Introduction to Qualitative Research

Elsye Maria Rosa

Definisi

Pendekatan kualitatif adalah suatu proses penelitian dan pemahaman yang berdasarkan pada metodologi yang menyelidiki suatu fenomena sosial dan masalah manusia

Definisi

Bogdan dan Taylor dalam Moleong (2007:3) mengemukakan bahwa metodologi kualitatif merupakan prosedur penelitian yang menghasilkan data deskriptif berupa kata-kata tertulis maupun lisan dari orang-orang dan perilaku yang diamati.

Qualitative Research

Starts with general question or problem

No pre-defined hypothesis

Uses a purposeful sam-ple, not a random one

Uses a relatively small sample

Data collected with semi-structure & unstructured instrumentsPresents results descriptivelyUtilizes researcher’s aware-ness of own orientations, biases, experiences that might affect data collection & interpretation

Characteristics:

Approaches to Research

Positivist (Quantitatif research)Tujuan, realitas yang stabil, konteks hubungan sebab-akibatIlmiah, berbasis bukti pengetahuan, deduktifMetode penelitian terstruktur, dapat direplikasi, eksperimental; hasil kuantitatif

Interpretive (Qualitatif research)

Subyektif , konstruksi sosial, yang harus ditafsirkan

Pengetahuan dipengaruhi oleh realitas jamak, peka terhadap konteks, penelitian bertujuan untuk mengungkap makna fenomena

Peneliti adalah pencipta makna, membawa pengalaman subyektif sendiri untuk penelitian, metode mencoba untuk menangkap 'orang dalam' pengetahuan, penelitian yang dilakukan dalam pengaturan alam

The process of qualitative research

The steps in designing a qualitative study

1. Menetapkan masalah umum untuk diselidiki - Menarik bagi peneliti

2. Menyatakan tujuan penelitian- Berdasarkan analisis masalah- Muncul dari studi sebelumnya- Dipandu oleh tinjauan pustaka- Ditentukan oleh siapa yang akan menggunakan hasil penelitian

3. Mengembangkan kerangka konseptual / teoretis untuk studi

4. Merumuskan pertanyaan penelitian umum dan khusus (tujuan dan sasaran)

5. Pilih desain penelitian kualitatif

6. Pilih strategi sampling

7. Pemilihan peserta

7. Pastikan trustworthiness dari penelitian

8. Menentukan metode pengumpulan data dan mengembangkan alat-alat pengumpulan data

9. Menetapkan bagaimana data akan dikelola dan dianalisis

10. Interpretasi dan diskusi temuan

11. Siapkan laporan penelitian

Qualitative Research:Funnel Approach

General research questions

Collect data

Narrower research questions

Collect data

Narrower research questions

Conclusions

Qualitative Research:Inductive Approach

Conclusions

Specific narrow

research question

Collect data

Broader question

Collect data

Broader question

Classification of Qualitative Research Procedures

Fo cus G ro ups D epth Interv iews

D irect(N o ndisguised)

A sso ciatio nT echniques

C o m pletio nT echniques

C o nstructio nT echniques

E xpressiveT echniques

P ro jectiveT echniques

Indirect(D isguised)

Q ualita tive R esearchP ro cedures

Elements of the Research Process

DEDUCTIVE & INDUCTIVE REASONING

Deductive thinking (Quantitative)

THEORY

HYPOTHESIS

OBSERVATION

CONFIRMATION

Elements of the Research Process (Cont.)

Inductive thinking (Qualitative)

OBSERVATION

PATTERNS

HYPOTHESIS

THEORY

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

Research process is deductive.

Research process is inductive.

Measure objective facts. Social reality, meaning is constructed.

Focus on variables. Focus on in-depth meaning.

Value-free research. Values are present & explicit (empathy).

Independent of context. Contextual importance.

Many cases, subjects. Few cases, participants.

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

Statistical analysis Thematic analysis

Objective instruments of data collection.

Researcher as the central tool for data collection.

Highly structured research process.

Loosely structured research process.

Researcher is detached

(outsider).(Adapted from Neuman, 1997: 14)

Researcher is immersed (insider).

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

result oriented process oriented

particularistic and analytical holistic perspective

objective “outsider view” distant from data

subjective “insider view” and closeness to data

generalized by population membership

generalization by comparison of properties and contexts of individual organism

Qualitative Research Methods

1. Biografi

2.Fenomenology

3. Grounded Theory

4.Etnografi

5. Case Study

6. Action Reseach

Grounded Theory

Grounded Theory

Rooted in social sciencesEmphasises the development of theoryWhich is grounded in data systematically collected and analysed (constant comparative analysis to produce substantive theory)Theory must be faithful to the evidenceLooks for generalisable theory - by making comparisons across situations

Focus is on patterns of action and interaction

Phenomenology

Features of Phenomenology

Rooted in philosophy

Central question: what is the meaning, structure, and essence of the lived experience of this phenomenon for this person/group of people?

How is each individual’s subjective reality applied to make experiences meaningful?

Analysis of the language used

Action Research

Action Research

Build action theories - action science

Aim is to develop effective action, improve practice, and implement change

Cyclical process, alternating between action and reflection

Action-research groups

Action-learning group – facilitated or self-directed Emphasis on individual learning Reflection-in-action Reflection-on-action

Action-research team Focus on operational problems Facilitated (technical to empowering continuum)

Sampling in qualitative research

Considerations in sampling

Purpose of qualitative research Produce information-rich data Depth rather than breadth Insight rather than generalisation

Conceptual rather than numerical considerations Choose information-rich sites and respondents

Common sampling approach

Purposive sampling Not hazard Select information-rich cases Not the same as convenience sampling

Qualitative Research Methods:Case Study

Purpose

To determine the factors, & relationships among the factors, that have resulted in current behavior or status of subject

Focus is on a single subject or unit (could be multiple individuals)

Procedure Determine the case

(individual, group, or environment) to study

Determine data collection strategies & data to be collected

Collect the data Analyze the data

Qualitative Research Methods:Case Study

Potential Problems

Observer (researcher) bias

Lack of generalizability

Requires extensive data collection

Gambar: Jenis-jenis Dasar Penelitian Studi Kasus (Sumber: Yin, 2009, 46)

PEMBAGIAN STUDI KASUS

Example :

Rethinking Interventionist Research: Navigating Oppositional Networks in a Danish Hospital

Case Study: Using Baldrige Criteria to Achieve Performance Excellence at the Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital Hamilton

Case study:William Beaumont Hospital -- Royal Oak Campus

Fire Detection Projects

In-Hospital Management of Patients With Hyperglycemia: Transitioning From IV Insulin Therapy to Subcutaneous Insulin Regimens and Effective Discharge Planning to Maintain Glycemic Control (An Interactive Case Study) Bruce

Bode, MD; Michelle Magee, MD; Chris Hogness, MD, MPH

Qualitative Research Methods:Ethnography

Purpose

To determine the fac-tors & relationships among the factors that result in a subject’s current status in a setting natural to the subject

Relies on extensive & detailed description

Procedure Refine the problem &

setting of interest Decide on most

appropriate & effective level of participation

Develop “working” hypotheses

Determine initial data collection strategies

Collect data over time

Qualitative Research Methods:Ethnography

Potential Problems Results can be

difficult to analyze Findings are nearly

impossible to replicate

Small sample size Generally fairly

costly Time consuming

Types of Data CollectionTypes of Data Collection(or “fieldwork”)

Observation

Interviewing

Focus Groups

Document Analysis

The Three-Interview SeriesThe Three-Interview Series(Seidman, 1998)

Interview One: Life History

Interview Two: Details of the Experience

Interview Three: Reflection on the Meaning

Men’s focus group, Hunan, China. Photo: Yuan Liping

FGDs often work well by using existing social groups Photo: Yuan Liping

ResourcesResources(Kuh & Andreas, 1991)

• Recording devices• Transcribing equipment• Software packages for analyzing• Member checks participants• Space• Time

The Data

Generally collected in the form of…

field notes,diariesaudio & video tapes, copies of documents,narrative descriptions

Analysis

Some form of analysis usually takes place at the same time data is being collected

Researcher seeks to identify patterns or trends

Qualitative Research:Data Analysis

Qualitative Research:Data Analysis

Qualitative data may be analyzed by a 3-part strategy:

reducing the data coding the data synthesizing the data

• Read and re-read data, become engrossed in it.• Identify themes: common, conflicting, minority• Test themes across the data set, where are they common,

under what circumstances are they found, not found. This sets the parameters on the interpretation and generalisation of data

• Get more than one person to analyse the data independently then together

• Demonstrate trustworthiness in data analysis

Qualitative Research:Data Analysis

Qualitative Research Methods:Triangulation

Metode untuk meningkatkan validitas & reliabilitas penelitian kualitatif

Meningkatkan akurasi interpretasi

Menegaskan bahwa data yang dikumpulkan bukan karena kesempatan atau sikap

Qualitative Research Design:Triangulation

Collect data from multiple sources

Collect data in multiple ways from subjects

Collect different kinds of data in multiple ways from multiple subjects

For example: May interview teachers,

principals & parents May interview &

observe students

May review student records, interview teachers, observe students

Multiple data sources

Multiple kinds of data

Multiple data collection strategies

Subjects(data sources)

Data collection strategies

Kinds of data

Qualitative Research Design:Triangulation

Processes in qualitative data analysis

1. Reading / Data immersion Read for content

Are you obtaining the types of information you intended to collect

Identify emergent themes and develop tentative explanations

Note (new / surprising) topics that need to be explored in further fieldwork

2. Read noting the quality of the data Have you obtained superficial or rich and deep responses How vivid and detailed are the descriptions of observations Is there sufficient contextual detail Problems in the quality of the data require a review of:

How you are asking questions (neutral or leading) The venue The composition of the groups The style and characteristics of the interviewer How soon after the field activity are notes recorded

Develop a system to identify problems in the data (audit trail)

- Read identifying patterns- After identifying themes, examine how these are

patterned Do the themes occur in all or some of the data Are their relationships between themes Are there contradictory responses Are there gaps in understanding – these require further

exploration

3. Coding – No standard rules of how to code

Emergent Borrowed

Record coding decisions Record codes, definitions, and revisions

Usually - insert codes / labels into the margins Building theme related files

Cut and paste together into one file similarly coded blocks of text

NB identifiers that help you to identify the original source Identify sub-themes and explore them in greater depth

3. Displaying data Capture the variation or richness of each theme Note differences between individuals and sub-

groups Return to the data and examine evidence that

supports each sub-theme

4. Developing questioning and verification Extract meaning from the data Do the categories developed make sense? What pieces of information contradict my emerging

ideas? What pieces of information are missing or

underdeveloped? What other opinions should be taken into account? How do my own biases influence the data collection

and analysis process?

5. Data reductioni.e.distill the information to make visible the most

essential concepts and relationships Get an overall sense of the data Distinguish primary/main and secondary/sub-

themes Separate essential from non-essential data Use visual devices – e.g. matrices, diagrams

6. Interpretationi.e. identifying the core meaning of the data, remaining

faithful to to the perspectives of the study participants but with wider social and theoretical relevance

Credibility of attributed meaning Consistent with data collected Verified with respondents Present multiple perspectives (convergent and

divergent views) Did you go beyond what you expected to find?