Playing with Grammar: Developing Writing Debra Myhill 1© University of Exeter

© University of Exeter 1

Playing with Grammar:

Developing WritingDebra Myhill


Introducing the Research

© University of Exeter

Different Views of Grammar Learning grammar rules; Correcting grammar errors; De-contextualised exercises; A focus on error and accuracy.

OR

Developing knowledge about language; Using metalanguage to talk about language; Making connections between grammar and writing; A focus on meaning and effects

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Grammar meant: Grammar did not mean:

Developing knowledge about

language;

Using metalanguage to talk about

language;

Making connections between

grammar and writing.

Learning grammar rules;

Correcting grammar errors;

De-contextualised exercises.

The Exeter Project



The research design

ObservationsWriting

outcomes

Student interviews

16 Intervention classes were taught 3

schemes of work supporting contextualised

grammar knowledge

Pre and post tests compared to

16 comparison classes

Teacher interviews

A randomised control trial

Embedded in a qualitative study


The Intervention Designed 3 schemes work (1 per term) focusing on a different written

genre: Narrative Fiction; Argument; Poetry

Each unit had the same core set of learning objectives

Grammar features which were relevant to the writing being taught were

embedded into the teaching units

Intervention group had detailed teaching materials for each lesson

Comparison group addressed same learning objectives, same

resources and produced same written outcomes, but had no lesson

plans

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Did it work?

Statistically significant positive effect for intervention group

Intervention group improved their writing scores by 20% over the

year compared with 11% in the comparison group.

The grammar teaching had greatest impact on able writers

Able writers in the comparison group barely improved over the year

[A later study shows the approach is effective for weaker writers]

Teachers’ subject knowledge of grammar was an influencing factor


Contextualised grammar teaching

A rhetorical view of grammar – exploring how language works

Investigating how language choices construct meanings in different

contexts

The teaching focus is on writing, not on grammar per se

The teaching focus is on effects and constructing meanings, not on

the feature or terminology itself

The teaching goal is to open up a repertoire of infinite

possibilities, not to teach about ‘correct’ ways of writing


Understanding the Pedagogy


Key Teaching PrinciplesThe Big Three!

1. Links are always made between the grammar being introduced and how it might enhance the writing being tackled:

2. Grammatical metalanguage is used, but it is explained through examples;

3. Discussion is fundamental in encouraging critical conversations about language and effects:


Key Teaching Principles

And four more!

The use of ‘creative imitation’ offers model patterns for students to

play with and then use in their own writing;

The use of authentic examples from authentic texts links writers to

the broader community of writers;

Activities support students in making choices and being designers

of writing;

Language play, experimentation, risk-taking and games are actively

encouraged.


Making ConnectionsLinks are always made between the feature introduced and how it

might enhance the writing being tackled

The goal in embedding attention to grammar within a writing

curriculum is to support writing development, not to learn grammar;

Understanding ‘effects’ is part of beginning to understand the

writer’s craft and the possibilities open to a writer;

Considering how grammatical structures create meaning in specific

contexts reinforces the importance of context

Making meaningful connections between writing and grammar

avoids redundant learning, such as complex sentences are good

sentences

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A Classroom ExampleContext: Writing fairy tales

Learning Focus: the simplicity of noun phrases in fairy tales

Connections between grammar and writing:

Fairy tales draw on oral narratives and written versions retain many of

the patterns of oral language. These helped listeners to follow and

remember the story. Nouns and adjectives are often used very simply.

Repetition of adjectives

Eg a dark, dark wood.

Short noun phrases with just one adjective

Eg wicked stepmother; enchanted forest; handsome prince; golden

apple

Predictable ‘stock’ of nouns and adjectives eg beautiful; evil; castle; king;

forest; princess;

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Using Grammatical MetalanguageGrammatical metalanguage is used, but it is explained through examples

Hearing the terminology used in relevant contexts may support learning;

Being able to use the terminology allows for more succinct talk about writing but the terminology may be a barrier for some students;

Providing examples allows students to access the structure and discuss its effect even if they don’t remember the grammatical name.

Seeing examples is more concrete learning compared with the abstract learning needed with terminology

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A Classroom ExampleContext: writing a persuasive speechLearning Focus: how modal verbs can express different levels of assertiveness

or possibility in persuasionResource with modal verbs listed: can; could; may; might; must; shall; should; will; ought to

TASK: Imagine that you are Roy Hodgson talking to the England team before the penalty shoot-out in the Euro 2012 match against Spain. Write a short ‘pep talk,’ arguing that it’s still possible to win, using some of these modal verbs to predict what might / can / will happen in the shoot out.You could start: ‘We can win a penalty shoot-out.’

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Writing ConversationsDiscussion is fundamental in encouraging critical conversations about

language and effects

Constructive exploratory talk enables learning to develop;

Teacher input is important in initiating learning but understanding cannot

be transmitted from teacher to student;

Talk fosters discussion about choices, possibilities and effects;

Talk may be the key to moving students from superficial learning about

grammar (eg add adjectives to create description) to deep learning (eg

some adjectives are redundant because the noun is descriptive);

Talk gives ownership to writers in making writerly decisions.

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A Classroom ExampleContext: Writing Fictional Narrative

Learning Focus: how short sentences can create tension in narrative

TASK:

In pairs, read the extract from Michel Morpurgo’s Arthur, High King of

Britain and find the three shortest sentences he uses. Discuss why he

might have chosen to make these three sentences so short? What part

do they play in the narrative structure of this incident? What effect might

they have on the reader?

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Creative imitationThe use of ‘creative imitation’ offers model patterns for students to play

with and then use in their own writing

Imitation is a scaffold which allows students to try out new structures or

new ways of expressing something;

As a scaffold it fosters both success and experimentation;

Imitation may help to embed new structures cognitively within the

student’s writing repertoire;

Creative imitation is a first step in generating original combinations.

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A Classroom ExampleContext: Argument WritingLearning Focus: how using an imperative opening sentence followed by an

emotive narrative can act as an effective hook for a persuasive argument which follows.

TASK:

Picture the scene. There are dogs running wild around a courtyard littered with muck and machinery. There are dogs rammed in cages, noses pressed against the bars. There are dogs whose fur is hanging in great clumps, with bare skin and running sores. The noise of barking and yelping is deafening, but in one cage a golden labrador lies silent, head on its paws, looking at the yard with melancholy eyes.

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Authentic TextsThe use of authentic examples from authentic texts links writers

to the broader community of writers

Writers need to explore what real writers do and the choices

they make;

Using authentic texts makes meaningful links between being

a reader and being a writer;

Using authentic texts allows teachers to choose texts which

will motivate and engage their students;

Using authentic texts avoids the pitfalls of examples artificially

created to exemplify a grammar point which have no

resonance of truth.

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A Classroom ExampleContext: Writing Poetry

Learning Focus: how noun phrases can evoke vivid images

Activity:

Using a Roethke’s poem, Boy on Top of a Greenhouse, students

analyse how the poem is entirely comprised of a series of expanded

noun phrases with no finite verb. The noun phrases build a detailed

picture of the scene and the absence of a finite verb creates a sense of

a frozen moment in time. Students use this as a model for writing their

own poem.

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Making Design ChoicesActivities support students in making choices and being designers of

writing

Making choices gives more autonomy to the writer and less to the teacher;

Choice-making fosters ownership and authorial responsibility; Making choices more visible opens up the writing process, making real

the idea that writing is a complex act of decision-making Encouraging writers to see that choices are available to them avoids

formulaic writing or checklist approaches; Awareness of the importance of choices makes writers more aware of a

repertoire of infinite possibilities.

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A Classroom ExampleContext: Writing Argument

Focus: How sentence length and sentence structure can be used to

create rhetorical effect in the closing of a persuasive argument.

TASK:

Students are given the sentences from the final paragraph of a

persuasive speech, each sentence on a separate strip of paper. They

are given two sets of the same sentences. In pairs, they create two

version of the ending of the argument and discuss the different ways

the two versions work. Finally they choose and justify the choice of

their preferred version.

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Playful Experimentation Language play, experimentation, risk-taking and games are actively

encouraged

Playfulness helps writers to see the elasticity of language, the

possibilities it affords;

Experimentation and taking risks are at the heart of creativity;

Writers need opportunities for constructive ‘failure’;

Able writers often play safe and avoid trying out new ways of writing;

Playfulness is engaging.

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A Classroom ExampleContext: Writing Poetry Focus: how varying sentence structure and sentence length can create different

emphases in poetry.

TASK:

Using an exploded version of Sylvia Plath’s Mirror presented alphabetically as a word grid, students are asked to generate pairs of sentence, experimenting with the possibilities outlined below:◦ Beginning with a non-finite verb, adverb or prepositional phrase◦ Using a short verbless sentence◦ Using a one word sentence◦ Using repetition of a single word or short phrase.

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Grammar in the New Curriculum


Grammar Annex: NC2013

The grammar of our first language is learnt naturally and implicitly

through interactions with other speakers and from reading. Explicit

knowledge of grammar is, however, very important, as it gives us

more conscious control and choice in our language. Building this

knowledge is best achieved through a focus on grammar within the

teaching of reading, writing and speaking.


Grammar Annex NC2013

Once pupils are familiar with a grammatical concept [for example

‘modal verb’], they should be encouraged to apply and explore this

concept in the grammar of their own speech and writing and to note

where it is used by others. Young pupils, in particular, use more

complex language in speech than in writing, and teachers should

build on this, aiming for a smooth transition to sophisticated writing.


Grammar Annex NC2013

The [annex] shows when concepts should be introduced first, not

necessarily when they should be completely understood. It is very

important, therefore, that the content in earlier years be revisited in

subsequent years to consolidate knowledge and build on pupils’

understanding.


Subject Knowledge

Our research, including more recent studies, highlights the

importance of teachers’ grammatical subject knowledge;

Explanations of grammar observed in lessons were often

incorrect;

Teachers did not always realise that children were making

mistakes in their grammatical understanding;

Teachers found it hard to handle difficult questions from children;

Teachers need much better understanding of grammar than

children!


Grammatical Subject Knowledge

letter capital letter word singular plural sentence punctuation

full stop question mark exclamation mark noun noun phrase

statement question exclamation command compound

adjective verb suffix adverb tense (past /present) apostrophe

comma adverb preposition conjunction word family prefix

clause subordinate clause direct speech consonant consonant

letter vowel vowel letter inverted commas (or ‘speech marks’)

determiner pronoun possessive pronoun adverbial modal verb

relative pronoun relative clause parenthesis bracket dash

cohesion ambiguity subject object active passive synonym

antonym ellipsis hyphen colon semi-colon bullet points


To Consider

Whole school policy:

Colour coding for word classes and syntactical structures which is

consistent across the school;

Visual reinforcement of previous learning;

Visual support for current grammatical explanations

Always having a ‘why’ statement when a grammar term is

introduced eg

understand how to choose nouns for precise description

understand how prepositional phrases can establish setting in

narrative


Grammatical Explanations A need to avoid definitions which confuse:

A verb is a doing word; An adjective is a describing word; Concrete nouns are things you can touch or see.

A need to avoid teaching misconceptions: Punctuation is about breathing; Complex sentences are better than simple sentences; You improve your writing by adding adjectives and adverbs.

Ban all acronyms! (FANBOYS; AFOREST: PEE…)

Acknowledge that we know very little about the best way to teach grammatical metalanguage


I found him in the garage on a Sunday afternoon. It was the day

after we moved into Falconer Road. The winter was ending. Mum

had said we’d be moving just in time for the spring. Nobody else

was there. Just me. The others were inside the house with Doctor

Death, worrying about the baby.

He was lying in there in the darkness behind the tea chests, in the

dust and dirt. It was as if he’d been there forever. He was filthy

and pale and dried out and I thought he was dead. I couldn’t have

been more wrong. I’d soon begin to see the truth about him, that

there’d never been another creature like him in the world.

We called it the garage because that’s what the estate agent, Mr

Stone, called it. It was more like a demolition site or a rubbish

dump or one of those ancient warehouses they keep pulling down

at the quay. Stone led us down the garden, tugged the door open

and shone his little torch into the gloom. We shoved our heads in

at the doorway with him.


Plenary: Pulling it all together


Grammatical Conversations Developing grammatical thinking rather than grammar

labelling; Using students’ questions and confusions over

grammar as fertile resources for developing knowledge about language;

Probing for why and how rather than what and where. Taking students’ responses as the starting point for

discussion, rather than the finishing point; Making discussion about grammatical choices as

embedded within teaching as discussion about literary devices, vocabulary choices and text structure;

Developing the quality of all talk about texts: spotting metaphors is as educationally pointless as labelling clauses;

Using grammatical metalanguage naturally as part of classroom discourse.


Supporting Test Success Embed the multiple choice accuracy tests throughout the school

within the relevant teaching unit eg accuracy of capitalisation on

Proper Nouns when teaching about the literary effects of Proper

Noun choices

Notice common accuracy errors in the writing of your own class

and create quick multiple choice tests to address these

Use the style and visual layout of the tests

Build teacher modelling and student discussion around these

‘test’ moments, so they are teaching and learning opportunities


Metalinguistic knowledge

Effective teachers in our study:

always linked the linguistic feature to a specific context-relevant

effect or purpose, thus making meaningful connections

between the grammar under focus and the writing;

responded to students’ own writing sensitively, asking

questions which invited students to consider the writing choices

they were making, or by drawing out explicitly effective choices

in the writing;

had sufficient metalinguistic knowledge to notice relevant

aspects of reading texts to draw to learners’ attention.


Understanding the Author’s Craft Writing is fundamentally about making choices and decisions.

These choices can be explicit or implicit choices: as we become more expert at writing, more and more choices become implicit and internalised, but equally other choices become the focus of explicit attention.

Novice writers need support in understanding the choices that are available to them in terms of content and ideas, text structures, sentence and phrase structures and vocabulary.

Focused engagement with reading texts can be converted in more ‘writerly’ engagement with written texts.

To help students understand the author’s craft requires explicit teaching.

The goal is to open up a repertoire of infinite possibilities, not to impose formulaic ways of writing.

Documents

Playing with Grammar: Developing Writing Debra Myhill 1© University of Exeter