life Insurance Sales Agents. Journal of Personality

and Social Psychology, 50, 832-838

Seyle, H., (1956) The Stress of Life, New York, McGraw Hill.

Seyle, H., (1991) History and Present Status of Stress Concept. In A. Monat and R. S.

10

Lazarus (eds) Stress and Coping. New York: Columbia University Press.

Sinha, J.B.P. & Verma, J. (1992). Social Support as a Moderator of the Relationship

between Allocentrism and Psychological Wellbeing. Social & Applied Issues.

Sultana, M. (1996). Psychological Wellbeing as a Moderator Variable of Job

Performance–Morale Relationship. Psychological Studies, 41, 1–3

Sunderland, V.J. and Cooper, C.L., (1992) Job Stress and Mental Health among General

Practitioners before and After Introduction of New Content. British Medical Journal,

304, 1545-1548.

Tim, H. & Rockey, S. H. (1992) as if Life Depended on It: Promoting Cognitive

Development to Promote Wellness. Journal of Counselling and Development, 71, 2,

164-167

Udoh, C. O. & Ajala, J. A. (2001) Mental and Social Health. Ibadan: MAYBEST

Publications

Urry, H. L., Nitschke, J. B., Dolski, I., Jackson, D. C., Dalton, K. M., Mueller, C. J.,

Rosenkranz, M. A., Ryff, C. D., Singer, B. H. and Davidson, R. J. (2004) Making Life

Worth Living: Neural Correlates of Wellbeing. Psychological Science, 15, 6, 367-372

Viet, C. T. & Ware, J. E. (1983) The Structure of Psychological Distress and Wellbeing

in General Populations. Journal of Counselling and Clinical Psychology, 31 730-742

11