nr1en2013

CONTENTS

Costel ALIC, Laurean Marinel MANEA, Traian VASIU, Gheorghe DOBREI Environmental impact due to use of coal in Mintia thermal power plant 2 Herry PERMANA, Carsten DREBENSTEDT Mining accident analysis in Indonesia (Prima System) 8 Dumitru FODOR, Mircea DIVIN Navigation on the Danube – Support for Banat Mining 14

Lukáš KOVA�, Lucia KOVA�OVÁ, Ján RUŠAJ, Martin HALÍK Influence of coalification on hydrophobicity of black coal 18 Ioel VERE�, Mircea ORTELECAN Spatial positioning of a minimal lenght underground work 23 Katerina NIKOLOVA, Anatoliy ANGELOV, Svetlana BRATKOVA, Sotir PLOCHEV Overview of EU permitting and regulatory mechanisms of storing Co2 in UCG cavities 26 Gheorghe LASC, Victor ARAD, Susana IANCU (APOSTU), Oana B�R�IAC Analysis of the geotechnic phenomenon from Ocna Mure� 33 Walter LOGA, Sorin V�TAVU, Vlad Alexandru FLOREA Possibilities to reduce interruption in the excavator ESRC-1400 functioning by improving centralized lubrication system of bearing pressure 37

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT DUE TO USE OF COALIN MINTIA THERMAL POWER PLANT

Costel ALIC*, Laurean Marinel MANEA*, Traian VASIU*, Gheorghe DOBREI*

AbstractThis paper makes reference to issues related

to the role and influence of using solid fuels necessary for the operation of Mintia –Deva Thermal Power Plant and the influence of using coal, in the burning process, on the environmental factors.

It is shown the role of the solid fuel (coal) and its availability in the energy field, being made an evaluation of the pollutant emission during 1989-2011, according to the fuel consumption and to the fuel characteristics used in that period of time.

Moreover, it is described the influence of the coal on the environmental factors, through the sulfur oxide, nitrogen and carbon pollution, with coal powder in the coal storehouse, with noise inside the storehouse and through the coal and ash radioactivity resulting from the burning of coal.Key words: energetic power, environmental factor, impact, pollutant, coal.

1. IntroductionNature protection, the protection of its natural

resources, of biological diversity and of ecological structures that define it, represent a national, economic and human social interest concern, with a decisive role within company sustainable development strategy.

From all human achievements, power plants are, through their very large physical extent, within a close inter-conditioning with the environment. The main priority on many countries list is represented by energetic efficiency improvement.

Energy installations, especially thermal power plants that use coal as a fuel, can influence the environment, sometimes leading even to ecological balance damage within areas where they are located, so that the energy field be considered as the main pollution source.

Mintia Thermal Power Plant showed a broad interest for the issues related to environmental protection, starting from emission and pollutant immissions values knowledge, from the facilities technical state, which – through an improper operation – may cause pollution, and to environment and human factor impact assessment ____________________________________�* Ph.D. eng.- S.C. Electrocentrale Deva S.A.

(Mintia Thermal Power Plant staff health and of thermal power plant emplacement area population).Mintia – Deva Thermal Power Plant represents the Romanian third great electrical energy producing unit, and through the installed power size and the high availability degree, safety and operation continuity represent a basic electrical energy source of the National Energy System and of the thermal energy within Deva town.

Mintia Thermal Power Plant is located on the South- East of Transylvania, on the Mures river left shore, at 9 km from Deva town (figure 1). It has an installed power of 1.285 MW, being provided with 5 energy units, 210 MW each (TA 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) and 1 energy unit of 235 MW (TA 3), within block system, each supplied by 2 identical steam boilers, of 330 t/h, 13, 72 MPa, 550o C, each energy unit being an independent unit.

Fig. 1. Mintia – Deva Thermal Power Plant

The main fuel is the coal from Valea Jiului basin (energy hard coal), and the auxiliary fuel used are natural gas and black oil.

Since commissioning, Mintia Thermal Power Plant, has produced approx.10% from country electrical energy and approx. 22% from the electrical energy produced by the thermal power plants that use coal as raw material.

2. The role of coal within energy industryStandard power plants, provided with

conventional boilers on fossil fuels were labeled as major emission anthropicstationary sources.

Environment issue within the field of electrical and thermal coal energy production field is emphasized through the following steps:

- mining (coal extraction and preparation); - coal combustion and electrical and thermal

energy production; - waste management – pollutants removal. Coal is the fossil fuel the most vulnerable to

public opinion reaction, so it tries to reduce the

2 Revista Minelor - Mining Revue no. 1 / 2013

emission of the gases that generate the greenhouse effect, especially the carbon dioxide (CO2).However, coal is still used within many countries.

Coal continues to be the energy main source, because is available and low-priced and is used in large amounts within many countries, and nature protection after its combustion, especially within large energy equipment,is a reality from which no electrical energy producer can deviate.

For a rather large period of time, coal continues to be the main energy source and it will maintain the role of safe fuel, for many countries, being the only economic fuel available to cover the increasing electrical energy demand, that is an essential element for life standard raising.

Authorities assessments from coal field and European Community Energy Commission forecasts clearly state that for at least 50 years, coal remains a ‘transition’ energy source, the current priority being humanity sustainable development.

Is very likely this fuel maintain its share in global main energy requirements, main energy that is converted into electricity through its use within thermal power plants. Electrical energy role on global scale is increasing, and coal will contribute to this every day more.

In order to achieve these, the following are necessary:

- Coal related environment issue solving; - Exclusion of some artificial barriers within

coal markets development; - Investment increase within mining

development, so that coal contribution to national economies reaches the maximum.

Where coal is seen as being important, the immediate problem is the way to be created the possibility of effective installation and as quick as possible of the existing technologies and to reduce the impact on environment and then new technologies development.

Obviously, fuels combustion impact on surrounding environment in general is a special one, being the most important factor of imbalance of terrestrial atmosphere, but ‘clean’ energy cannot be achieved only with a limited number of means.

It isimportant to understand theimplications ofsubstantialgrowth of coal production and use, forecasted in many countries for worldwide banking system, as well as the need to pay more attention to issues related to the development of some financing possibilities of the projects that apply coal clean technologies.

3. Coal use influence on environmental factors Environment assessment within an area is given

by air, water, ground, population health quality, plants and animals species deficit, characterized by

representative quality indicators and for which allowable limits are set.

Main possible pollution agent of the influence area of Mintia Thermal Power Plant is the fly ash (particulate matters) eliminated through chimneys, fine ash dust driven by wind from slag - ash dumps and coal dust derived from coal storehouses or from its transport and preparation.

Pollutant emissions tracking is carried out continuously, through on-line measurements with specialized apparatus and through measurements carried out by third parties or through calculation, according to PE-1001/1994: “SO2, NOx, particulate matters and CO2 from thermal and thermal electrical power plants operative assessment methodology” developed by RENEL Environmental Protection Department and approved by M.A.P.P.M.: PE-1001/1994.

According to this methodology, the calculation of quantity of pollution agent discharged into the atmosphere (emission) is carried out depending on fuel quantity consumed during the respective period of time, as well as on the quality and burning process characteristics from boilers furnace.

Because energy coal from Valea Jiului has a high ash content (40 �54%) and a sulphur content of (1,0�1,5%)importedcoal is necessary for combustion process,mixed with import coal, of a higher quality, as well as taking some technical measures appropriate for environmental impact decrease.

Valea Jiului hard coal high ash content, besides environmental impact, also leads to production costs and investment increase due to electric energy high consumption, necessary for burning coal storehouse and preparation, to high commissioning expenses and to coal storehouse, preparation and burning equipment and to slag - ash intake and hydraulic discharge equipment within slag – ash dumps.

Table 1 shows the annual average characteristics of the coal used at Mintia Thermal Power Plant (period between 1989�2011). Primary chemical analysis were carried out on monthly average samples of consumed coal (inland and inland mixture with import), having the following source:

- Coal (basic fuel): floating hard coal, sorted hard coal, prepared hard coal, mixed hard coal.

- Black oil (carrier fuel): inland, import. - Natural gas (carrier fuel): inland, import. Primary data necessary for emissions calculation

are represented by the calorific power, humidity, and and the content of: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen of the fuelsused, the results

ISSN-L 1220 – 2053 / ISSN 2247 -8590 Universitas Publishing House, Petroşani, Romania

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being mass values (quantities) of CO2, NOx, SO2discharged.

Correlating the electrical and thermal energy value productions for the period between 1989�2011 with the used fuels characteristics (table 2 and figure 2), there were obtained the following polluting emissions values, presented within tables 3 and figure 3.

Table 1 – Coal primary chemical analysis Characteristics UM Value

Low calorific value - Qi

c

kcal/kgkJ/kg

2.923�4.25712.238�17.824

Ash content - Aic % 35,4�54,0

Suphur content - Sic % 0,18�1,46

Humidity content - Wi

c

% 7,30�9,40

Carbon content - Ci % 31,11�46,56Hydrogen content - Hi % 2,34�3,80 Nitrogen content - Ni % 0,39�1,19 Oxygen content - Oi % 5,20�8,67

Table 2 – Electrical energy production evolution Production capacities UM Value

Electricalenergy

MWh/year 1848521�5477116Produced

electrical energy Thermal

energy Gcal/year 176515�513462

Coal t 1227091�3526950

Table 3 – Pollution emissions situation Pollution agent UM Value SO2 t 7.968�124.776 NOx t 7.399�20.732 Particulatematters t 3.685�47.595

CO2 t 1.764.065�5.529.491

Thermal power plants that use coalas fuel energy, can sometimes have an effect of ecological balance

within areas where they are located, presenting a complex impact on all the environmental factors from their neighboring area (atmosphere, water, ground, flora and fauna, food and binnacle).

Flue gas and atmospheric pollution agents discharge is carried out through smoke chimneys, and pollution agents diffusion does not take place immediately they leave the chimney. Through smoke chimneys, thermal power plants emit into the atmosphere flue gas, that contain pollution substances important amounts, as for example: noxious gases (oxides of sulphur –SOx, oxides of nitrogen – NOx, carbon monoxide and dioxide – CO and CO2), as well as fly ash, unburned gases, soot. Other pollution agents due to Mintia power plant operation are fine dust of ashes carried by the wind from slag – ashyard, heavy metals, coal dust, noise and radioactivity.

SO2, NOx concentrations and particulate matters for the two large burning installations (IMA) on-line monitored are graphically presented within figure 4.

3.1. Particulate matters (dry ash from within the electrical filter)

Particulate matters are found within flue gas discharged on smoke chimneys and can be found in the sediment form, accumulating on ground or they can be found in suspension.

Particulate matters emissions discharged into the atmosphere through smoke chimneys have been characterized through particulate matters annual considerable quantity, as a consequence to flue gas dedusting installations (electrical filters) rehabilitation programme achievement, programme that was carried out during the period between 1989�1996.

Nevertheless, particulate matters concentrations exceed the values provided within environmental legislation.

0

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

3,000,000

3,500,000

4,000,000

4,500,000

5,000,000

5,500,000

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

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2011

0250,000500,000750,0001,000,0001,250,0001,500,0001,750,0002,000,0002,250,0002,500,0002,750,0003,000,0003,250,0003,500,0003,750,0004,000,0004,250,0004,500,0004,750,0005,000,0005,250,0005,500,0005,750,0006,000,000

ENERGIE ELECTRICA

ENERGIE TERMICA

CARBUNE

(t)(MWh/an)(Gcal/an)

Fig. 2. Electrical energy production evolution


3.2. Oxides of sulphur - SOxBurning of coal which sulphur content is great

can have an impact on the surrounding environment, through sulphur oxides pollution – SOx, represented by SO2.

These ones have a route and a distance diffusion of up to some hundreds of kilometers, with country crossing borders, thus existing the danger of a transboundary pollution.

SO2 anthropic emissions that result as emissions within fules burning process can be reduced only with considerable tehnicaland financial efforts, and their reduction is carried out through the purchase of a superior coal, with a low sulphur content, or through mounting of some installations for flue gas desulphurization.

Because SO2 emissions exceed the values allowed by the environmental legislation, Mintia thermal power plantis within the phase of achievement of flue gas desulphurization installation through wet procedure (WFGD), using limestone as reagent.

3.3. Oxides of nitrogen –NOxEven if nitrogen oxides concentration level –

NOx within flue gas does not exceed the maximum allowable value, mainly due to some constructive modifications carried out on energetical units boilers burning system, Mintia thermal power plant has provided NOx content reduction in order to align to future European rules, through achievement of some flue gas de-noxing, through non-catalytic selective reduction procedure (SNCR), using urea as reagent.

3.4. Carbon dioxide – CO2Carbon dioxide emission – CO2 is inevitable

within a burning process where the fuel contains carbon, but can only be decreased only through thermal efficiency increase (energetical efficiency) of energy installations (on the same electrical power, in order that less fuel be consumed), and burning be carried out through a rigorous control process.

0200400600800

10001200140016001800200022002400260028003000320034003600

IMA 2 IMA 3

SO2 NOx Pulberi

(mg/Nm3)

VLE�Pulb.�=�50�mg/Nm3��

VLE�NOx�=�500�mg/Nm3��

VLE�SO2=�400�mg/Nm3�

Fig. 4. SO2, NOx concentrations values and particulate matters dischared into the atmosphere�

05,000

10,00015,00020,00025,00030,00035,00040,00045,00050,00055,00060,00065,00070,00075,00080,00085,00090,00095,000

100,000105,000110,000115,000120,000125,000130,000

19891990

19911992

19931994

19951996

19971998

19992000

20012002

20032004

20052006

20072008

20092010

2011

SO2 NOx PULBERI

(t)

Fig. 3. Pollution emissions situation


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The main sources of output increase consist of works with large volume and values, that can be achieved during majour reparations and during energy units rehabilitation.

CO2 emissions reduction begun to be achieved during ‚Romanian power plants CO2 emissions reduction’ project, which for Mintia thermal power plant meant a reduction of CO2 emissions with approx.2,5% from energy units current emissions and proposed for each energy unit one programme of measures for performance improvement.

3.5. Slag and ash from Slag and ash deposited within slag – ash

storehouses, that have an annual average consumption of approx. 2,5 mil.tons of coal

represent approx.1 mil. tons (figure 5) and be carried out by air currents (deflation phenomenon), having as an effect air and ground pollution with sediment particulate matters, during deposits expansion works, through over-raise or when is being on commissioning, during summer time, within reduced humidity periods and with strong winds. Hard coal ash dissipation is more intense than brown coal ash dissipation, due to much lessgraininess and to specific weight.

In order to avoid these phenomena, there is frequently used the spraying of areas that can be affected or dry surfaces humectation, using the existing water source of slag - ash hydraulic discharge installation, efficient solution and that is carried out with low costs.

3.6. Coal dust Coal dust came from coal storehouses or from its

transport or preparation also is a solid noxe, that can be found as flying particulate matters (aerosol) or sediment particulate matters.

Solid fuel (coal) handling plant represents one of dust – coal dust pollution sources, that usually has a local action, within inside coal deposit or inside commissioning and fuel maintenance departments. It has a negative action on working personnel health from coal storehouse area.

In order to provide the appropiate working conditions within coal handling plant, coal dust dispersion on discharge (falling) from a belt converyor to other belt conveyor, as well as within coal sorting – crushing plants and sediment dust from boards, walls and energy equipment have to be removed.

This problem solving can be made through dedusting installation achievement for discharge hoppers and of one intake installation for coal dust,

that will be installed within sorting – crushing plants (the most polluted area from coal handling plant), coal bunkers ares from end tower, as well as on mixed machines and deposit taking-over machines.

It is very important that coal dust pollution reducing measures from within solid fuel handling plant have as a premier effect professional exposure risks reduction, through some particulate matters removal or reduction advanced technology insertion (especially nanoparticles), in order to improve health and safety conditions within workplaces („nanohealth”).

3.7. Heavy metals Heavy metals (Cr, Ni, Cd, As, Pb) from ash

resulted from coal combustion have a low content, so that formed aerosol are nontoxic. As a harmful aspect, these ones are important only in large quantities.

0

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

1,400,000

1,600,000

1,800,000

2,000,000

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

ZGURA CENUSA

(t)

Fig. 5. Deposit slag and ash annual quantities�


3.8. Noise Noise, in all discomfort factors, occupy a special

place. Installation and equipment that are serving coal storehouse, that produce noise pollution are the sorting – crushing plants, belt conveyors and bucket wheels machines.

Noise level reduction only solution within coal storehouse area is vibrations insulators implementation, that are elastic elements and that are mounted between vibration source and foundation.

3.9. Radioactivity Solid fuels and especially energy coal, as raw

material or through combustion can present a certain degree of radioactivity.

Radioactivity problem due to coal used within combustion process and implicitly of slag – ash resulted and discharged into slag –ash storehouses and of ashes discharged into the atmosphere through smoke chimneys from Mintia thermal power plant has been an issue much addressed within area mass-media.

As a consequence, management board within thermal power plant shows a special interest for periodic establishment of the radioactivity degree within enclosure and from thermal power plant neighbouring area, by taking radioactivity measures and through specialized medical studies carried out on thermal power plant working personnel and on area residents.

Researches and measurements carried out within this field show that:

- Natural� intensity measured values were smoothly rated within the acceptable levels and without presenting any danger for population, working personnel, area flora and fauna;

- Global � radionuclides specific activity measured values and � on Valea Jiului domestic and import coal were smoothly rated within the acceptable levels, being very close of area natural background leveland without presenting any danger for population, working personnel, area flora and fauna;

It can be said, with full responsability, that coal measured samples radioactivity, electrical filter ashand slag and ash from slag – ash storehouses do not present a radiological danger for commissioning personnel within thermal power plant, nor for neighbouring area population.

4. Conclusions By its well-defined industrial specificity, with

many and large mining, siderurgical, energetical, cement production and construction materials unities, Hunedoara departement has been and stillis one of the most polluted departments from our

country, with all social and health consequences this phenomena determines.

Mintia – Deva thermal power plantis part of exception from these, one of the greatest industrial objectives from Hunedoara department, that until 1989, has been part of a large modernization programme of air decontamination installations (electrical filters) represents one of the most polluting objectives within this area.

Mintia – Deva thermal power plant performance have as an objective, under environmental aspect, integration within sustainable development requests. Mintia thermal power plant presented a large interest for all the aspects related to environment protection, starting from polluting emissions and immissions values knowledge, from installations technical state, which – through an improper operation – can determine pollution and until environmental impact evaluation and on human factor (health of personnel employed within Mintia thermal power plant and of the population within thermal power plant emplacement area).

Thermal power plants operation using energy coal as fuel will also require a maximum future attention from the part of electrical energy producers, as well as authorities competent for surrounding environment protection, knowing pollution irreversible effect.

In order to achieve a sustainable development international cooperation is necessary and also technological transfer that lead to the generalization of some energy efficiency increase and of gas noxes and particulate matters reduction, thus preventing regional pollution increase, as well as global climate change.

REFERENCES 1. Ciomaga, C.SO2, NOx and CO2 emission reduction through fuel choice optimization. RELASIN programme, Bucharest, 2002

2. *** ECOTERM ENG.BucharestStudy, technical project and DDE for dust concentrations reduction within coal handling plant of Deva Thermal Power Plant.

3. *** ICEMENRG BucharestChemical analysis of the fuels used within Mintia - Deva thermal power plant. Bucharest, 1998 ÷2012

4. Vaida, V., Beres, F.Romanian energy history pages. Mirton Publishing House, Timisoara, 2003.

5. Vasiu, T.Doctorate thesis: „Mintia –Deva Thermal Power Plant ecological integration solutions, with reference to atmosphere pollution”, Petrosani, 2004.


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MINING ACCIDENT ANALYSIS IN INDONESIA (PRIMA SYSTEM)

Herry PERMANA*, Carsten DREBENSTEDT*

AbstractThe paper presents the result aimed to develop of mines safety management properly in Indonesian mining throughly characteristic of mines accident in Indonesia, especially in the Mineral, Coal and Geothermal sub sector. The analysis is based on data obtained from the Directorate Technique and Environment of Mineral, Coal and Geothermal reports, which mines accidents that occured from 2003 upto 2010[3] , with focused on 2009 included 44 fatality and 2010 included 94 serious mines accident and 15 fatality. The analysis of accidents were used 9 groups criteria of coal mining accidents only. The hazards and risks are improperly maintained will become main sources of accident in the workplace, and the failure to follow of the instruction or procedure properly is an accident causational. The increasing of Indonesian coal production on year to year will be given positive and negative impacts directly or indirectly to the society, economy and ecology. Keywords: hazard; risk; accident, mines accident, mining, production.

1. Introduction An incident is an unplanned event or gradual

process that results in harm to people or damage to property. The immediate goal of any incident investigation is to find out what happened and why, and the ultimate goal is to make sure it never happens again. The purpose or objective of mines accidents analysis is to determine the sequences of events leading to failure, identify the cause of the accident, and find methods to prevent accident from recurring again. As known so far, one of the characteristics of the mining industry is high risks, any failure in the mine planning process that does not follow the rules properly then the loss can’t be avoided, such as ; financial, workers, time, environmental and so many things. One of the risks faced by the mining industry today is an accident. Thousands of people have died from mining accidents each year. At the present China holds the record for the number of mine accidents resulting in _____________________________ * Institut für Bergbau und Speziltiefbau, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Sachsen, Germany

death every year. In Indonesia, mining accidents is a problem for the sustainability of the mining business process to the future. Regarding to research of accidents by H.W. Heinrich and others person who studied cases of industrial accidents concluded that unsafe acts by implication of human errors (majority) and unsafe conditions were significant contributed[4].

According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the number of work-related accidents has increased, and more people are dying from workplace injuries and illnesses. The ILO has subsequently attacked employers for neglecting Health and Safety standards at work. On the messaged by the Director General of ILO Juan Somavia has said for 2011 each every year around 337 million people are victims of work accidents and more than 2.3 million people died because of occupational injuries or work-related diseases and also said "A safety culture must be nurtured through partnership and dialogue - governments, employers and workers creating safe and healthy workplaces." We are still remember of dramatic events such as the nuclear accident at Fukushima, Japan last year or the Pike River mining accident in New Zealand last two years feature in the headlines. Yet most work-related injury, illness and deaths go unnoticed and unreported. As in line with the ILO program, the Indonesian government through Minister of Man Power and Transmigration also anounced last year 2011 to achieve the “Safety Culture” in the workplace for all industries, include mining industry.

With so many accidents, illnesses and deaths can make the instability of the business industry, so we must think what is the best way to find the solutions how to reduced, prevented or eliminated hazards and risks in the workplace environment. It is a matter of respecting the dignity of the human being through the dignity of work; of shaping policies that reflect the central role of work in people’s lives, so sustainable development will be running well to produced the balancing of equity of life, between society and economy. ILO calculation has said the losses of money caused of working accidents in the developing countries are around 4% from GNP1, it’s too much money. The JAMSOSTEK2 of Indonesia reported in 2011 has

��1 Abbreviation, GNP: Gross National Product.2 Abbreviation, JAMSOSTEK: Jaminan Sosial Tenaga Kerja.�


said 0.7% of Indonesian employments have working accidents which contributed lost of national income achieved around USD 6.0 billions. Due to, the actions should be created to prevent the accidents in the workplace or in the mines site operations.

The mining industry has an important and strategic role in economic development in Indonesia with coal production is increased significantly from 1996 to 2011 of 50.33 upto 371.00 million tons. Indonesia is a second largest of coal exporter country following Australia, with total export more than 70% from national output. Based on data from World Bank, more than 50 countries dependent on mining that provides at least 6% of exports or play an important role in the domestic economy. Mining plays an important role in the Indonesian economy. In the year 2008 to year 2010 revenues increased from IDR 42.12 trillions to IDR 66.33 trillions3, so it can be said of mineral and coal mining sub-sector is contributing around approximately 4.4% of total state revenue.

The remarkable success in the coal mining industry is also contributed the negative impacts to sociology indirectly, such as the mining accidents always insist and sometime can not be avoided. For this reason, we need how to develop the best strategy to find solutions how to effectively prevent, avoid and reduce accidents in the workplace, particularly in the mines site activities. Every country has the different characteristic of people, culture and conditions as well, so the safety startegy implementation of the policy or regulations have also different ways to applied.

Risk management is a well known loss control methodology which has been applied by many industries, including oil and gas, chemical, nuclear, aviation, environmental, agriculture, forestry, transportation, civil construction, and aerospace. Risk management is the process of identifying, assessing, and controlling risks arising from operational factors and making decisions that balance risk costs with mission benefits. Integrating risk management into mission planning, preparation, and execution, and also making risk decisions at the appropriate level in the chain of command, and the finaly is make an acceptable or tolerable of risks. These industries are considered about the risk managementas an integral part of their daily business. Many standards are available, such as: European Standard, 1997; Department of Defence, 2007; Canadian Standard Association, 2002; Australian Standard, 2004; NZ Standards, 2004; MSHA USA Standard[1]. Several countries

��3 Bank of Indonesia, 26 March 2012, exchange rate, 1 USD = IDR 9,181.

have started to develop of risk assessment approaches for mining industry, such as Indonesia.

2. Methodology This paper is based on historical mines accident

data for the period time from 2003 to 2010 obtained from the Directorate Technique and Environment of Mineral, Coal and Geothermal reports, but the analysis of fatality mines accident is concerned only in 2009 and 2010 cause in these time period called a mines disaster in Indonesia in particularly 2009.

According to Haimes (2004), Brauer (2006) and various internationally recognised standards (Department of Defence, 2000; Canadian Standards Association, 2002; Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand, 2004), the risk assessment process involves three steps: 1. risk identification; 2. risk analysis; 3. risk evaluation[1]. But also according to health and safety executives said there is five step to risk assessments as follow: 1. Identify the hazards; 2. Decide who might be harmed and how; 3. Evaluate the risks and decide on precautions; 4. Record your findings and implement them; 5. Review your assessment and update if necessary[5].in this paper will be used the analytical approach to find the solution to better mining industry to the future in Indonesia.

In the past of eight years, the mines accident in Indonesian mining excluded oil & gas mining has shown increasing from 2003 upto 2010 with total fatality is 200 miners died, particularly in 2009 the mines dissaster are occured with of 44 miners, and the highest contribute is come from the underground coal mining (small scale mining) with 33 miners. According the investigation accident analysis has concluded the mines exploded caused of human error. It’s mines accident occured when the electrician will be connected the electric lines to the new stope or face of coal mines, without closed the circuit braker previously. In my option, human error can not be blamed stand alone, because mismanagement also contributed to this accident, otherwise inadequate air ventilation when the mines activities run also give the contributed as well. In other words can be said to be sufficient amounts of methane gas to burst ( 9.5 – 15 % of volume ) and followed the burning of coal dust in the same time. The Fig. 1 below shown the mines accident statistic in Indonesia, with three types of injury classifications such as light injury, serious injury and fatality.


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Fig. 1 Indonesian Coal Production and Mining Accident4

_____________________________ 4Directorate General of Mineral and Coal, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of Indonesia, 2011.

Indonesian mining accident definition is involved 5 (five) elements regarding to the Minister of Mining and Energy No. 555.K/26/M.PE/1995, Occupational Health and Safety in General of Mining, Article 39, as follow: a. The accident is actually occurred b. Resulting in injury to mine workers or people who were given permission by the Technical Mines Manager or KTT c. As a result of mining activities d. Accident occur during working hours toward to the miners who may have injuries or any time people are given permission and e. Accident occurred in the area of mining activity or project area.

Working accident definitions are the accident happened on the worker / employee of a company because of the employment relationship, the mines accident is part of the working accident. Criteria for occupational injuries must meet the following requirements:

a. Accident is occur b. Accidents happen to the workers / employees c. The accident occurred because of the

employment relationship d. The accident occurred during working hours. Regarding to mines accidents are occured in

2010 included of 94 serious mines accidents and 15

fatality mines accident, with involving 9 criterias analysis in these period of time, as follow; 1. Causeof accident; 2. Source of accident; 3. Type of accident; 4. Type of job; 5. Experience time to work; 6. Age of worker; 7. Location of accident; 8. Shift time working; 9. Type of company. All these criteria will be explained only in 6 critireas as following of the pictures: � In the Figure 2 has shown the highest

percentage of 29% caused of mines accident is occured when workers conducted the job shall not following the procedure properly or unprocedure, and in Figure 3 has shown the highest percentage of 25% sources of mines accident is occured involving haul equipments.

� In the Figure 4 has shown the highest percentage of 28% type of mines accident is occured when workers were collided to other objects, and in Figure 5 has shown the highest percentage of 34% mines accidents is occured involve the mechanics.

� In the Figure 6 has shown the highest percentage of 35% location of mines accident is occured in the hauling road, and in Figure 7 has shown the highest percentage of 31% of mines accidents is occured in the first shift time working around 08:01 – 12:00.


Fig. 2 Causes of Mines Accident Fig. 3 Sources of Mines Accident

Fig. 4 Type of Mines Accident Fig. 5 Type of Job

Fig. 6 Location of Mines Accident Fig. 7 Shift Time Working of Mines Accident


11

3. Conclusions Regarding to mines accidents causational in an expalianation above majority is human error or failure of human. Considering it, to many mines accident occurances in the mines site locations, so need the proactive action how to reduced and avoided the accidents. Risk management is required not only the involvement of the management but also the commitment of management and all parties concerned. In this concept, mines accidents analysis included hazards and risks are useful and effective method should be identify, quatify and evaluate of the accidents. The analysis of mines accident is part of checking and corrective action in the safety management system, as stage of control. If we can control the hazards and risks in the workplace or

equipments, so we can control the accidents properly. All the main concepts are increasingly aware of the importance of occupational health and safety (OHS) management needs in the form of systematic and fundamental management to be integrated with other enterprise management. This integration begins with the policy of the company to manage OHS implement as a Mining Safety Management System (MSMS). Management has a pattern of "Total Loss Control" is a policy to avoid losses that integrated with human resources, materials, equipment, processes, materials, facilities and environment with the pattern of implemented of basic management principles of Plan, Train & Do,Check and Action &Improvement (PTDCAI)[6].

Fig. 8 PRIMA System

In the figure 8 above, will describe the flow of thinking to apply for the best practices contribute to mining industry, with “ the PRIMA System” for Indonesian coal mining industry, the PRIMA is abbreviation in Indonesian languages are explain, P

= Pikirkan (Think), R = Rencanakan (Planning), I = Implementasikan (Implementation), M = Mengecek & Mengevaluasi (Evaluation), A = ( Aktif meningkatkan perbaikan (pro-Active Improvement).

PRIMA�SYSTEM�

� Risk Mgt � Hazard & Risk

Assessment; JHA, RTA, JSA, SOP

� OHS Program � Organization, TMM ,

Supervisor of Operational & Technique, Personel, & Committee

� Responsibility elaborations

� Training & Education � Incident/Accident

awareness team � Mines book and Mines

accident book � Emergency Preparedness

& Response team � Work & Budget

Program ; short & long term.

� Policy; Committment & Consequence

� Leadership� Standard & Regulation

Compliance

� Management Review � Technical Review

� Measure & Evaluate mine safety, production, program, standards, rules and regulations comply performances

� Evaluate of Incident/Accident investigation report

� Evaluate of mines inspection and audit reports

� Control & Monitor of working environment; lighting, dust, coal fire, polution, noise, vibration, etc.

� Controling & Monitor of Working processes; drilling & blasting, hauling, processing plant, excavations, etc.

� Competency performance � Opeartional performance: Land Clearing, Drilling &

Blasting, Minerals & Overburden excavation, Processing, Hauling, pollution, noise, vibration, illumination.

� Document implemente; SOP, JHA, POCL, incident/accident investigation

� Emergency Preparedness & Response Team Performance

� Contractors Communication & Coordination Performance on site.

P�

R�

I�

M�

A�


Thus, to realize the PRIMA system in the surface mining company need to be implemented with proper planning and consideration, and one of the key to success lies in the role of the worker himself both as subject and object of protection intended. Judging from the economic aspect, by applying the PRIMA, hopefully the accident rate will decrease, so that compensation for accidents also decreased, and labor costs can be reduced, so if occupational health and safety effective will be able to increase productivity. This in turn then to encourage all workplaces / industry and public places have felt the need for cultural and OHS to be applied in every place and every time, so the OHS become one of the industrial culture or in other word called as the OHS culture. Finally, the best hope that accidents are decreased on the running year and achieved the production target as well with regulations and mining safety management system complianced, consistent and commitment properly.

References

1. Canadian Standards Association (2002). CAN/CSA Q850- 97. Risk management: Guideline for decision makers,Canadian Standards Association. 2. Christopher A. Janicak, PhD., CSP, ARM (2000). Applied statistics in occupational safety and health.Director safety program, Department of health sciences, Illionis State University. 3. Directorate General of Mineral and Coal, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of IndonesiaAnnual report 2010. 4. Heinrich, H.W. (1959). Industrial incident prevention: A scientific approach (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. 5. Health and Safety Executive, UK. Five Step to Risk Assessment, 2006. 6. Richard W. Lack, P.E., CSP, CPP. Essential Safety and Health Management, Lewis Publisher, 1996.


13

NAVIGATION ON THE DANUBE – SUPPORT FOR BANAT MINING

Dumitru FODOR*, Mircea DIVIN

The Danube, the 29th river in the world, as regards the length and flow rate, and the second in Europe after the Volga, springs from Black Forest mountains – Germany, and after a route of 2880 km, crossing the center of Europe, flows into Black Sea, near Caraorman forest, which in the Turkish language means also black forest. Actually, there are two springs, namely Brege and Brigach, occurring from Kandel Mountain, at the altitude of 1241 m and join in Donaveschigen town in the yard of Fürstenberg castle.

Built between 1959 and 1992, the Danube-Main-Rhine channel, having a length of 171 km, connects North Sea and Black Sea, and the Danube-Oder channel makes the connection with Baltic Sea. Navigable from Ulm, the Danube has been closed on certain sections, between 1999 and 2003, due to the bomb attack of the bridges from Serbia. Until the interconnection of the railways from the river-side countries, the Danube was the main communication and transport way for the central European trade.

The assurance of the Danube navigability, depending on seasonal flow rates, obstacles or ice bridges, was the main concern since the earliest times. The Romans marked through 5 commemorative tabula the works executed by them for arranging the navigable channel. The first, by Tiberiu Emperor, between 33 and 34 through the tabulae from Gospodin, at Cozla cataract, and downstream continued by Vespasian and Domitian Emperors, up to that one nominated “tabulae Traiana” of Traian Emperor from Small Gorges and the last found more recently at Cladova also of Traian Emperor placed now in the museum from locality. At the time of Traian’s reign, a channel was dug and a small dam was built on the right bank near Sip locality. The channel, 3.2 km long and 30 m wide has been finalized in 101.

The denomination of the Danube Defile is not the most correct because the Danube has several narrow passes, for example that one from Visehrad, or in our area that one from Golubac, 14.5 km long and 230 m wide; that one from Gospodin Vir, 15 km long and 220 m wide or that one from Great Gorges with a width of only 150 m and a depth of 53 m. ____________________________________ * Prof. eng. Ph.D University of Petro�ani

The gorges are divided from Or�ova into 21 Great Gorges and behind Dubovei bay there are Small Gorges.

The Iron Gates, Por�ile de Fier in Romanian language or Gvozdena Vrata in Serbian, Demirkapa in Turkish, Eisernes Tor In German or Vascapu in Hungarian represent the entire chain of gorges from area, having a length of 134 km.

Several factors hindered the traffic of the ships on this river section, one geological given by the narrowness of the gorge inducing the increase of the water speed, the rapids, the presence of the visible or invisible stones depending on their height and water level, the two curves of the river from Svini�a and Ada-Kaleh and also the meteorological factor given by fog, mist, snow, rain, floating ice and draught inducing a low level of the water. A team of pilot officers with head office in Or�ova and Tekijia guided the ships irrespective of the atmospheric conditions assuring in this manner the transport on river.

On the Danube, processed or raw ores were transported from the mining units, some situated even inside the built area of Or�ova town, quartz ores, asbestos, mica, feldspar, serpentine, bentonite, talc. Some ores were transported on the Danube up to the foundries from Bratislava. At the km 80-81 from the Bazias town, on the right bank in Milanova� harbor, the funiculars brought copper and iron ores from the Maidanpec mines and from here these reached Re�i�a. From Cozla, by a narrow railway, the anthracite was transported up to Drencova harbor. The fluidization of the navigation on the Danube was imposed.

Between 1834 and 1846, the arranging of the Danube started again beginning with the removal of some stones from the navigable channel. Following the peace from Adrianopol (1829) the trade on the Danube was free, and in the next year, the first steamship named Arno under Austrian flag crossed the area of Iron Gates. The commodities from Romanian Principalities could circulate free on the Danube without Turkish transport monopoly. The Crimea War (1853-1856) had inter alia to settle the Danube problem. The passenger transport intensified, and among the personalities who traveled on the Danube the 17 Wallachian revolutionaries arrested in 1848 may be numbered, namely N. B�lcescu, C.A. Rosetti, I. Br�tianu, Brothers Golescu, D. Bolintineanu, C. Boliac who


were transported from Rusciuc to Ada Kaleh. In the next year on August 25, 1849, L. Kosuth accompanied by the general Bem and a group of officers returned from Ada Kaleh to Vidin inside the Ottoman Empire. Also on the Danube arrived in country the future King of Romania Carol I together with I. Br�tianu landing first time on the Romanian territory at Turnu Severin. Their meeting took place on ship at Bazia�, from where continued the route with the ship at class II, because the future King circulated clandestinely with Swiss passport under the name of Karl Hetting (Austria and Prussia being at war).

Several works of regularization, embankment, removal of obstacles have been carried-out on different sections on both banks of the Danube For Sip area situated between Or�ova and Turnu Severin having a length of 32 km and a minimum width of 170 m, the arranging works of the river have been assigned to Austro-Hungary, and the government from Wien transferred the task to Hungary which performed the works (Barbu�eanu). The geological investigations and the plans endorsed by Austria, Hungary and Turkey have been finalized in 4 years, so that on September 18, 1890, the works were started. The investment was assigned for execution to Eng. Hajdu – Berlin Luther Company from Braunschweig and to Discount Company from Berlin. The works were not finalized until 1855, as these have been planned. The works, solemnly inaugurated in 1986, were finalized only in 1898.

The equipments were in majority from France and America. The working technology consisted in drilling-blasting. Therefore, drill holes in stone were executed in which dynamite was introduced and blasted. The rock breaking and wall finishing were made with pneumatic hammer. Lusenbach Company performed the works of rock breaking-up. A dredging machine manufactured in Scotland has been brought on site. On channel, the navigation was guided by buoys emplaced on the right bank of the Danube, starting from the both ends. To provide the maintenance of the fluvial flotilla –support for the Sip channel construction, on the left bank at the exit from Or�ova towards I�alni�a, the “Naval Workshops” are established in 1890.

The water speed through Sip channel at the finalization of the arranging works was very high – 18 km/h. For the steamships from those times, their towage was necessary for the upstream traffic. For this purpose, a strong towboat has been built,

named Vaskapu, ordered in 1895 with an engine of 3000 HP. This towboat operated until the First World War propelled by the winding of a steel cable anchored with one end on the bank and with the other one on the ship on a drum.

At the beginning of the First World War, the Serbians confiscated the towboat Vaskapu which has been transported to Odessa from where after 1917 was brought by the Austrian marine to Or�ova.

After 1916, the propulsion system changed, being made by steam locomotives in number of 3 at beginning; also a railway, 1800 m long, has been built. After 1918, another 400 m of railway have been built, and the number of locomotives increased to 11. These towed platform wagons equipped with steel cables winded on drum. The towboat operated also between 1920 and 1932, and since 1933 was replaced definitively by steam locomotives.

The festivities occasioned by the inauguration of Sip channel were very magnificent, participating 3 monarchs: Emperor Franz Josef (December 2, 1848 – November 21, 1916), King of Romania Carol I (May 10, 1866 – October 10, 1914) and King of Serbia Alexandru I Obrenovici (1889 – 1903). The Emperor Franz Josef arrived by train in Or�ova railway station, nicely decorated, being met by high officials, from where continued the way to B�ile Herculane, where met the Kings of Romania and Serbia. At the naval festivities, ships from the 3 countries participated. From Romania, a Danube naval division composed of “Smeul”, “Zborul” and “N�luca” torpedo boats accompanied by “Oltul”, “Siretul” and “Bistri�a” gunboats participated, commanded by the colonel Urseanu who was decorated with the Austrian order “Iron Crown” class II. At Or�ova, belonging that time to Austro-Hungary, the Emperor was accommodated with his suite in the Fota Popovici’s houses.

With the occasion of the Sip channel inauguration, a jubilee medal was stamped:

- Medal with ring fastener Characteristic features: diameter=2.9 cm,

weight=8.3 g, copper, well preserved Avers: The three monarchs looking to the left

in military uniforms. In order from the left to the right: Franz Josef, Carol I of Romania and Alexandru I Obrenovici.

Reverse: background: A Vaskapu Megnyitsa •Szeptember• 27 EN•Central Emlekere 1896 (in the memory of the opening of Por�ile de Fier)


15

The three monarchs continued the festivities in the Cure Saloon within the Casino Complex from B�ile Herculane. It must be mentioned that the relationships between Franz Josef and Carol I were very good. During his travels of transiting Austria, Carol I met Franz Josef at Wien, Bad or Budapest where the Emperor was accommodated in his regiment’s garrison. The Empress Sissy was 5 times at cure at B�ile Herculane where in 1887 met the King Carol I and Queen Elisabeta.

B�ile Herculane ornamented, accommodated the gala dinner which took place at 6:00 PM, where 120 influential guests participated: ministers, high ecclesiastical officials, diplomats, superior military men, local officials.

The King CaroI I leaved B�ile Herculane and went to Craiova, following the first day of festivities. The Emperor Franz Josef made further on a three days visit in Romania. He was met by Carol I at Craiova and accompanied to Bucharest, the travel being made by train. Near Chitila, the fort batteries welcomed her Majesty with round of cannon. The members of the imperial family were

often in Bucharest; the Crown Prince Rudolf with his wife two times, the Archduke Alhbrecht and Archduke Karl Ludwig several times.

The Romanian Royal Family was present at railway station, together with Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, father of Princess Maria. The Emperor was greeted according to the Romanian custom with bread and salt by the major of Bucharest, with two gold cups and a tray - copy of the treasury from Pietroasa. At the military parade, the Romanian soldiers were commended by the King Carol I.

The commodity transport on the Danube increased progressively. If between 1906 and 1910, 2,669,000 tones were transported through Iron Gates, between 1926 and 1930, the commodity volume almost tripled, reaching 6,900,000 tones.

The Specialists of the Danube European Commission would have wished a channel with lock and not an open channel. Even if the navigation on the Danube improved substantially, the dangers did not disappear integrally. In the first 30 years since the opening of Sip channel, from


140,816 ships which passed through channel, 233 sank or suffered damages. The British delegate H. Trotter, on October 15, 1896, in the report regarding the inauguration of Sip channel (National archive of Gala�i, the Stock of Danube European Commission, volume 30, page 284-286), mentions the political character of the inauguration due to the celebration of the Hungarian millennium, shows its deficiencies and concludes that its sole utility is the prolongation of the navigation time on the Danube with 6 weeks in autumn.

Controversial discussions took place as regards the high taxes fixed unilaterally by Hungary. Romania which exported 800,000 tones of grains on the Danube would have to pay 80,000 of crowns. The tax at Iron Gates was 8 times higher than that one from Kiel channel (between North Sea and Baltic Sea). Sip channel had 1.7 km, and Kiel channel 95 km. In addition the construction of Kiel channel was 5 times more expensive (Gerald Lowter)

In 1964, the construction of Iron Gates Hydrotechnical Complex begun with a cumulated power of 2,200 MW. The water level increased with 35 m, a big reservoir was created which solved definitively the problem of the navigability on the Danube at Iron Gates.

References

1. Baicu Stelian History of the navigation on the Danube at Iron Gates, in Drobeta XI – XXII, 2002, p.377 – 378 2. B�lteanu Dorin Herculane - retrospective, 1896 – 2006, Info Publishing House, Craiova, 2007, p.14 3. B�rb��an Gheorghe Society and politics, Semester journal, no. 2, November 2009, p.106 – 119 4. Botu Alexandru Industrial and commercial areas of Or�ova after 1850 5. Cârtâna Iulian, Leftiuc Ilie The Danube in the history of the Romanian people, Scientific Publishing House, Bucharest, 1972 6. Cristescu Ilie Treasury of Cerna, Sport-Tourism Publishing House, Bucharest, 1998 7. Mite Kremnitz King Carol of Romania 8. Portase Constantin Short history of the navigation arranging on the section of Iron Gates, 1967, Communication session of APFC 9. Simion Eugen Conversations with Petru Dumitru, Mercu�io Publishing House, Bucharest, 1998 10. Vâlsan Gheorghe The region of Iron Gates, in the archive of Oltenia, year V, no. 23 11. Buzdugan George, Niculi�a Gheorghe Romanian medals, Scientific Publishing House, 1971 Bucharest.


17

INFLUENCE OF COALIFICATIONON HYDROPHOBICITY OF BLACK COAL

Lukáš KOVA�*, Lucia KOVA�OVÁ*, Ján RUŠAJ*, Martin HALÍK*

AbstractThe Ostrava-Karviná coalfield represents the Czech part of the Upper Silesian Basin, which is one of the most important European coal deposits. The coal seams mainly comprise bituminous coal. The majority of coals are of a high quality and can be used for coke production.Hydrophobic/hydrophilic properties of coal influence significantly value of moisture which represents very important parameter from the point of utilization of coal in energy production. Hydrofobicity was studied by means of contact angle measurements. It was proved that for black coal the hydrofilic properties increase with coalification. Article is to assess the influence of coalification on wettability of black coal from Upper Silesia basin which influenced its humidity and therefore also effectiveness of its energy use. Key words: Contact angle, coal, reflectance, vitrinite content 1. Introduction

Contact angles have been studied intensively for more than one century.[1,2,3] The contact angle concept is important in understanding many natural and industrial processes that are controlled or influenced by the interfacial properties of interacting systems. Characterization of surface wetability by measuring the contact angle formed by the surface of interest is attractive due to the apparent relative simplicity with which contact angle can be measured.[4] However, the precise measurement and prediction of contact angles for real mineral surfaces is extremly difficult due to the many factors that influence wetting phenomena, such as surface roughness and heterogenity of real systems. On such surfaces, there exist many metastabe states each of wich is characterized by a different contact angle. The contact angle is a very common measure of the hydrophobicity of a solid surface and is an important parameter in wet processing of minerals. The contact angle is ____________________________________�* Ph.D. eng. - Institute of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Mining and Geology, VŠB – Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic

frequently measured as the angle between the air-liquid interface and the solid-liquid interface at the three-phase contact point. A variety of contact angles has been defined to adress different situations and some of these are outlined below. [1,3,4] 2. The Young equation

The relationship between surface tension and contact angle was first recognised by Young. In principle, the contact angle of an air bubble on a solid surface in aqueos solution is determined by the mechanical equilibrium under the action of three interfacial tensions. The contact angle determined by balancing the surface tension forces is known as Young´s contact angle �Y, and relationship describing the balance of surface forces is known as Young´s equation.

�s/a – solid/air surface tension �s/l – solid/liquid interfacial tension �l/a – liquid/air surface tension �� – Young´s contact angle

Fig. 1 Contact angle between bubble and mineral

solid surface in aqueous medium

The validity of Young´s equation requires that the solid surface is smooth, flat, homogenous, inert, insoluble, non-reactive, non-porous, and non-deformable quality. These conditions are usually not met by real surfaces. Surface which meets all the requirements is referred as an ideal surface. However, most practical surfaces are non-ideal and the measurable contact values on such surfaces are referred to as apparent contact angles �ap.

As a consequence, this value is not unique but falls into a mor or less wide interval between the advancing and the receding contact angle hysteresis. The three main contributing factor relating to non-ideal surfaces are: contamination of either the liquid or the soliud surface, surface roughness, and surface immobility on a macromolecular scale.


Over the years, many different techniques have been developed for measurements of contact angles. For real mineral systems, only few of the available techniques can offer precise, meaningful and realistic contact angle values without unreasonable requirements and/or assumptions.

Two procedures are available for studying contact angles at the three-phase contact line as shown on figure 2. The simplest method of contact angle determination relies on a direct measurement of an angle of bubble attachment to a mineral surface immersed in water. It is called the captive bubble method. When using this method it is important for an air bubble not to stick to particle edges because both different hydrophobicity of the edge and additional forces cause distortion of the results. [3,5] Second method is called sessile drop method. A drop of water can be placed on a solid surface.

Fig. 2 Sessile drop method (up) and captive bubble

method (down)

Both ways of expressing contact angle are equally valid, since the sum of contact angle measured trough the water phase, as well as the angle expressed trough a gas phase is 180°. So in principle, these two contact angles are the same. [3,5,6]

It is noted that surface roughness and chemical heterogeneity are present to some extent in all real mineral samples. As a result, the contact angle may change from one point to another along the contact line and will be differentiated into three definitions as shown on figure 3.

The intrinsic contact angle �in is expected for an ideal solid surface. The usual optical methods for measuring contact angles. The apparent contact angle �ap is yield by using usual optical methods for measuring contact angels. The apparent contact angle is the angle between solid the direction of the tangent to the smoothed solid surface and the direction of the tangent to the air-water interface.

Fig. 3 Differentiation between intrinsic contact angle (up) and apparent contact angle (down)

On perfectly smooth solid surfaces, the

apparent contact angle is identical with the actual contact angle. On real mineral surfaces, those two values may be very different. The apparent contact angle of a real surface is not unique, but falls into a more or less wide interval between the advancing and receding contact angle.

A low contact angle values means high wettability of the surface or low hydrophobicity and high contact angle values means poor wettability or high hydrophobicity. Difference between the maximum contact angle (advancing) and minimum contact angle (receding) is defined as contact angle hysteresis. [4,7]

Three main reasons that cause hysteresis are contamination of either the liquid or the solid surface, surface roughness, and surface immobility on a macromolecular scale. Unfortunately, there is no independent means of distiguishing the source of reasons that cause contact angle hysteresis. Therefore there is a particular interest in producing surfaces that are as close to perfect as possible so that there will be minimum and negligible contact angle hysteresis. [8]

To avoid hysteresis of contact angle resulting from surface roughness, the surface should be well polished. Occurrence of hysteresis of contact angle can be detected when contact angle, measured trough a water phase, after slight increase in bubble size, shows lower values than the angle after releasing the gas from a bubble. Minimum angle obtained during such measurements is called receding angle, while maximum one the advancing contact angle. The hysteresis of a contact angle can also take place due to other reasons, for instance surface energy heterogeneity. The contact angle can be also measured using the sessile drop method.


19

The contact angle depends not only on the method of measurement, physical or chemical heterogeneity of the surface, but also on such paramaters as drop and bubble size. The value of a contact angle can be also effected by the so-called line tension, which is an analogue of a surface tension, but characterizing the energy of contact line of phases. Therefore, each measuring system of contact angle is specific in some respect, which, if taken into account, can provide the equilibrium contact angle. Unfortunately, exact procedures for recalculating the measured contact angles into equilibrium contact angles is not known.

Hydrophobicity is a feature of material characterizing its ability to be wetted with the liquid in the presence of a gas phase. In mineral processing, solids which can be easily wetted with water are called hydrophilic, while solids with limited affinitiy for wetting are called hydrophobic. Substances can be hydrophobic to a different degree and the measure of their hydrophobicity is contact angle. [5]

Since coal, being a sedimentary substance coprised of organic matter (macerals) and inorganic matter (minerals), is very heterogenous, the contact angles reported for coal surfaces in the literature vary significantly. [4,7] Coal is intrinsically hydrophobic because of its chemical composition (surface aromatic aliphatic groups). The coal surface may be less hydrophobic because of oxidation resulting in the formation of hydrophilic carbonyl, carboxyl, and ester groups. The decrease of coal hydrophobicity can also be attributed to the slime coating of coal particle surfaces by hydrophilic fine clay particles. Coal is composed of a number of distinct organic etnities called macerals. Different maceral groups with different physical and chemical properties control the overall behavior of coal, including its hydrophobicities. The maceral groups in coal can be identified by petrographic analysis, which is conducted by observing the reflectance of polished coal surface under a microscope.

The difference in coal surface chemistry is caused by oxidation, different maceral groups, and the inclusion of mineral matter.[6,9] 3. Experiment 3.1 Material and Surface Preparation

Ten different black coal samples from Sta�í� and Chlebovice coal basin were selected for this investigation, which mean maximum reflectance of vitrinite Rmax varied from 1,3 – 1,7. All samples were dried under laboratory conditions and then crushed using laboratory jaw crusher BB 200 (Retsch, Germany) with jaw gap set on 0,5 mm and

after crushing sieved to nine (over 2 mm, 1,5–2 mm, 1–1,5 mm, 0,5–1 mm, 0,2–0,5 mm, 0,1–0,2 mm, 0,063–0,1 mm, 0,045–0,063 mm, under 0,045 mm) fractions using sieve analysis. After drying, crushing and sieving representative samples were prepared for petrographic analysis using SN ISO 7404/5 and SN ISO 7404/3 carried out at Institute of Geonics AS CR VSB – TU Ostrava.

3.2 Pellets with Real Surface From each fraction of each sample 2,5 g of coal

was used to made tablets with 35 mm diameter Tablets were made using manual laboratory press SPECAC (United Kingdom) under the pressure of 10t-1 for duration at least one minute with 3 repeatings for each tablet. 3.3 Pellets with Polished Surface

Black coal tablets with polished surface were made after contact angle measurments from tablets with the real surface. The real surface tablets were measured and after that set in polymer resin, wet polished with fine abrasive papers (abrasiveness 600, 800, 1200, 2500) followed by polishing with fine silica powder. Surface was then polished with a polishing cloth to a smooth surface. Samples were washed with a stream of water after each polishing step. 3.4 Contact angle measurement

Contact angles were measured using sessile drop method on each sample. For measuring fully computer controlled Attension Theta (Biolin Scientific, Finland) apparatus was used as shown on figure 4.

Fig. 4 Attension Theta apparatus

The experimental protocol was as follows:

sample was placed on the sample stage and adjusted to obtain a level surface. A sessile drop of distilled water with a volume of 5 l was formed at the end of the liquid dispenser tip and placed on the sample surface. The shapes of the sessile drops were digitized, analyzed off-line and fitted


numerically using Attension Theta softwere to obtain a contact angle value. Measurements were carried out under laboratory conditions (23-25 °C) and repeated severel times. 3.5 Results and Discussion

The results of petrography analysis of coal and light reflectance (mean value of reflectance Rr) are shown in Table 1. From results shown in table 1 is obvious that samples of coal from Hrusov layers have lower degree of coalification, vitrinite content than samples from Upper Petrkovice layers.

Table 1 Petrography analysis of coal Rr Vitrinite Inertinite LiptiniteSample (%)

1215340 1,350 65,4 34,3 0,3 1125445 1,402 68,7 29,9 1,4 1125447 1,402 65,0 34,3 0,7 1124440 1,418 64,3 35,2 0,5 Average 1,393 65,8 33,4 0,7 0595342 1,509 67,5 32,2 0,3 063606 1,512 65,0 34,0 1,0 084273 1,591 70,0 29,8 0,2

0635350 1,655 68,6 31,6 0 0805251 1,664 68,0 32,0 0 0745357 1,772 70,3 29,7 0 Average 1,62 68,2 31,5 0,25

Notes: grey – Lower Hrusov layers, white – Upper Petrkovice layers

Hydrophilic character of coal is increasing with

the increase of degree of coalification (reflectance). Similar pattern occur between contact angle and the content of vitrinite in the sample. The linear relationships are statistically significant because condition of critical values of the correlation coefficient for 10 samples (r = 0.80) is met with significance level 0.005. Results are in good agreement with conclusions reported by Arnold et al. (1989). 4. Conclusion

In contrast to coal with a lower degree of coalification (brown coal, lignite) has been shown that with increasing degree of coalification of black coal its hydrophobicity is reduced. Statistically significant relationship between the contact angle and reflectance and the content of vitrinite was determined.

Fig. 5 Relationship between contact angle and

vitrinite content

Fig. 6 Relationship between contact angle and

reflectance Acknowledgement

Support by the project OpVaVpi „Institute of Clean Technologies for Mining and Utilization of Raw Materials for Energy Use“ CZ.1.05 / 2.1.00 / 03.0082 is gratefully acknowledged. References

1. Kwok, D. Y., Neumann, A. W. Contact angle techniques and measurements. In: Milling AJ, editor. Surface Chracterization Methods: Principles, Techniques and Applications. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc; 1999 2. Chibowski, E., Perea-Caprio, R., Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2002; 98:245-64. 3. Chau, T.T., W.J. Bruckard, P.T.L. Koh, A.V. Nguyen A review of factors that affect contact angle and implications for flotation practice. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science. 2009, ISSN 00018686. DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2009.07.003. 4. Ofori, P., B. Firth, G. O`Brien, C. McNally, A.V. Nguyen Assessing the Hydrophobicity of Petrographically Heterogeneous Coal Surfaces. Energy. 2010, s. 5965-5971. ISSN 0887-0624. DOI: 10.1021/ef100793t.


21

5. Drzymala, J. Mineral processing: foundations of theory and practice of minerallurgy. 1st eng. ed. Wroclaw: University of Technology, 2007. ISBN 978-837-4933-629. 6. Ding, L.P., B. Firth, G. O`Brien, C. McNally, A.V. Nguyen Investigation of Bituminous Coal Hydrophobicity and its Influence on Flotation. Energy. 2009, ISSN 0887-0624. DOI: 10.1021/ef900589d.

7. Gosiewska, A.; Drelich, J.; Laskowski, J.S.; Pawlik, M.J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2002, 247, 107-116 8. Chau, T.T., B Firth, G. O`Brien, C. McNally, A.V. Nguyen. A review of techniques for measurement of contact angles and their applicability on mineral surfaces. Minerals Engineering. 2009, ro�. 22, �. 3, s. 213-219. ISSN 08926875. DOI: 10.1016/j.mineng.2008.07.009. 9. Xu, Z., Liu J., Choung, J.W.; Zhou, Z. Int. J. Miner. Process. 2003, 68,183-19


SPATIAL POSITIONING OF A MINIMAL LENGHT UNDERGROUND WORK

Ioel VERE�*, Mircea ORTELECAN**

AbstractVery often it is required the optimal positioning of an underground work, so that it ensures the shortest way connection between two other underground works having certain directions and tilts (galleries, tunnels, winzes, shafts, inclined works). It is already known that positioning can be solved as an intersection of several planes. The current work presents an other way of solving the problem, namely, as an optimization problem by determining an extreme (min or max) and having subject to constraints. This work can also be a model or an example of optimization for solving a problem, with applications in other fields as well. 1. General considerations

It is known from specialty literature [1], [2] that positioning of the shortest connection (way) between two linear underground works having different orientations and inclinations can be done by solving a system of equations written for several planes such as work planes containing axes of the database works or perpendicular planes to the database works. Intersections of these families of planes lead to searched solution. The known model can be applied to straight (linear) works only and with great difficulty at curved works. The present work proposes an other way to approach the problem, treating it as an optimization problem where the aim is to achieve an extreme while respecting certain conditions. This approach can be applied easily not only for linear works but curved works as well, or in situations which require even more technical conditions [3].

2. Formulation of the problem

Let’s consider two known underground works with different orientations and inclinations (tilts).

Each work is known by the coordinates of two points (Fig.1), knowing the points )( AAA zyxA ,

)( BBB zyxB , )( CCC zyxC , )( DDD zyxD .

____________________________________* Assoc.prof. eng. Ph.D University of Petro�ani ** Prof.eng. Ph.D USAMV Cluj-Napoca

The two works do not intersect and are not located on the same plane.

Fig.1

It is required to find the shortest link between the two works, so )( 1111 zyxP and )( 2222 zyxPmust be determined so that the distance between them is minimal.

3. How we solve

In this case, the function of which extreme must be sought is the „distance” function. Actually, we take into account the square of the distance, without extracting the square root of distance, to avoid negative values (which can be obtained by extracting the square root) – unaccepted solution. The extreme function which we are seeking is:

221

221

221222111 )()()()( zzyyxxzyxzyxf �� (1)

The conditions which must be taken into account in the search of the minimum, are those which express that the point 1P must belong to line AB and 2P must belong to line CD.

For point 1P can be written these conditions:

AB

A

AB

A

yyyy

xxxx

��

�� 11

(2)

AB

A

AB

A

zzzz

xxxx

��

�� 11

For point 2P can be written these conditions:

CD

C

CD

C

yyyy

xxxx

��

�� 22

(3)

CD

C

CD

C

zzzz

xxxx

��

�� 22


23

The next step is the composition of function F that contains the Lagrange multipliers (there is an analogy between this function and the formation of function for which we are seekeing an extreme in the adjustement process, using least squares direct measurement subject to conditions)

�� )()( 222111222111 zyxzyzfzyxzyxF (4)

44332211 2222 cccc ��where 4321 cccc are expressions of the imposed conditions (written in a way to be equal whith zero)

0111 �

��

��

�AB

A

AB

A

yyyy

xxxxc

0112 �

��

��

�AB

A

AB

A

zzzz

xxxxc

(5)

0223 �

��

��

�CD

C

CD

C

yyyy

xxxx

c

0224 �

��

��

�CD

C

CD

C

zzzz

xxxx

c

The extreme function F is obtained for those values 222111 zyxzyx that satisfy the conditions:

01

�xF

, 01

�yF

, 01

�zF

, … , 02

�zF (6)

After the derivation and simplification of the relation (4) we obtain:

0112121 �

��

��

ABAB xxxxxx (7)

01121 �

��

AB yyyy (8)

01221 �

��

AB zzzz (9)

0114321 �

��

��

CDCD xxxxxx (10)

01321 �

��

CD xxyy (11)

01421 �

��

CD zzzz (12)

The constants 21 , are determined from the equations (8) and (9) and substituted in the equation (7). Also, the constants 43 , are determined from the equations (11) and (12) and substituted in the equation (10).

We obtain:

0)()()( 212121 ��

��

��AB

AB

AB

AB

xxzzzz

xxyyyyxx

0)()()( 212121 ��

��

��CD

CD

CD

CD

xxzzzz

xxyyyyxx (13)

We make the following notations:

AB

ABAB xx

yytg��

��CD

CDCD xx

yytg

��

��

AB

ABAB xx

zztg��

�� AB

CDCD zz

zztg

��

�� (14)

If we attach the equations (5) multiplied one by one with )( AB yy � , )( AB zz � , )( CD yy � ,

)( CD zz � to equation (13) then we can form the following system:

0)()()( 212121 �� ABAB tgzztgyyxx ��0)()()( 212121 �� CDCD tgzztgyyxx ��

011 �� AABAAB ytgxytgx ��011 �� AABAAB ztgxztgx ��012 �� CCDCCD ytgxytgx ��022 �� cCDCCD ztgxztgx �� (15)

Values 222111 zyxzyx , for which the connection is minimal, are obtained by solving the system. The system can be written in a form of a matrix, such as:

0�� lAx (16) The system has the solution

lAx 1�� (17) and the matrix A is:

�

�

��

�

�

��

��

��

�

10000001000100000010

1111

CD

CD

AB

AB

CDCDCDCD

ABABABAB

tgtg

tgtg

tgtgtgtgtgtgtgtg

A

��

��

��


Matrices l and x will have the form:

�

�

��

�

�

��

�

CCDC

CCDC

AABA

AABA

ztgxytgxztgxytgx

l

��

00

�

�

��

�

�

�

2

1

2

1

2

1

zzyyxx

x

4. Case study

For a particular case from the Jiu Valley mine, we know two underground works (inclined planes) AB and CD, which are known by these given coordinates:

Point x y z A 439665.592 375871.259 151.250B 439806.235 376033.297 133.221C 439660.498 376050.380 101.550D 439792.767 376106.945 123.125

These values were obtained in processing:

5. Conclusions Through the establishment of a link of a

minimum length respecting the given technical limitations, we can reach a minimum time of digging and a minimum volume and a lower cost of the excavations. The presented model can be adapted to determine the shortest connection between two curved works as well. In this case, changes are in relationships (2) and (3) which are to be written as curve defining expressions.

References 1. Bonea I. Surveying, Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House, Bucharest, 1963;

2. Dima, N. & others. Mining Surveying, Corvin Publishing House, Deva , 1996;

3. *** Mining Engineer's Handbook vol. II, Technology Publishing House, Bucharest, 1985.


25

OVERVIEW OF EU PERMITTING AND REGULATORY MECHANISMS OF STORING CO2 IN UCG CAVITIES

Katerina NIKOLOVA*, Anatoliy ANGELOV*, Svetlana BRATKOVA*, Sotir PLOCHEV*

AbstractThe carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a basic part of worldwide efforts to limit global warming by reducing greenhouse-gas emissions. European Union's 27 member states have met the deadline to adopt a milestone CCS law, which will manage some of the environmental risks of CCS and regulate the underground storage of CO2. Member states were obliged to transpose the obligations included in the EU CCS Directive into their national legislation by 25 June 2011. France, Spain and the UK were among the first to meet the deadline, along with Romania, Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Austria and Finland. The European Commission enjoys enforcement powers through infringement procedures against Member States failing to comply with their obligation to implement EU law. However, the legal regulations concerning permanent storage of CO2 in geological formations are not sufficiently developed because this technology is relatively new to global scale 1. Introduction

The broad deployment of low-carbon energy technologies could reduce projected 2050 emissions to half 2005 levels – and that CCS could contribute about one-fifth of those reductions. Reaching that goal, however, would require around 100 CCS projects to be implemented by 2020 and over 3 000 by 2050. CCS regulations need to manage the risks and liabilities of CCS, distinguishing between risks that should be assumed by the operator, those that can be mitigated through regulation, and those that can be transferred. Issues related to competition, climate regime commitments, tax policy, �nancial responsibility, property rights and international treaties also shape the CCS regulatory framework.

The CCS process is based on capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from large point sources, such as fossil fuel power plants, and storing it where it will not enter the atmosphere. The technology for ____________________________________ * Ph.D. - Department of Engineering Geoecology, UMG “St. Ivan Rilski”, Sofia, Bulgaria

capturing and storing carbon dioxide takes place in three main stages. During the combustion of carbon fuels, mostly coal, called Oxyfuel, pulverized coal burning emits enormous quantities of carbon dioxide. Greenhouse gas is compressed to 1/500 of its original volume, which is very convenient for its transportation. In such liquid form it can be stored for several hundred meters underground in old depleted oil and gas fields.

Fig. 1 The CCS process

- The first stage, the carbon capture, is the separation of CO2 from the other gases produced when fossil fuel is burnt for power generation and in other industrial processes. - At the second stage once separated, the CO2 is compressed and transported to a suitable site for geological storage. - The third stage is storage of CO2 by injection into into deep underground rock formations, often at depths of one kilometre or more. This stage is associated with long-term monitoring for safe storage of liquefied substance. It is considered that the liquefied CO2 must be disposed of at least 800 meters underground to reach the so-called supercritical dense state that provides the potential for efficient utilization of underground storage space in the pores of sedimentary rocks. 2. CCS Regulations

2.1 Main international regulations with relevance for CCS

In the last few years, amendments to allow CO2 injection and transboundary transportation of CO2 have been made to two major marine treaties. Initially, OSPAR and The London


Convention did not allow CO2 storage, but these regulations were amended in 2007 to permit CO2 storage under the seabed.

The London Convention, "Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter 1972", protects the marine environment from human activities. Its objective is to promote the effective control of all sources of marine pollution and to take all practicable steps to prevent pollution of the sea by dumping of wastes and other matter. It was amended in 2007 to allow CO2 storage under the seabed. Eighty-five States have signed the Convention.

The OSPAR Convention is the current legal instrument guiding international cooperation on the protection of the marine environment of the North East Atlantic. The work is managed by the OSPAR Commission, made up of representatives of the Governments of 15 nations and the European Commission. It is a mechanism by which fifteen Governments of Europe cooperate to protect the marine environment of the North East Atlantic. The objective is to conserve marine ecosystems and safeguard human health in the North East Atlantic by preventing and eliminating pollution; by protecting the marine environment from the adverse effects of human activities; and by contributing to sustainable use of the seas.

2.2 Overview of CCS regulations in Europe At Community level, a number of legislative

instruments are already in place to manage some of the environmental risks of CCS and they should be used where possible. The European Commission has published a series of guidance documents on some of the more technically demanding aspects of the regime. These documents cover: the CO2 storage life cycle risk management framework; characterisation of the storage complex, CO2 stream composition, monitoring and corrective measures; criteria for transfer of responsibility to the competent authority; and financial security and financial mechanisms.

The EC CCS Directive 2009/31/EC on the geological storage of carbon dioxide entered into force in june 2009. It forms part of the EU's Climate Change Package, developed in the context of the recognised need for developed nations to achieve greenhouse gas emission reductions of 30% by 2020 and 60-80% by 2050. The Directive applies to geological storage of CO2 within the territory of the Member States, their exclusive economic zones and on their continental shelves, thus envisaging storage both onshore and offshore. Member States retain the right not to allow storage in their territories, in whole or in part, although those that choose to permit storage must carry out an assessment of their

region's potential CO2 storage capacity. Other aim of the Directive is the safe storage of CO2, meaning the permanent containment of CO2 to prevent and eliminate the possible negative effects on environment and human health.

The Directive focuses primarily on the storage aspect of CCS, it does briefly address the capture and transport elements. Importantly, CCS is removed from the scope of EU waste and water laws to provide certainty as to the legality of CCS activities. Through amendments to the EU's Emission Trading Scheme (ETS), however, efforts have been made to incentivise investment in CCS.

The capture process of CCS will primarily be regulated through incorporation within the EU's Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive. The CCS Directive also lays down, through an amendment to the Large Combustion Plant (LCP) Directive, a 'Carbon Capture Readiness' (CCR) requirement.

Transport of CO2 from capture facilities to storage sites is most likely to be through pipeline networks. The Directive addresses the transport aspect of CCS with few provisions, relying principally on national pipeline regulations, and property and planning laws, together with existing European legislation. Transport of CO2 via pipeline will be subject to an EIA, as above with regard to capture facilities. While the Directive does not require a permit for pipeline transport of CO2, any assessment carried out pursuant to the EIA Directive will need to be taken into account in the respective consenting procedures within the Member States.

Member States must ensure that potential users can obtain fair and open access to transport and storage facilities, on the basis of transparent and non-discriminatory criteria. In doing this, they can take into account certain factors, such as the storage and transport capacities that can reasonably be made available, the proportion of the Member State's CO2 reduction obligations that it intends to achieve through CCS, the need to refuse access on grounds of technical incompatibility which cannot reasonably be overcome, and the need to respect the reasonable needs of storage and transport owners and operators, and of all other uses of the network.

The European Commission enjoys enforcement powers through infringement procedures against Member States failing to comply with their obligation to implement EU law. The Commission has discretion as to when, and whether to start the procedure, but the flexibility of negotiation is normally preferred over the burden of a formal infringement


27

procedure. However, when no national legislation is received by the deadline required, the standard procedure is for the Commission to automatically initiate the first stage of infringements proceedings – the sending of a formal letter to the Member State. Often the procedure needs go no further since this alone puts sufficient pressure on the Member State concerned. This has indeed been the case with the CCS directive. As of July 2011, the Commission had already initiated 25 infringement procedures for failure to communicate national transposition measures. Only Spain was considered to have fully transposed and Romania required a more careful assessment (and eventually was added to the list). Some cases have been already closed (Denmark, the Netherlands, Italy, France, Lithuania, Malta and Slovenia), but more cases are still open and under assessment, which is less encouraging. Bulgaria has successfully transposed the requirements of the Directive 2009/31/EC to the end of 2011.

Water Framework Directive (Directive 2000/60/EC) of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy had to be amended to allow for injection of CO2 into saline aquifers for the purposes of geological storage. Any such injection is subject to the provisions of Community legislation on the protection of groundwater and must be in accordance with Directive 2000/60/EC and Directive 2006/118/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration

CO2 is not expressly included in the Annex VIII list of main pollutants. However, that list is only indicative and CO2 could still be classified as a pollutant under the WFD. If so its direct discharge into bodies of groundwater for storage would be prohibited.

With that in mind, the Directive on the geological storage of carbon dioxide (2009/31/EC) (CCS Directive) provides an additional exception to the prohibition which allows Member States to authorise injection of carbon dioxide streams for storage purposes into geological formations which 'for natural reasons are permanently unsuitable for other purposes'. This must be done in accordance with the terms of the CCS Directive. The exception is also qualified by the provision that CO2 injection and storage does 'not compromise the achievement of the environmental objectives established for that body of groundwater.'

Exemptions from the strictest WFD objectives that may be relevant to CCS activities are as follows:

- Lower standards may be set where a body of water is so affected by human activity that the achievement of the objectives would be infeasible or disproportionately expensive. In this case, the environmental and socioeconomic needs served by the activity must not be achievable by other means, reasons must be given for the derogation and the highest possible standard maintained. This may apply to port areas from where CO2 would be shipped or piped and sites previously developed for oil or gas extraction. - Failure to achieve good groundwater status or prevent deterioration of a body of groundwater may be allowed where it results from alterations in the level of bodies of groundwater. Although potentially applicable to CCS activities, which could displace groundwater in geologic acquifers, this provision is more pertinent to measures regulating water supply and management for human use, so may not be relevant to CO2 storage. - The marine scope of the WFD is 12 nautical miles from the coast for surface waters only; hence it would not apply to sub-sea aquifers beyond that distance, such as those proposed for CO2 storage in the North Sea.

Groundwater Directive (Directive 2006/118/EC)- As daughter legislation of WFD 2000/60/EC, the Groundwater Directive strengthens and builds on provisions contained within the WFD relating to groundwater. It complements the earlier directive in aiming to 'to prevent the deterioration of the status of all bodies of groundwater'. In particular, the Directive details the procedure for assessing groundwater chemical status and provides criteria for identifying and preventing significant and sustained upward trends in groundwater pollution. The Directive defines “significant and sustained upward trend“ as any statistically and environmentally significant increase of concentration of a pollutant, group of pollutants, or indicator of pollution in groundwater“.

While CCS activities would not seem to be primarily affected by provisions in the Groundwater Directive, which are more directly concerned with nitrates and pesticides, injection of CO2 streams could potentially be regulated under Article 6(1)(b), where Member States decide that CO2 fell within the definition of 'hazardous substance'. However, Article 6(3)(a) of the Directive ensures that the exemptions given to particular activities in Article 11(3) (j) of the WFD also apply to the daughter provisions. This would include the amendment exempting CCS activities made to the WFD by


the Directive on the geological storage of carbon dioxide (2009/31/EC) - CCS Directive.

In the European Union, both member states and the European Commission are involved in regulating CCS, with countries required to put in place measures that reflect EU-level directives and regulations. In the case of CCS, this primarily means meeting the CCS Directive, but the EU Emission Trading System (EU ETS) Directive also applies. The CCS Directive had to be transposed into Member state law by June 2011. This process allow�d each country to develop a CCS framework that takes into account its particular circumstances, while ensuring that all member states share some core framework elements. When developing a CCS legal and regulatory framework, it may be most easily regulated by modifying frameworks that are already in effect - jurisdictions of oil and gas production, which is similar to some components of CCS. The European Union, which has amended the EU Emission Trading System Directive to fully include CCS from 2012, has also allocated the revenue from the sale of 300 million EU ETS allowances to support CCS and novel renewable technologies - 12 CCS and innovative renewable energy demonstration projects to start operating by the end of 2015, in the power and industrial sectors. In the EU the emissions trading scheme (EU ETS) puts a price on CO2 emissions, but at the moment the price of buying an emission allowance is cheaper than the cost of building a coal or gas power plant with CCS. The EU will reduce the number of emission allowances gradually in the years to come, and that will increase the price of emission allowances. Eventually, the cost of emitting CO2 will be higher than the cost of CCS, and when that happens, industry will start to build CCS projects.

Additional regulations might be required. When the EU endorsed the energy package in 2008, the possibility of including an Emission Performance Standard (EPS) that sets a ceiling on CO2 emissions from power production was discussed. A suggestion was made to include an EPS of 350 grams CO2 per kWh, which would have banned coal power plants without CCS. However, the suggestion to include EPS in the EU energy package failed.

Liability for localised environmental damage under the Environmental liability Directive is complemented by financial liability under the EU ETS for 'climate damage'. Operators will be required to surrender purchased EU emissions allowances in respect of any leaked CO2. It has been noted that the requirement to purchase allowances is not a penalty in itself, and there is the potential for perverse incentives should the price of

carbon allowances fall below a level which would address any financial gain of non-compliance.

Civil liability for harm to individual human health such as personal injury together with private rights relating for example to property damage will also fall to be addressed outside the CCS Directive, though in this case under existing national laws.

The IPPC Directive 2008/1/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 January 2008 concerning integrated pollution prevention and control, which sets out the main principles for the permitting and control of installations based on an integrated approach and the application of best available techniques (BAT) which are the most effective techniques to achieve a high level of environmental protection, taking into account the costs and benefits. In essence, the IPPC Directive is about minimising pollution from various industrial sources throughout the European Union. Operators of industrial installations operating activities covered by Annex I of the IPPC Directive are required to obtain an environmental permit from the authorities in the EU countries. The IPPC Directive is suitable for regulating the risks of CO2 capture to the environment and human health and, as a result, should be applied to the capture of CO2 streams for the purposes of geological storage from installations covered by that Directive. Combustion installations, except small ones, are covered by the IPPC Directive. IPPC imposes a permitting regime on a range of specified industrial activities, controlling the release of contaminants into air, water and land. As such, all operators of capture installations will be required to obtain a IPPC permit, which will demand the use of 'best available techniques' (BAT) for CO2 capture, impose clean-up requirements in cases of unauthorised release and site closure, and involve important rights to public participation. Operators will also be required to carry out an assessment of the likely significant effects on the environment of any capture facilities in accordance with the provisions of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Directive. Importantly, public consultation will be required, and the assessment carried out must be taken into account when permitting the facility under IPPC.

The Environmental Impact Assessment Directive (EIA Directive 85/337 EEC as amended by 97/11/EC and 2003/35/EC) introduced a Europe-wide procedure to ensure that environmental consequences of projects are


29

identified and assessed before authorisation is given. The public can give its opinion and all results are taken into account in the authorisation procedure of the project. The public is informed of the decision afterwards. It has become an integral and vital part of the planning of development projects, and requires the submission of an EIA with the application for development consent. This Directive applies to the assessment of the environmental effects of public and private projects which are likely to have significant effects on the environment. It affects the execution of "construction works, other installations or schemes and for the interventions in the natural surroundings and landscape including the extraction of mineral resources". Council Directive 85/337/EEC of 27 June 1985 on the assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the environment should be applied to the capture and transport of CO2 streams for the purposes of geological storage. It should also apply to storage sites pur-suant to this Directive.This Directive should apply to the geological storage of CO2 within the territory of the Member States, in their exclusive economic zones and on their continental shelves. The Directive should not apply to projects with a total intended storage below 100 kilotonnes, undertaken for research, development or testing of new products and pro-cesses. This threshold would also seem appropriate for the purposes of other relevant Community legislation. The storage of CO2 in storage complexes extending beyond the territorial scope of this Directive and the storage of CO2 in the water column should not be permitted.

Member States should retain the right to determine the areas within their territory from which storage sites may be selected. This includes the right of Member States not to allow any storage in parts or on the whole of their territory, or to give priority to any other use of the underground, such as exploration, production and storage of hydrocarbons or geothermal use of aquifers.

Environmental liability Directive. The first EC legislation whose main objectives include the application of the "polluter pays" principle, this Directive establishes a common framework for liability with a view to preventing and remedying damage to animals, plants, natural habitats and water resources, and damage affecting the land. The liability scheme applies to certain specified occupational activities and to other activities in cases where the operator is at fault or negligent. The public authorities are also responsible for ensuring that the operators responsible take or finance the necessary preventive or remedial measures themselves. Liabilities other than those covered by this Directive, Directive 2003/87/EC and Directive

2004/35/EC, in particular concerning the injection phase, the closure of the storage site and the period after transfer of legal obligations to the competent authority, should be dealt with at national level.

New combustion plants with an output of 300 MW or more should be capable of being fitted later (retrofitted) with capture technology,. i.e. Carbon Capture Ready (CCR) by setting aside suitable space on the site for the necessary capture and compression equipment. The CCR requirement will only be imposed, however, if three conditions apply: suitable storage sites are available and both transport facilities and the retrofit of capture technology are technically and economically feasible. Notably, there are no potential timescales for the retrofit for CCS, and there is no mechanism for requiring an actual retrofit in the future.The legal ground for the legislative concept of the CCR (Carbon Capture Readiness) is Article 9a of the LCP (Large Combustion Plants) Directive. It was added by the Article 33 of the CCS Directive (the Directive 2009/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the geological storage of carbon dioxide and amending Council Directive 85/337/EEC, European Parliament and Council Directives 2000/60/EC, 2001/80/EC, 2004/35/EC, 2006/12/EC, 2008/1/EC and Regulation (EC) No 1013/2006 (OJ L 140, 5.6.2009, p. 114)) and is repeated by the Article 36 of the newly passed Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on industrial emissions (the IED Directive, see: European Parliament legislative resolution of 7 July 2010).

Member States shall ensure that operators of all combustion plants with a rated electrical output of 300 megawatts or more for which the original construction licence or, in the absence of such a procedure, the original operating licence is granted after the entry into force of Directive 2009/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the geological storage of carbon dioxide, have assessed whether the following conditions are met: suitable storage sites are available, transport facilities are technically and economically feasible and it is technically and economically feasible to retrofit for CO2 capture. If certain conditions are met, the competent authority shall ensure that suitable space on the installation site for the equipment necessary to capture and compress CO2 is set aside. The Directive addresses CCS and requires applicants for new combustion power stations to carry out an assessment of whether suitable storage is


available as well as technical and economical assessments of transport and retrofitting CCS technology.

Council Directive 99/31/EC of 1999 on the landfill of waste entered into force on 16.07.1999. The objective of the Directive is to prevent or reduce as far as possible negative effects on the environment from the landfilling of waste, by introducing stringent technical requirements for waste and landfills. The Directive is intended to prevent or reduce the adverse effects of the landfill of waste on the environment, in particular on surface water, groundwater, soil, air and human health. It defines the different categories of waste (municipal waste, hazardous waste, non-hazardous waste and inert waste) and applies to all landfills, defined as waste disposal sites for the deposit of waste onto or into land. The Landfill Directive's definition of waste reflects that of the Waste Framework Directive (Directive 2006/12/EC) and thus depends upon whether captured CO2 is to be considered waste for the purposes of that Directive.

The Landfill Directive contains other definitions, which may prove to be relevant to the storage of captured CO2. The term “underground storage” is defined in the Directive as “a permanent waste storage facility in a deep geological cavity such as a salt or potassium mine”, “Liquid waste” is defined as “any waste in liquid form including waste waters but excluding sludge”, the definition of “inert waste” may also be of significance for CO2 that is to be stored; “waste that does not go undergo any significant physical, chemical or biological transformations”. Inert waste will not dissolve, burn or otherwise chemically react, biodegrade or adversely affect other matter with which it comes into contact in a way likely to give rise to environmental pollution, or harm human health. The total leachability and pollutant content of the waste and the ecotoxicity of the leachate must be insignificant, and in particular not endanger the quality of surface water and/or groundwater'.

Member States may declare, without prejudice to the Waste Framework Directive, that underground storage may be exempted from certain requirements of the Directive. These provisions include, amongst others, closure and aftercare procedures, certain water control, leachate management and meteorological monitoring requirements.

The key issue to consider, with regard to CCS, is whether this activity constitutes landfill for the purposes of the Directive. A paper prepared for the European Commission by a consortium of environmental experts in February 2007, highlighted the necessity of clarifying this issue. The report highlighted the list of waste disposal

activities provided in Annex IIA of the Waste Framework Directive, which would seemingly apply to CCS activities: D1 Deposit into or on to land (e.g. landfill, etc); D3 Deep injection (e.g. injection of pumpable discards into wells, salt domes or naturally occurring repositories); D7 Release into seas/oceans including seabed insertion.

CO2 is not classified as a dangerous substance under the Seveso II Directive 96/82/EC on the major-accident hazards, and CCS sites are not covered by the directive’s requirements. The inclusions of CO2 would impede the development of CCS as a greenhouse gas mitigation measure. This decision assumes that the CCS Directive imposes very strict safety requirements for the operators of CCS sites. The Seveso III Proposal still excludes carbon dioxide from its scope. There could be a major accident hazard potential if CO2 is used in large quantities, in particular from the transport and storage of large quantities of CO2 or use in industrial-scale fire extinguishing plants. CO2 is a colourless and odourless gas which is heavier than the breathing air. It can cause asphyxiation and could therefore cause serious damage to human health and the environment. Nevertheless the Commission has not included storage (under- or aboveground) of large amounts of CO2 within the scope, arguing that CO2 is not classified as a dangerous substance as such, and more importantly “that CCS schemes are only at an early stage, it is premature to judge on whether a major accident hazard would emerge should the technology be widely used in the future”, and that “further development of the technology will help to better understand potential risks”. The CCS Directive does not deal with safety related aspects, several important and necessary elements such as the taking into consideration of CCS-installations during the land use planning, development of a major accident prevention policy, the drafting of safety reports and emergency plans are missing. The major reason to include or to exclude a certain installation within the scope should be the major accident potential constituted by the substances stored or treated in that establishment. Carbon Dioxide becomes in effect a dangerous substance if liberated in large amounts.


31

3. Conclusions Unless CO2 emissions reduce by 50% by 2030,

average global temperature is likely to rise by 2.4ºC to 6.4ºC by 2100. If we fail to keep below 2ºC, devastating – and irreversible – climate changes will occur. Yet with world energy demand expected to double by 2030, and renewable energy to make up only ~30% of the energy mix by this date, fossil fuels will be an important energy resource for many years to come. Any delay in the roll-out of CCS could not only lead to unnecessary CO2 emissions, but additional costs, as instead of being able to apply it to the current pipeline of coal plants, a retrofit would be required, increasing the cost of achieving the same emissions reduction. With decisions on new plant build being made now in Europe, it is therefore vital not staying locked into an infrastructure that is not optimised for CCS. Indeed, every year that CCS is delayed is a missed opportunity to reduce CO2 emissions. CO2 concentrations are already rising at over 2 ppm a year and it is estimated that delaying the implementation of CCS by just 6 years would mean CO2 concentrations increasing by around 10 ppm by 2020. As a global solution to combating climate change, CCS could therefore also boost European industry, creating new jobs and promoting technology leadership.

References

1. Directive on mining waste management (2006/21/EC);

2. Directive 2008/50/EC relating to air quality; 3. Directive on CCS 2009/31/EC concerning the

storage of carbon dioxide in geological formations; 4. Directive on the quality of petrol and diesel fuels

98/70/EC of 13.10.1998; 5. Directive 2009/30/EC; 6. Directive 97/11/EC amending Directive 85/337/EEC

on the assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the environment;

7. Directive 2003/105/EC on the control of major-accident hazards involving dangerous substances;

8. Directive 99/31/EC on the landfill of waste; 9. Directive 93/12/EEC relating to the sulphur

content of certain liquid fuels; 10. EU ETS Directive 2003/87/EC establishing a

scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading within the Community for the European Union emissions trading system;

11. EU ETS Directive 2009/29/EC amending Directive 2003/87/EC to improve and extend the greenhouse gas emission allowance trading scheme of the Community;

12. Environmental Impact Assessment Directive (EIA Directive 85/337 EEC);

13. Environmental liability Directive (ELD 2004/35/EC) on environmental liability with regard to the prevention and remedying of environmental damage;

14. Groundwater Directive (2006/118/EC) on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration;

15. Large Combustion Plants Directive (LCPD 2001/80/EC);

16. Regulation �. 2216/2004 of the EC, a national register for maintaining registration of the issuance, ownership, transfer and cancellation of greenhouse gas emission permits;

17. Seveso II Directive 96/82/EC on the control of major-accident hazards;

18. The London Convention, "Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter 1972";

19. The OSPAR Convention, Brussels, 8.3.2011; 20. The IPPC Directive 2008/1/EC concerning

integrated pollution prevention and control; 21. Waste Framework Directive (Directive

2006/12/EC); 22. Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC),

establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy.


ANALYSIS OF THE GEOTECHNIC PHENOMENON FROM OCNA MURE�

Gheorghe LASC*, Victor ARAD**, Susana IANCU (APOSTU)*, Oana B R IAC*

1. Introduction

1.1. Activity area Both salt deposit and town of Ocna Mures are situated on the terrace of Mures river and it covers the area between the left bank of river Mures in the north and Teleky, Hagau, Banta and Viilor hills at east, south-east and south. Ocna Mures activity area has 42 ha as it follows: - total ground area is 26 ha; - total lake area is 16 ha.

Inside the activity area of Ocna Mures there are 23 wells, 17 of them are surface wells and 6 are underground wells, of which: - an active well S118/125; - 2 wells with technical problems: S123 and S124; - closed wells (six underground and six sruface wells).

1.2. Geology and geomorphology

Ocna Mures area is situated along the diapirs of the west coast of Transilvania delve, the salt layers have been located in the tortoniene deposits. Due to salt depoits tendancy to rise to the surface, cracks are made threw the impervious marn layer above and by doing so the salt comes in contact with the aquifer system of river Mures. The aquifer system is mainly situated in uncohesive alluvial layer. This alluvial layer is separated by impervious silty-clay layers.

Morphlogically, the salt deposit from Ocna Mures is situated in a lowland area belonging to the alluvial plain of river Mures. Due to an increase in size of the underground caverns fromations and also due to kinetic leaching, important settlements and cavings were taking place and by doing so it emphasized the lowland profile.

1.3. HydrologyAs a hydrological unit, the area of the salt

diapir inlcudes the lowland of river Mures, characterized by a intense growth in sand deposits, deposits which rest directly on salt deposit. Outside the salt deposit boundaries, these layers of sediments are covered by impervious layers of sandy-clay. Within the limits of the salt deposit, the continuity of the sediment layer was stopped due to the development of salt lakes above the deposit. ____________________________________ * Ph.D. stud..- University of Petro�ani ** Prof.eng. Ph.D – University of Petro�ani

River Mures feeds and washes at the same time the aquifer and the salt lakes mentioned above. Because the the river bed is eroded into a layer of sediments, the ground water table is fed at higher levels of river Mures and the water discharge is assured during Mures low tide. The rainfall is an auxiliary source, as long as the upper impervious protection layer is missing, due to the factthe rainfall in that particular area exceeds the quantaty of evaporated water.

1.4. Stratigraphy After a review on the litologhy boreholes from

wells 123, 124 and 118E, the rock sterile mass has a thickness of aprox. 4m for well 123, 16m for well 124 and 356m for well 118E.

The terrace deposits for Well 123 and Well 124, are normal consolidated layers of sand and gravel of aprox. 4 to 16m. For well 123 the salt deposit can be founda betwwen 4 to 95m, followed by a layer of stiff sandy clay(marl) until 437m and between 437m to 1250m there is new salt deposit.

The review on the terrace deposits show low mechanical resitance beeing represented mostly by topsoil and normal consolidated sand and gravel.

2. Hystorical background

On the 22nd of December 2010, near well S123 from Ocna Mures area, judetul Alba, a dangerous event occured with the following consequences: - formation of a surface caving which damaged

PLUS market; - a salt lake formed; - the diameter of the cavity cone grew from 10m to

70-90m in12h; - the water level rose 2-2.5m from ground level,

until it spilled to lake Stefania.

3. The caving evolution After the first measurements, the newly formed

lake had a maximum of 16m in depth and an average depth of 12m, and after 2 days the new measurements had shown a maximum depth of 24,5m and an average depth of 14-16m.

On the 05.01.2011 measurement, an inflow was noticed coming from Well fild roundabout and also the fact that the water level from the newly fomed lake was constant in regard with the old lake from the Well field. On the 10.01.2011 measurement, the diffrence between the water level from the newly formed lake and the old lake was +1,4m.


33

The the outcome for the increase of water level was: � rise of the ground water table in the area near the salt deposit; � flooding of the cellars found in the vicinity of the deposit; � damage done to the nearby community due to water infiltration inside basements and salt water migration towards the surface; � extreme corrosion of the steel elements and the existing structures near the deposit; � vegetation dry-out due to high concentration of water contamination with chlorides; � increase number of complaints from nearby citizens.

The quantity of brine extracted from the Probe Fields Ocna Mures from S 118/125, S 111 and S

118E in the interval of January-March 2011, was of 7500 qubic meters with the concentration of 320g/l. These quantitities are found in the excess volume of existent brine of the previuosly mentioned field.

By pomping, the waters from the Ocna Mures Probe Field are evacuated in the canals and existent drains in the mining perimeter from the Ocna Mures town area, are diluted and end up in the Mures river. From measurements made, it results that in the January-March period of 2011, from probes S208, S209, S118E and S125 were pomped 13500 m3 of brine, with an average of 4500 m3/month.

In tabel 1 are represented the results of the monitorings from the Ocna Mures perimeter, measurements done by MINESA CLUJ.

Date Contour

surface landslide

(m2)

Surface new lake (m2)

Elevation (m)

Elevation lake �tefania

(m)

Difference lake elevation and Stefania lake

(m)

Difference lake elevation and

imposed elevation +254,0m

23.12.2010 5.400 4.800 255,693 254,623 1,070 0,623 24.12.2010 5.813 5.200 255,123 254,623 0,500 0,623 28.12.2010 6.364 5.800 255,793 254,622 1,171 0,622 05.01.2011 6.881 6.300 256,069 254,623 1,446 0,623 10.01.2011 7.150 6.600 256,104 254,706 1,398 0,706 18.01.2011 7.200 6.800 256,106 254,706 1,400 0,706 07.02.2011 7.246 6.900 256,570 254,899 1,671 0,899 21.02.2011 7315 7.000 256,800 254,940 1,860 0,940 07.03.2011 7.436 7.100 256,959 254,786 2,173 0,786 08.03.2011 7.436 7.100 256,970 254,768 2,202 0,786 22.03.2011 7.452 7.150 257,054 254,685 2,369 0,685 18.04.2011 7.507 7.100 257,016 254,544 2,472 0,544 19.04.2011 7.507 7.100 257,004 254,500 2,504 0,500 04.05.2011 7.541 256,893 254,433 2,460 0,433 06.06.2011 7.571 256,564 254,497 2,067 0,497 15.07.2011 7.600 256,594 254,660 1,934 0,660 10.08.2011 7.625 256,372 254,648 1,724 0,648 07.09.2011 7.667 256,167 254,679 1,488 0,679 19.09.2011 7.802 256,102 254,654 1,448 0,654 28.09.2011 7.849 256,133 254,644 1,489 0,644 24.10.2011 7.862 256,063 254,655 1,408 0,655 12.01.2012 7.895 255,765 254,488 1,277 0,488 13.03.2012 7.910 255,809 254,631 1,178 0,631 05.04.2012 255,510 254,358 1,152 0,358 30.05.2012 7980 255,323 254,086 1,237 0,086 16.08.2012 8.095 255,4195 254,0875 1,332 0,088

Table 1 Results of monitoring from Ocna Mures perimeter

4. Actions taken by established authorities - during the work session from 23.12.2010 a discussion note was assembled with the involved factors and was established to continue the monitoring the landslide cone and the adjacent area, until the causes are established. - in order to mantain a level of the lakes below the flooding levels of the structures, and to ensure the

protection of the salt structure, since the year 1960, measures were taken to maintain a constant water level in the lakes from the Ocna Mures field; - the Ministry of the Oil and Chemical Industry has established the maintaining of the level in the lakes from the Ocna Mures field at the +254.00 m level, and by the Study S50-849/1996 elaborated by SC MINESA ICPM SA Cluj Napoca, the maintaining


of a hidrostatic level under the flooding levels of the basements of the adjacent structures and ensuring the protection of the salt structure at the maximum level maxim� 253,5÷ 253,8 m; - the Ministry of Economy, Commerce and Bussiness Environment has decided the aquisitioning of the designing services for the Feasability Study and Technical Projects per Items of the elimination works of the effects of the uncontrolled collapse of the terain surface, the closing and the ecological works to be performed for the durable development of the mining site Salina Ocna Mure�, Alba county, approved for closure by H.G. nr. 644/2007; - the Petrosani University has prepared a study regarding the geomining phenomenons that have influenced the occuring of the 22.12.2010 event at Ocna Mures.

5. Outcomes

If this lake will not be embanked, it will develop to grow duet o the natural phenomenon of dissolution, endangering the enhabited area, also the marginal safety pillars and the flooring from the old Stefania mine. Not embanking the lake would lead to the development of instability phenomenons and their expansion in the entire Ocna Mures mining perimeter.

In order to avoid the natural dissolution phenomenon, it is advisable to execute 8-10 meters deep drains, from the surface, to where the salts diapir is found, which would collect the underground waters from the Mures river and from precipitation. These drains would lead to the ceasing of the dissolution towards the enhabited area of the Ocna Mures town, also to the marginal pillars of the Stefania mine. The ceasing of the dissolution will result in stoping the sinking both in the mining perimeter and in the enhabited area of Ocna Mures Town.

The registered sinking by the topographical markers placed in the mining perimeter Ocna Mures were influenced by the existence of a continuous underground water layer, constituted of very permeable alluvial formations, which lead to the natural slow dissolution phenomenon.

The sinking of the terrain, and the appearance of holes, were determined by the flow of the underground waters, directly connected to the hidrostatic leve of the Mures river, also of the pluvial waters from the Banta hill. The stability of the surface was not affected by the mining activities below.

The dynamics of the sinking phenomenon is in direct corellation with the volume of precipitation which creates a fluctuation of the levels of the lakes.

The dangerous incident from 22.12.2010 happened as a direct result of the placing of the Plus store with at least 10 m inside the improper building perimeter.

The crumbling of the Plus store is due to the natural phenomenon of slow dissolution caused by the flux of fresh water from the Mures river and rain flow.

The dissolution of the back of the salt deposits made the sterile rocks, with a thickness of maximum 10.00m to behave as a beam in console. The rocks from this beam having small mechanical resistances, probably have crumbled simultaneously with its development, due to self weight. By erecting the Plus store, on top of this beam, an excess load was applied that facilitated the occuring of the dangerous incident. 6. Recommandations

In order to avoid the flooding with brine

resulted from the embanking of the new lake, it is recommended a draining canal system that incorporates the whole Ocna Mures perimeter, and drains the brine from the new formed lake, also from the old lakes to the Mures river.

An intercepting drain that captures, along the Cosbuc street the underground waters from the salt massive. By a canal, that links directly to the lakes, this will contribute to the mainting of the high level, by capturing the superficial layer that exceeds this limit.

A drain east of the salt massive, along the collecting canal of the pluvial Ciortea waters, in order to partially collect the waters from the Mures river and to reduce the hidrostatic level in the influence area of the drain.This drain will junction with the intercepting drain, ensuring the first dilution of the of the collected lake waters.

A longitudinal, unloading drain will collect the volumes from the intercepting drain, also the volumes collected by the draining phenomenon, ensuring the continued dilution of the lake waters. Before unloading into the Mures river, a periodical check of the chlorine levels will be made.

Two radial drains, one at the base of the UPSOM collectiom hole, another one on Stefan cel Mare street, will be executed at an optimal depth for intercepting the undergroung water, and unloading into the the longitudinal drain. A new dilution of the collected waters in ensured, and a reduction of the hidrostatic level.

To avoid the development of the crumbling cone, and respectively of the lake in which the Plus store slided, it is recommended to embank it. The volume of the new lake is aproximately 100 000 m3. It will be done with material brought from the


35

UPSON upfill combined with calcar with the diameter 0-40mm brought from the Poiana Aiudului quarry.

To avoid the flooding with brine resulted from the embankment of the new lake it is recommended to prepare a sistem of draining canals which incorporates the whole perimeter Ocna Mures and that drains the brine from the new lake, also from the old ones towards the Mures river.

The execution of the drainage for the neighbouring streets with the salt deposit, in order for the domestic waters not to infiltrate the underground water layer and the lakes.

Monitoring of the structures and the probes from the influence area will be carried out.

The restauration of the inoperative or destroyed markers will be done, and the plating of new ones to re-homogenize the longitudinal and transversal paths.

It will be forbidden to erect new structures in the influence area, with the exception of those who serve the exploatation, or protect the salt deposit.

References 1. Arad, S.; Arad, V. Geotehnica mediului, Ed. Polidava, Deva, 2000.

2. Arad, V. Mecanica rocilor saline, Ed. Focus, Petrosani, 2008.

3. Arad, V., Arad, S., Veres, I. Studiu privind fenomenele geominiere care au influentat producerea evenimentului din 22.12.2010 de la Ocna Mures.

4. Arad, V., Arad, S., Vere�, I., Iancu (Apostu) S., B�r�iac O. Urm�rirea fenomenelor de instabilitate aferente exploat�rii z�c�mântului Gura – Sl�nic Tg.Ocna, sare în solu�ie �i influen�a acestora asupra suprafe�ei �i a construc�iilor din zona de influen��.

5. Arad, V. Geotehnic� minier�, Editura Tehnic�, Bucure�ti, 1995.

6. Arad, V., Arad, S., Chelaru, P., Ilie, I., Ciocan, D., Cotes, D. State of stress simulation during mining of salt in solution, Rock Mechanics: Meeting Society’s Challenges and Demands - Eberhardt, Steed & Morrison (eds) Published by Taylor&Francis Group, London/Balkema-Proc. and Monographs in Engineering, Water and Earth Sciences, ISBN 978-0-415-44401- 9, Vol 2, 1449-149, 2007

7. *** Fenomene de instabilitate manifestate în minele de sare din România, ca urmare a stressului z�c�mântului, consecin�e asupra exploat�rii �i asupra mediului SALSTRESS, Grant MENER 481/2004 – 2006

8. *** Documenta�ii tehnico-miniere de la SNS Bucuresti, Sucursala salina Ocna Dej.


POSSIBILITIES TO REDUCE INTERRUPTION IN THE EXCAVATOR ESRC-1400 FUNCTIONING BY IMPROVING CENTRALIZED

LUBRICATION SYSTEM OF BEARING PRESSURE

Walter LOGA*, Sorin V�TAVU**, Vlad Alexandru FLOREA*** Abstract

The flawless and sustainable operation of an bucket-wheel excavator depends on the constructive solution of the lubrication system. The paper analysis the failures of the some component elements of pressure bearing lubrification installation of the ESRC-1400 type excavator slewing mechanism. In order to reduction the number of failures and the production loss, are proposed technical solution for the improvements of structure and lubrification installation circuit of this bearing. Keywords: bucket-wheel excavator, lubrification system. 1. Introduction

Bucket wheel excavators are being used in Romania since 1969, in Rovinari, Gârla quarry. The excavator was initially imported from Germany (Krupp), it was assimilated during construction, in several steps and suffered several changes in order to be adapted to specific operational conditions of Romania’s open-pit mining. For the same reason we can be analysed two different types of excavators: both old as well as modernized ones.

The swivelling superstructure of the ESRC-1400 type excavator its crown gear is solidarized to the chassis is laid on an 8650 mm ball bearing diameter. The swivelling of the superstructure is made by the swivelling mechanism through of two reducers foreseen with a break and safety couplings. The safety coupling breaks the operation in case of an overload, which may be provoked by lateral contact of the bucket-wheel with the slope wall, ensuring therefore the swivelling of the superior structure of the excavator to 360°.

The lubrication of the bearing of the crown gear is made by several oil electrical pumps supplies the lubricating points placed on the circumference of the bearing race. The oil pass through a closed circuit returning therefore in the pump’s reservoir, passing first through a filter. The pump drive works through interblocking with a rotary mechanism, the ____________________________________ * Eng. Ph.D stud – University of Petro�ani ** Assoc.prof.eng. Ph.D – University of Petro�ani *** Lect.eng. Ph.D – University of Petro�ani

operation of which starts after the operation of the lubricating electric pump begins. 2. General aspects of lubricating system

However correct should be processed contact surfaces of the two parts moving relative to each other at their level of friction forces occur. According to existence or not a substance of lubrication between moving surface, this friction can be: dry, semifluid and fluid.

To the stationing of machine, because static load is removed lubricant between the two surfaces, making contact directly on top of that surface roughness, leaving only a small amount of lubricant in the gaps between the roughness; the lubrication will be incomplete start up, semifluid or even dry if the machine was stationed a long time.

Semifluid friction can occur as a result of a deficient or insufficient lubrication and to start and stop the machine when speed too low because you cannot enter the required oil layer between the two surfaces moving relative.

In the normal conditions working regime of the machine and equipment take place the fluid friction. This can maintain when between the surfaces is achieved displacements at high speed, presses the surfaces being subjected to medium and are supplied continuously with lubricants.

Lubricants are fluids, viscous or solid materials, which can spread between the contact surfaces of two solid so to replace dry friction between the two bodies through a fluid friction, diminishes friction and to prevent excessive heating.

The lubricant materials must perform several conditions, the main are: � able to form layer of lubrication to reduce

friction; � to be adherent to the contact surfaces, not leak

when the temperature increases and not harden it to a decrease;

� to provide transportation friction heat or produced from chemical reactions to the outside, so the bodies in contact and by itself flow of lubricant;

� transport ensure active chemical compounds mainly oxygen producing oxide layer;

� to provide protection against impurities penetration from outside.


37

General progress of technology and operational conditions more sever imposed friction assemblies determined searching and finding new solutions in the field of lubrication systems and methods. Thus, in the field of fluid lubricants are great actuality semiautomatic and automatic centralized systems. This realizations allow solving some of the difficult problems evidenced by the current practice of lubrication [1].

By using such systems requires knowledge of calculation and obligatory principles of construction and operation for equipment which must to be lubricated.

3. Pressure bearing lubrication

The pressure bearing lubrication diagram of excavators imported from Germany foresaw a DII type lubricating pump, while the following local excavators have been foreseen with 2 types of pumps: � lubricating electric pump code 6.651.000.600,

realized by “Red Star” Bucure�ti; � pump type G3-8”.

Both hydraulic diagrams have the same pipe trajectory, corresponding several pipes start from one pump to the lubricating points of the pressure bearing (figure 1).

Fig. 1 Initial version of lubrication system to the

pressure bearing

By reason of frequently defects due to pipe clogs and special pump complexity (table 1) is prefigured necessity to improvement of the lubrication system.

Fig. 2 Modified pipe circuit to the pressure bearing

The new lubrication installation is supposed change of the pipes circuit structure: therefore an enlarged diameter pipe leaves from the pump, the ramifications of which reach the lubricating points of the pressure bearing.

Initial, in this version it was kept lubricating electric pump from excavator supply; after that at excavators subject to modernization process has been make following modifications (figure 2): � modification of form of the pipe circuit; � utilization of the AFuz0,1/20R pump produced

in Germany. Figure 3 presents a detailed image of one of the

20 points of lubrication bearing for swivelling superstructure.

Fig. 3 Detail of the lubrication point to the

pressure bearing 4. Defects of the centralized lubrication system of the pressure bearing

Pressure bearing centralized lubrication system defects monitoring during a year allowed the identification of frequent ones, such as: � defects due to the lubrificant quality (clogging

of philtres, oil duct, etc.); the lubrificant used is TIN 82 EP 90 24, but some defects were the causes improper oil viscosity considering environment temperature change;

� wear of the oil pump nuts due to inadequate materials and occur of bearing clearance;

� coupling defects of oil pump; � defects of pipe circuit (obstructing and

deforming of the pipes) as well as control impossibility of oil quantity and distribution from installation, respective the risk of uniform lubricate of the all bearing points;

� existence of many elements connected (elbows, couplings) and thus the risk of improper sealing-off;

� deteriorate of elastic elements of the rubber freewheeling clutch of pump AFuz0,1/20R;

� wear of toothing worm clutch at electric pump type 6.651.000.600.


Table 1 Analysis of defects found during operation the installation of bearing pressure at different excavators type ESRC-1400

Type pump Excavator Cause defect

Pipe

trajectory Coupling Own defects

Sealing system Lubricant

Data of defect

During repair

(h)

During of mounting(h)

4 15.08.10 2.65 0.8 3 21.09.10 1.8 0.66 4 04.02.11 2.45 1.2 4 04.04.11 0.7 0.5 3 06.11.11 1.5 1.0 1 02.02.12 3.0 0.75

03 Jil� Sud

1 25.02.12 1.2 0.35 Total 13.3 5.26

4 12.11.10 3.5 2.0 4 03.08.10 1.5 0.6 3 01.12.10 3.5 0.5 3 03.05.11 1.2 0.5 3 05.05.11 2.5 0.5 2 12.12.11 1.36 0.5

04 Jil� Sud

2 26.02.12 3.36 1.15 Total 16.92 5.75

3 10.10.11 6.5 2.0 2 20.12.10 0.9 0.5 2 03.02.11 2.5 1.0 2 11.05.11 0.8 0.5 1 07.08.11 3.5 1.5 1 10.12.11 2.5 1.25

12 Jil� Sud

2 12.02.12 1.86 0.36

Pump G3/8’

Total 18.56 7.11 1 16.09.10 2.5 1.45 2 10.10.10 1.25 0.8 4 12.11.10 3.25 1.2 2 14.12.10 1.5 0.25 2 12.06.11 2.5 1.56 2 18.11.11 2.8 1.15

01 Rosiu�a

2 02.02.12 1.65 0.15 Total 15.45 6.56

1 18.10.10 5.6 2.6 1 04.11.10 0.8 0.6 2 10.12.10 3.1 1.3 1 03.02.11 1.0 0.3 2 05.06.11 1.8 1.2 2 11.11.11 2.65 1.5

02 Rosiu�a

2 21.02.12 1.35 0.65 Total 16.3 8.15

2 15.09.10 3.6 2.0 2 21.10.10 1.25 0.8 2 19.03.11 1.62 1.2 2 05.05.11 2.3 1.5 1 12.07.11 1.05 1.5

1 23.11.11 1.85 0.89

04 Rosiu�a

1 26.02.12 2.12 1.78

Pump AFuz

Total 13.79 9.67


39

The defects frequency due to lubricants, some mechanical components and pipe trajectories is shown in diagrams in figures 4, 5 and 6. Parts significance from the diagrams is following: 1 – lubricating electric pump code 6.651.000.600; 2 - G3-8”-16l/min type pump, fitted with an AT71-148-4(2) electric motor; 3 – AFuz0,1/20R type pump.

Fig. 4 Defects of the pump due to the lubricant

a.

b.

Fig. 5 Mechanical defects of the pumps a. Coupling defects

b. Nuts and seals defects

Fig. 6 Defects due to pipes trajectory

As shown in diagrams, solution using pump AFuz0,1/20R and the new distribution piping structure for the bearing pressure lubrication points that ensure the excavator superstructure rotation to ensure vital equipment operation lead to improvement in performance by reducing evident of defects. 5. Conclusions

The change of the trajectories of the pipes and used of AFuz0,1/20R type pump was implied by various defects due to pumping systems and pipe obstructions. This was due to the small pipes dimensions (diameter) as well as its numerous start points (obstructing possibilities).

In rebuilded version it was eliminate this possibility by using a main pipe with an increasing diameter, which determined reduction of total number of defects. In the same time, introducing the AFuz0,1/20R type pump with elastic elements of which are more reliable, it reduced considerable the frequency of operation interruption and less of the maintenance cost.

For the calculation of lubrication systems with fluid lubricants, according to the needs of the capacity and feed pressure of the fluid lubricant use places for correctly selection and regulation of the feed devices must be determined but pressure losses in the piping system. References 1. V�tavu S., Nan M.-S. The structural and operating particularity of centralized lubrication systems of the bucket-wheel excavators, Mining Review, nr. 1/2008; 2. *** ERC 1400x30/7 Type Bucket Wheel Excavator –

Installation Operation and Maintenance Instructions, 1998;

3. *** Bucket Wheel Excavator – Spare parts catalogue

- I.P.C.U.P Ploiesti, 1993; 4. “Pneumatic, Hydraulic and Lubrication” catalogue,

UPETROM ,,1Mai’’ S.A. Ploiesti, 1989.


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