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Sharad et al. World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research
www.wjpr.net Vol 8, Issue 2, 2019.
1457
QUINAZOLINONE, IMPORTANCE & MALARIA DRUG DISCOVERY
*Bhujbal Pooja Sharad, Shinde Vishakha Vikas, Tajane Arti Shantaram, Shitole
Pratiksha Balasaheb, S. S. Kadam, M. V. Gadhave, S. L. Jadhav and D. D. Gaikwad
VJSM‘s Vishal Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Ale, Pune.
ABSTRACT
Quinazolin-4-(3H)-one is a heterocyclic compounds, and its
derivatives are synthetically important molecule, thus used for the
synthesis of a large variety of compounds. The compound was first
prepared condensation products of anthranillic acid and amides by
Niementowski quinazolinone synthesis, named after its discoverer
Stefan Niementowski (1866-1925). The original work was published in
1895. The first quinazoline 2-cyano-3, 4-dihydro-4-oxoquinazoline by
griess at 1869. From literature survey states that most of the methods
used for the synthesis of quinazolinone compounds make use of
anthranillic acid or one of their functional derivatives as the starting materials. Quinazolin-4-
(3H)-one is synthesized when keto group is introduced in the pyrimidine ring of quinazoline.
Quinazolinone and its derivatives possess a large class of biologically active compounds that
exhibited broad spectrum of biological activities such as anti-HIV, anticancer, antifungal,
antibacterial, anti mutagenic, anticoccidial, anticonvulsant, anti-inflammatory, antidepressant,
anti malarial, antioxidant, anti leukemic, and antileishmanial activities and other activities.
Literature review state that quinazolinone derivatives have attracted strong interest in organic
and medicinal chemistry due to their potent biological and pharmacological activities. The
present review provides a brief overview on the recent advances and future perspectives on
pharmacological aspects of quinazolinone and its derivatives reported in the last decade.
KEYWORDS: Quinazolin-4-(3H)-one, Anti Fungal activity, Anti-inflammatory &
Antioxidant activity, Anti Malerial Activity, Anti cancer Activity, Maleria Drug Discovery.
INTRODUCTION
These compounds have been isolated from several families in the plant kingdom, as well as
from bacteria and animal species, and many are bio –synthetically derived from anthranillic
World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research SJIF Impact Factor 8.074
Volume 8, Issue 2, 1457-1484. Review Article ISSN 2277– 7105
Article Received on
20 Dec. 2018,
Revised on 10 Jan. 2019,
Accepted on 30 Jan. 2019
DOI: 10.20959/wjpr20192-14172
*Corresponding Author
Bhujbal Pooja Sharad
VJSM‘s Vishal Institute of
Pharmaceutical Education
and Research, Ale, Pune.
Sharad et al. World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research
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1458
acid. The first quinazoline alkaloid isolated was Vasicine (peganine) in 1888, produced by
Adhatoda vasica. Some other quinazoline alkaloids that have been isolated, characterized,
and synthesized are Chrysogine, Febrifugine, and Isofebrifugine.[1]
Important classes of fused
heterocyclic compound of quinazoline are found in more than 200 naturally occurring
alkaloids.
In plants Indol quinazolinones are mainly found in polygonum tinctorium lour,
strobilanthescusia, isatistinctoria and other blue dye producing plants. In micro organisms,
these compounds are isolated from fusariumlateritium nees, the marine bacterium bacillus
cereus 041381, the entomopathogenic fungus isaria farinose, streptomyces sp., chaetomium
species IFB-EO15, aspergillus nidulans MA-143 and penicllium aurantiogriseum.[2]
The
heterocyclic class of quinazoline nucleus is composed of two fused six membered aromatic
rings a benzene ring and pyrimidine ring. its chemical formula C8 H6 N2. Fused bicyclic
compound of quinazoline earlier called as benzo-1, 3 diazine was first prepared in the
laboratory in 1903 by Gabriel[3]
, although one of its derivatives was known much earlier.[4]
based on the position of keto or oxo group it may be classified into three types: 4(3H)
quinazolinone, 2(1H) quinazolinone, 4(1H,3H) Quinazolinone.[5]
From the above (fig: 1) three Quinazolinone structures, 4(3H)- quinazolinone are most
prevalent, either as natural products or as intermediates in various proposed biosynthetic
pathways.[6]
this is partly due to the structure being derived from the anthranillic acid or
different esters, anthranilamide and anthranilonitrile, (isatoicanhydride) anthranilates while
the 2(1H)-quinazolinone is predominantly a product of benzamides with nitriles or
anthranilonitrile.[7]
4(3H)Quinazolinone 2(1H) Quinazolinone
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Chemistry and Chemical Properties
Heterocyclic compound of quinazolinone having two structural isomers, 4-quinazolninoe and
2-quinazolinone.4-isomers are more common.
Chemical name of 4-quinazolinone is found to be quinazolin-4(3H)-one or 4-oxo-3, 4-
dihydroquinazoline or 4-oxoquinazolinol or (3H) quinazoline or 3, 4-dihydroquinazolin-4-
one or 4-quinazolinone. Two nitrogen atoms are incorporated in chemicals with two
conjoined aromatic rings, one of the carbon which is oxidized with keto oxygen. A strong
lactam-lactim tautomeric interaction is present in quinazolinones.[8]
this tautomeric
interaction can occur when a 4(3H)-quinazolinone containing a methyl in the 3-position when
chlorination with POCl3, the methyl group is lost and chlorination proceeds.[9]
When the methyl group is present in the 2-position, the tautomeric effect is extended
generating an exo methylene carbon. This compound can be condensed with aldehydes
producing 2-styryl-4-(3H)- quinazolinone. the result of tautomeric effects, increases the
reactivity effect of substituted -4- (3H)-quinazolinones.[10]
hence, the quinazolinone are
documented to be a ―privileged structure ― for drug development and discovery.[11]
moreover,
based on various literature, the quinazolinone ring system revealed that,[12]
the positions 2,6
and 8 of the ring system much more important for structural activity studies and also
chemotherapeutic activity could be increased by the inclusion of different heterocyclic
moieties at position 3 of the quinazolinone ring system.[13]
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General Methods For Synthesis Of Quinazolin-4-(3h) One
Quinazolin-4-(3H)-one have been synthesized from 2 amino benzoic acid on reaction with
foramide when heated at 1200c for 6hrs. the reaction takes place with elimination of water
and process through o-amido benzamides intermediate. This is known as Niementowski
synthesis.[19]
3, 1, 4-Benoxazones react with amines to form 3, 4-dihydro-4-oxoquinazolines. primary
aliphatic amines, anilines react with 2-methyl-5-nitro-4-oxoquinazolines. Anthranillic acid
fused and react with urea to produce the 1, 2, 3, 4-tertrahydro-2, 4-dioxoquinazoline.
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The most effective conversion of urethane derivatives. In this anilines are condensation with
urethane to form a quinazolin-4-(3H)-one. The substituted 2 methyl quinazolinone
derivatives was synthesized by heating urethane and acetanilide for 3hrs in the presence of
phosphorous pentoxide in tolune.
The synthesis of quinazolinone involves the reaction of N-acyl anthranillic acid by heating
with ammonia or substituted amines (Fig.8). the condensation of various primary amines and
N-acyl-5-nitroanthranilic acid to form the 2-methyl-3-aikyl-6-nitro-quinazolin-4-(3H)-one in
good yield.
Quinazolin-4-Ones As Antifungal Agents
Quinazolinone derivatives are one of the most active classes of compounds possessing a wide
spectrum of biological activity. Recently several scientists have been reported that
introduction of various heterocyclic moieties at 2 and 3 position of quinazolinone nucleus
modulate the antifungal activity. Various derivatives of quinazolinone have been synthesized
and evaluated for their antifungal activity against Candida Albicans, Aspergilles Niger,
Aspergillus Clavatus, Aspergillus Fumigatus, Aspergillus Parasiticus at various
concentrations. This article is sincere attempt to review chemistry and antifungal activity of
quinazolinones for last 20 year (1991-2011).[21]
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Fungi are heterotrophic microorganisms that are dependent upon organic compounds for their
nutrition. These are characterized by absorptive type of nutrition i.e. these feed by excretion
of enzymes into the substrate and by subsequent take up of digested compounds through the
cell wall. These differ from the bacteria in being ‗eukaryotes‘ because their genome is
organized in a nucleus surrounded by a cell wall. The word ‗fungi‘ is a general term which
includes both yeasts and molds and occupy an amazing variety and number of ecological
niches. They fulfill a critical function in nature by converting such polymers lignin, chitin,
and cellulose into humus. Fungal infections pose major problem in immunecompromised
patients. Problems have continued to aggreviate during past 20 years and are now significant
causes of morbidity and mortality.
This is particularly true in patients with hematological malignancies undergoing induction or
consolidation chemotherapy, in patients with acquired immunodeficiency secondary to
infection by human immunodeficiency viruses, and in immunosuppresed organ transplant
recipients. Patients with diabetic ketoacidosis are also at great risk. These infections also
occur in some iatrogenic or nosocomial settings. Some of these compounds showed good
antifungal activity than reference drug.[22]
Priya et al (2011) synthesized 4-(3H)-quinazolinone derivative (Fig. 1) from the reaction of
anthranilic acid and primary aromatic amines with Vilsmeier reagent in a few minutes under
microwave irradiation providing good yields. All the synthesized quinazolinones were
screened for their In vitro anti fungal activity against Candida Albicans, Aspergilles Niger.[23]
A series of 3-[3-(2-Substituted-4-oxo-4Hquinazolin-3-yl)-guanidino] propionic acid
derivatives (Fig. 2) have been synthesied by Palani and Vijay 2011. All the synthesized
compounds were characterized by IR, 1HNMR and mass spectra. Some of synthesized
compounds were more potent against Monascus puppures, Aspergillus fumigates, Aspergillus
parasiticus and Microsporum gypseum than the reference drug Clotrimazole.[24]
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A condensation of four different 3-formylchromones with 2-methyl/phenyl-3-amino-4(3H)-
quinazolinone and their dibromo analogs has resulted in twelve new compounds which have
been characterized as their respective 3-[N-(4-oxo-2-methyl/phenyl-3-quinazolinyl)-
formimidoyl]-chromones (Fig3), base on their spectro-analytical properties. These
compounds have been investigated as antifungal agent by Achaiah etal 1991.[25]
Quinazolinones As Anti-Microbial Activity
The number of life-threatening infectious diseases caused by multidrug -resistant bacteria has
reached an alarming level in many countries around the world. Severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome (SARS) caused by the novel corona v irus SARS-CoV and bird flu caused by
avian influenza (H5N1) virus have emerged as two important infectious diseases with
pandemic potential. Both infections crossed the species barrier to infect humans This review
focused on the antimicrobial activity of quinazolinones and its derivative which can deal with
the increasing resistance by microbes and also having significant antimicrobial activity for
the effective treatment of various types of microbial diseases.[26]
Quinazolinones are classes of fused heterocycles that are of considerable interest because of
the diverse range of their biological properties, for example, anticancer, diuretic, anti-
inflammatory, anticonvulsant and antihyper tensive antimicrobial activities1 Quinazolinone
(fig.1) is a building block for approximately 150 naturally occur ring alkaloids isolated to
Figure 3
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date from a number of families of the plant kingdom, from animals and from
microorganisms. The first quinazolinone was synthesized1 in the late 1860s from anthranilic
acid and cyanogens to give 2-cyanoquinazolinone (1) 2 Methaqualone (2) was synthesized
for the first time in 1951 and it is the most well - known synthetic quinazolinone drug,
famous for its sedative–hypnotic effects.[27]
The synthesis of quinazolinones and will be
classified into the following five categories, based on the substitution patterns of the ring
system:
2-Substituted-4(3H)-quinazolinonesand –quinazolines
3-Substituted-4(3H)-quinazolinones
4-Substituted-quinazolines
2,3-Disubstituted-4(3H)-quinazolinones
2,4-Disubstituted-4(3H)-quinazolinones and quinazolines
Charansingh H. Gill et al (2010) synthesized a series of new quinazolinone derivatives.
Elemental analysis, IR, 1H NMR and mass spectral data elucidated the structures of all newly
synthesized compounds. In vitro antimicrobial activities of the synthesized compounds were
investigated against Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis (ATCC No. 6633), Staphylococcus
aureus (ATCC No. 25923), Gram-negative Salmonella typhimurium (ATCC No. 23564),
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC No. 27853) and fungi Candida albicans and Aspergillus
niger. Among all the tested compounds, some of the tested compounds showed equipotent
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activity with standard. The antibacterial activities of the synthesized compounds 8a–j were
det ermined by the well –diffusion method.[28]
Adnan A. Kadi etal (2009) synthesized a new series of 6-i odo-2-phen ylquinazolin -4(3H)-
one derivatives was prepared and screened for antimicrobial activity. The thioureide
derivatives, the carbohydrazide derivatives displayed excellent broadspectrum antimicrobial
activity. Some compounds showed moderate activity against Candida albicans and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa. None of the tested compounds was as active as the reference
standard drugs ampicillin and clotrimazole. The detailed synthesis, antimicrobial activit y,
and the minimum inhibitor concentrations (MIC) are reported.[29]
Quinazolinone As Anti-Inflammatory And Antioxidant Activity
Inflammation is the result of concerted participation of a large number of vasoactive, chemo
tactic and proliferative factors at different stages and there are many targets for anti
inflammatory action Irrespective of the type of injury the inflammatory response is
suppressed by glucocorticoids. This is the basis of most of their clinical uses. Glucocorticoids
interfere on several steps in the inflammatoryresponse. Corticoids are only palliative, do not
remove the cause of inflammation, the underlying disease continues to progress while
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manifestations are dampened. They favor spread of infections as capacity of defensive Cells
to kill microorganisms is impaired. They also interfere with healing and scar formation.
Peptic ulcer may perforate asymptomatically. Indiscriminate use of corticoids is hazardous.
Other than corticosteroids the NSAIDs are also used to treat inflammation. The major
mechanism of action of the NSAIDs is the inhibition of prostaglandin (PG) synthesis or
preferential or selective cox-2 inhibition.[30-31]
Due to inhibition of PG synthesis it may produce toxicities like gastric mucosal damage,
bleeding, inhibition of platelet function, delay/prolongation of labour, asthma and
anaphylactoid reaction in some individuals. The inhibition of cox-2 may enhance the
cardiovascular risk. The search for new molecules with anti-oxidant properties is a very
active domain of research, since they can protect the human body from free radicals and
retard the progress of many chronic diseases, such as vascular diseases, some forms of cancer
and oxidative stress responsible for DNA, protein and membrane damage. Reactive oxygen
species (ROS) such as superoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl and nitric oxide
radicals, play an important role in oxidative stress related to the pathogenesis of various
important diseases.[32-33]
Anti-oxidants act as a major defense against radical mediated toxicity by protecting the
damages caused by free radicals. Anti-oxidants agents are effective in the prevention and
treatment of complex diseases, like atherosclerosis, stroke, diabetes, Alzheimer‘s disease and
cancer. Flavonoids and phenolic compounds are widely distributed in plants which have been
reported to exert multiple biological effects including antioxidants, free radical scavenging
abilities, anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic. It has attracted a great deal of research
interest in natural antioxidants. A number of synthetic compounds such as quinazolinones
have also been extremely exploited for antioxidants activity. The above observation
stimulated our interest to synthesize a series of compounds containing quinazolin-4 (3H) -one
ring system associated with various primary aromatic amines moiety and to evaluate their
antioxidant potency. This study is aimed to investigate the Invitro anti inflammatory by using
bovine serum albumin (BSA), antioxidant and radical scavenging properties of quinazolinone
with different analytical methodology.
The antioxidant potential of synthesised compound was explained on the basis of total
antioxidant activity by, ferrous ions chelating activity, scavenging activity of free radicals
such as DPPH, Hydrogen peroxide radical scavenging activity and Nitric oxide scavenging
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activity assay[33-38]
Furthermore, an important goal of this investigation is to show the in vitro
antioxidative effects of quinazolinone as compared with standard antioxidants such as
ascorbic acid, BHA, BHT, commonly used by the pharmaceutical industry.
E. Manivannan and S. C. Chaturvedi have synthesized a series of methyl sulfanyl/methyl
sulfonyl substituted 2,3-diaryl quinazolinone derivatives. These compounds were evaluated
for both non-ulcerogenic and anti-inflammatory activities. The compound 19 emerged as the
most active compound in this series. Halogen atoms or methoxy groups at R1 and R3 position
of 2,3-diaryl-3H-quinazolin-4-ones appears to have a positive effect on the non-ulcerogenic
and anti-inflammatory potency.
Rakesh etal, designed and synthesized a series of quinazolinone derived Schiff‘s bases and
screnned for their antioxidant activity. Compounds 1 and 2 with OH and OCH3 groups in
benzene ring (electron donating) exhibited stronger radical scavenging activities than the
standards.
Quinazolinone As Anticonvulsant Acitivity
Novel 3-substituted-6-fluro-2-methyl-quinazolin-4(3H)-one derivatives were synthesized and
tested for anticonvulsant activity. All the newly synthesized compounds had significant
1 2
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anticonvulsant activity. Three compounds showed promising activity, while the other five
compounds had moderate activity. All compounds tested for neurotoxicity showed a good
safety margin. In silico design, synthesis and pharmacological screening of novel mono
bromo quinazolinone derivatives as NMDA receptor antagonists for anticonvulsant activity
was reported. Compounds (49) gave good results.[39]
Ponnilavarasan ilangovan et al. synthesized a series of 3-N'(benzylidene semicarbazone)-2-
phenyl 3H-quinazolin-4-one and evaluated for anticonvulsant and neurotoxicity. Compound
displayed potent activity.[41]
Schiff bases of 3-amino-6, 8-dibromo-2-phenyl quinazolin-4-
(3H)-ones with various substituted aldehydes were synthesized and evaluated for their
anticonvulsant activity on albino mice by maximal electroshock method using phenytoin as a
standard. The compound (51) bearing a cinnamoyl functionality displayed a very high
activity.[40]
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Quinazolinone As Anti-Malerial Activity
Effective antimalarial drugs with a simpler structure and with a low cost synthetic
methodology, few 2,3-substituted quinazolin-4(3H)-one derivatives were designed and
synthesized according to the structural features of febrifugine [a] which is obtained from
Chinese plant roots of Dichroa febrifuga Lour. (Chinese name: Cha΄ng Shan), a
saxifragaceous plant that has been employed against malaria fevers, and no parasite resistant
to D. febrifuga has been reported. Two alkaloids, i) febrifugine [a] and ii) isofebrifugine [b],
were isolated from D. febrifuga as active principles against malaria.
New derivatives with incorporation of an indole and a fluorinated aromatic ring at 2 and 3
positions of quinazolinone, respectively, were prepared by Dave and colleagues. All the
newly synthesized compounds were screened for antibacterial activity. Three derivatives
including a, (2-fluoro benzylideneamino) b, (benzylideneamino) and c, (2-nitro
benzylideneamino) were found to be active against S. aureus.
Quinazolinone As Anti-Tubular Activity
Meenu chaudhary etal[42]
A series of novel substituted (1, 2, 4) triazolo (1,5c) quinazolinone
derivatives were synthesized by mannich reaction using foramide and different secondary
amines. Structures of compounds were confirmed by IR, H-NMR and mass spectroscopic
analysis. The anti tubercular activity of synthesized compounds was performed against
M.tuberculosis H37Rv at concentration 30μg/ml using streptomycin and pyrazinamide
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1470
7.5μg/ml as standard drug. All the synthesized compounds have shown antitubercular activity
as compared to standard drug. compounds shown very good anti tubercular activity.
Kalpnana Devi etal[43]
Synthesis and anti tubercular activity of some new 2-3-disubstituted
quinazolinone were reported. Nicotinic acid and thionyl chloride were refluxed for 2hrs to
form the nicotinyl acid chloride which was added drop wise into the solution of anthranillic
acid in dry pyridine to form 2-(pyridine-2-yl)-4H-benzo(d)(1,3)oxazin-4-one). this compound
react with hydrazine hydrate to form the 3-amino-2-(pyridine-2-yl) quinazolin-4(3H)one.
This compound react with2-(secondary amino (morpholine))-acid chloride in the presence of
dry pyridine to form the 2-(substituted)-N-(4-oxo-2-pyridin-2-yl-4H-quinazolin-3-yl)-
acetamide derivatives.
All the synthesized compounds were screened for in vitro anti tubercular activity by MABA
method against mycobacterium tuberculosis and it was found that almost all the compounds
have exhibited moderate activity (MIC at 50μg/ml) as compared to standard drugs which
have shown activity at 3.125μg/ml. the structure of all the synthesized compounds was
confirmed by IR, NMR, and mass, CHN spectral data.
1
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1471
Quinazolinone As A Anti-cancer Acivity
AAF. Wasfy etal[44]
Synthesis and anti-cancer properties of novel quinazoline derivatives
were reported. The results revealed that some of the synthesized compounds have a signicant
biological activity as anti cancer agents. a novel quinazoline were synthesized by reaction of
5-chloroanthranilic acid with isonicotinyl chloride in dry pyridine to form 5-chloro-2-
(isonicotinamido) benzoic acid. Cylocodensation of 5-chloro-2-(isonicotinamido) benzoic
acid with acetic anhydride to form 6-chloro-2-(pyridine-4-yl)-4H-benzo(d)(1,3)oxacin-4-one.
Interaction of 5-chloro-2-(isonicotinamido) benzoic acid with ammonium acetatein the
presence of ammonium hydroxide in sand bath to produce 6-chloro-2-(pyridine-4-
yl)quinazolin-4(3H)-one. the reaction of 6-chloro-2-(pyridine-4-yl)-4H-benzo(d)(1,3)oxacin-
4-one with phosphorous pentachloride to form 6-chloro-4-chloro-2-(pyridine-4-
yl)quinazoline. Interaction of 6-chloro-4-chloro-2-(pyridine-4-yl) quinazoline with p-amino
acetophenone in pyridine to form 1-(4-(6-choloro-2-(pyridine-4-yl) quinazolin-4-
ylamino)phenyl) ethanone.1-(4-(6-choloro-2-(pyridine-4-yl) quinazolin-4-ylamino) phenyl)
ethanonereacted with different aldehydes. certain new quinazoline
derivatives(3,4,5,6b,6d,8b,8d) were synthesized, characterized and subjected to a screening
system for evaluation of anti tumor activity against liver cancer (HEPG2) tumor cell line. The
anti tumor activity results indicated that the selected quinazoline derivatives showed anti
tumor activity against liver cancer tumor cell line tested but with varying intensities in
comparison to the known anti cancer drug:doxorubicin. compounds (6b,8d) exhibited a
strong growth inhibition activity against liver cancer (HEPG2) on the tested tumor panel cell
line in comparison to the standard drug. The newly synthesized compounds were
characterized by IR, NMR analysis.
All newly synthesized compounds were screened for their anti cancer studies.
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1472
Zahoor et al[45]
Anticancer activity of a novel quinazolinone-chalcone derivative were
reported. The condensation of anthranillic acid with acetic anhydride to form the
benzoxazinone. benzoxazinone was coupled with 3-amino acetophenone to produce the
quinazolinone. this quinazolinone was made to undergo condensation reaction with
substituted benzaldehydes in presence of a base to afford the desired quinazolinone –halcone
derivatives.anti cancer activity determined through MTTassay, colony formation assay,
wound healing assay, cell cycle and western blot analysis in mia paca-2 cells treated with
quinazolinone –chalcone derivatives.
The findings are indicative of synthesized compounds exerting anti cancer activity through
cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase and not through apoptosis. Reduction in the motility of mia
paca -2 cells indicates anti-metastatic potential of quinazolinone-chalcone derivatives.
Quinazolinone Derivatives As A Potential Class Of Compounds In Malaria Drug
Discovery
INTRODUCTION
Malaria is symptoms are described in ancient Chinese and Sanskrit medical texts and
Hippocrates referred to the disease in the 4th
Century BC.[46]
It was associated to ‗bad air‘ by
the 18th century Italians meaning mala ria from where the name malaria is derived.[47-48]
In
children under age five malaria accounts for almost 1 in 10 deaths worldwide and 1 in 5
deaths in Sub- Saharan Africa (SSA), which makes it one among the leading killers.[49]
More
than 80% of deaths due to malaria occurs in SSA where 90% accounts for children under
five. Malaria causes over a million deaths each year (2 per cent of the global total of deaths),
with hundreds of millions of clinical episodes per annum.[48]
Malaria also places a
tremendous burden on national health systems and individual families.[50]
In the
governmental budget proportions allocated to health system ranges from 5% in Africa, Asia
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1473
and the Who Easten Mediterranean Region, to well over 20% in some countries in
Americans.[51]
The economic impact of malaria is disproportionately felt by the poor.
A study in Tanzania indicated that the death due to acute fever among children of the poorest
families was 39% higher than among the wealthiest children.[52]
The Plasmodium parasite,
responsible for causing malaria, is a protozoan with four identified species which causes
human malaria via a female Anophelous mosquito as a vector, namely: P.falciparum,
P.vivax, P. malariae and P. ovale. Even though these four species of plasmodium parasite
can infect human and cause malaria, P. falciparum is the most risky and potentially
threatening.[53]
However, Plasmodium vivax also creates significant human morbidity, suffering and
economic loss, being responsible for 70 million to 80 million cases of the global malaria
burden each year.[54]
Life Cycle of Maleria
Malaria parasites live in mosquito and human hosts and go through several developmental
and transmission phases on the way to causing disease in humans.[55]
Malaria is a mosquito-
borne infectious disease transmitted by a parasitic protozoan in the Plasmodium genus.[56]
The malaria parasite is a single-cell protozoan (plasmodium). Members of the genus
Plasmodium have a complex life cycle, A sexual stage occurs within the Anopheles mosquito,
while asexual stages take place in the host. Malaria is actually transmitted from one human to
another through the insect vector, the female Anopheles mosquito.[58-59]
Only the female
mosquito bites because it needs blood to produce eggs. Mosquitoes bite a variety of hosts -
birds, dogs, horses, cattle and people.[57]
The infection of human erythrocytes is ultimately
responsible for all the clinical pathologies associated with the disease.[55]
Initially, when female Anopheles mosquito bites an infected human, it gets infected and
intakes gametocytes. The sexual transformation of gametocytes into ookinetes and ookinetes
into oocyst takes place inside the midgut of mosquito. Finally, sporozoites are developed
from oocysts, which eventually burst, releasing sporozoites into the salivary gland. At the
mosquito‘s next feeding, the sporozoites are injected into the blood stream of another human
to begin the asexual stages. Once the mosquito inoculates the parasites (sporozoites) into the
blood stream, the parasites invade the liver within 30 min and start replicating there
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(schizonts). In addition, P. vivax and P. ovale can remain dormant in the liver and cause
relapses years after the initial infection.[60]
After a relatively brief residence (less than an hour) in the systemic circulation, the
sporozoites invade liver parenchymal cells, where they divide and develop asexually into
multinucleated schizonts. These are the primary exoerythrocytic tissue forms of the parasite.
When this primary stage of development is completed (6–12 days), the schizonts will rupture,
releasing merozoites into the blood. These latter forms invade host erythrocytes, where they
again grow and divide asexually (erythrocytic schizogony) and become red cell schizonts.
Some of the parasites differentiate into sexual (male and female) forms, or gametocytes. If
the diseased human is bitten by a mosquito at this time, the gametes will be taken up into the
organism‘s gut to repeat the sexual cycle.[58]
Prevention & Control of Maleria
Since the launch of the Roll Back Malaria initiative by WHO in 1998 and particularly in the
past few years, malaria control has intensified in endemic countries, supported by a greatly
increased investment of financial resources and technical assistance from the international
community. Three main strategies are presently attempting to control the disease:
vaccination, vector control and parasiticidal drugs. Of these, parasiticidal drugs are currently
the main line of disease control until vaccination or mosquito control can be implemented
more successfully.[61]
To eradicate malaria, achievable milestones must be set. The publication of the Global
Malaria Action Plan (GMAP) by the WHO set some of those milestones; for example, a
tenfold reduction in malaria incidence and deaths by 2030 (compared with 2015). The first
GMAP was published in 2008 and covered the period until 2015. More recently, input and
consultations are being sought from experts and regions for GMAP2. Both GMAP2 and the
Global Technical Strategy for Malaria(co-ordinated by the WHO) will cover the 10 years
between 2016 and 2025 24. On Oct 17, 2007, Bill and Melinda Gates called for complete
eradication to be adopted as the new goal for the ageold fight against malaria, with the
Director General of WHO, Margaret Chan, promptly echoing their conviction. Two crucial
questions stand out for those organisations that will now begin striving towards malaria
eradication. When and how can it be achieved?[62-63]
During the past decade, a range of
organizations have led a global movement to combat malaria.
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Accurate assessments of the levels and time trends in malaria burden are crucial for the
assessment of progress towards goals and the focusing of future efforts. A report released by
WHO finds that the global burden of malaria remains enormous, but that access to malaria
control interventions, especially bed nets in Africa, increased sharply between 2004 and
2006.[64]
As a result of malaria control efforts across the world, 80 countries are now in the
phase of malaria control; 12 countries are making the program transition to elimination; 11
countries are operating malaria elimination programs; and 6 countries are actively engaged in
preventing reintroduction of malaria. Despite extensive control efforts, the incidence of the
disease is not decreasing in most malaria-endemic areas of the world and in some it is clearly
increasing.[65]
Drugs for Treatment of Maleria
Currently available antimalarial agents comprises classes of drugs classified based on their
chemical structures and mechanism of action.[66]
The number of antimalarial drugs in use
today is limited due to the wide spread of resistance. Those in use to date are the quinine
derivatives, the artemisinines and antifolate combination drugs.
Quinoline Derivatives
The quinoline derivatives have long been used for the treatment of malaria, the first one being
quinine which is isolated from the bark extract of Cinchona trees. In 17th century the
pulverized bark was widely used in Europe. As the quest for new compounds for treating
malaria was on rise the first 4(8)-aminoquinolines derivatives were developed.[67]
The success
of the antimalarial aminoquinoline drugs has been based on excellent clinical efficacy,
limited host toxicity, ease of use and simple, cost-effective synthesis.[68]
The 4-
aminoquinoline derivatives of quinine. chloroquine, amodiaquine and mefloquine whereas
primaquine is an 8-aminoquinoline derivative of quinine.[69]
The mode of action and
mechanism of resistance of these derivatives is not fully understood since much of the focus
is directed to identification of novel chemotherapeutic agents.[70]
The quinolines are known to
inhibit the polymerization of heme and prevent disposal of polymers from the food vacuole to
the cytoplasm where hemozoin is formed. This leads to intraparasitic accumulation of free-
heme, which is highly toxic to the parasite.[71]
Antifolate Combination Drugs
Antifolates are various combinations of dihydrofolate-reductase inhibitors (proguanil,
pyrimethamine, chlorproguanil and trimethoprim) and sulfa drugs (sulfadoxine,
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sulfamethoxazole, dapsone and others), Most commonly used combinations include
sulfadoxine-pyrimethamin and sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim. Currently an antifolate
combination drug, dapsone andchlorproguanil, was tested and has a more potent synergistic
antimalarial action than other drugs such as sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine.[69]
Antibiotics
Tetracyclines usually in conjunction with quinine, have been reported to be suppressive in
human malaria and proved to be of value as an additional drug for the radical cure of
chloroquine-resistant falciparum infections. Clindamycin alone or in combination with
quinine, has also been used for the treatment of CQR falciparum malaria in Thiland with
good results, despite the side effects. In non-immune individuals its efficacy has not been
fully established.[72]
Artemisinin Compounds
Artemisinin (qinghaosu) artesunate, artemether and arteether have all been used alone or
incombination therapy as antimalarial agents.[73]
Artemisinin which is present in the extracts
of the aerial parts of the plant Artemissia annua, has been utilized for more than a millennia
for fever and rediscovered as antimalarial agent.[74]
Emergence of multidrug–resistant strains
in P. falciparum and chloroquine –resistant strains of P. vivax in 6 malaria endemic areas
emphasize on preparing new, effective and affordable antimalarial medications.
Thus, artemisinin combination therapy (ACT) was recommended by WHO for successful
treatment of uncomplicated malaria.[75]
Others Compound With Antimalerial Activity
Halofantrine which consists phenanthrene-methanol and is a active against the erythrocytic
stage of malaria. In areas of multi drug resistant falciparum malaria, halofantrine is mainly
recommended. Atovaquone which is a hydroxynaphtoquinone, is most widely used for
treating opportunistic infections in immune-compromised patients. It is also effective against
CQR P.falciparum. however its usually given in combination with proguanil to avoid the
development of resistance. Lumefantrine a fluoromethanol compound, is being produced as a
fixed combination tablet with artemether.[69]
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Recent Advances In Anti Malerial Drug Development
Mefloquine is the only synthetic antimalrial agent discovered over the past 30 years.
Whereas, artimisisin, which is discovered in this period is a natural product, whose medicinal
actions have been known for over 2 millennia.[76]
However the sudden resurgence of malaria
and emergence of malarial drug resistancein many countries of the world have made the
synthetic efforts toward new antimalarial drugs very important. Recently some synthetic
compounds are reported to have potent antimalarial activity against different Plasmodium
species.
Clinical trials conducted with fosmidomycin in combination with clindamycin or artesunate
have shown high efficiency in the treatment of acute, uncomplicated malaria. Recently
synthetic chalcone analogue, 2,4-dimethoxy-4′butoxychalcone was reported to have
outstanding antimalarial activity.[77-78]
In addition to this, the antimalarial activity of
naphthoquinone derivatives has been widely reported. Acylation of the hydroxyl moiety of
atovaquone led to a compound exhibiting similar activity as atovaquone and more active than
chloroquine and quinine against P. falciparum.[79]
Arylsulfonyl acridinyl derivatives having
acridinic ring and arylsulfone moiety together, are also reported to have an antimalarial
activity on P. falciparum.[80]
Structure-based drug design resulted in P218 a DHFR inhibitor active against all clinically
relevant mutations. P218 combines the pyrimidine ring of pyrimethamine which brings
potency, and the linker of the DHFR inhibitor WR99210 which tolerates mutations due to its
flexibility. P218 is more potent than pyrimeth amine against DHFR in the wild-type strain
TM4 (IC50= 4.6 and 58 nM, respectively) as well as in the quadruple mutant strain V1/S
(IC50= 56 and >100,000 nM, respectively).[60]
Recently, a series of bisquinolines where the 4-aminoquinoline part of chloroquine was
retained and the two units were joined by bisamide links, have been synthesized and screened
against CQS and CQR strains of P. falciparum in vitro. The resistant indices for all the
compounds were found to be lower than that of CQ. The position of attachment and length of
the linker chain had marked effect on the activity.[71]
CONCLUSION
Globally the importance fighting malaria is recognized, however the burden of malaria is still
high in developing countries especially in the Sub-Saharan African region. Although decades
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1478
long efforts and accadamic engagements has been there malaria continues to pose challenge
in view of its resurgence and problem of drug resistance. Most of the existing antimalarial
drugs including chloroquine are brought to the side line by the emergence of resistance.
Currently a combination therapy is recommended by WHO to reduce the risk of drug
resistance. However, there are still reports indicating drug resistance even to those used in
combination recommended by WHO such as artimisinin.
Thus, malaria drug discovery is unquestionably urgent to battle against the disease. To
minimize the likely hood of cross resistance the focus of the drug discovery must be on newer
drug targets, such as plasmepsin. In finding a novel antimalarial agent various library of
chemicals has been investigated and hetrocyclic compounds such as chalcones,
thienopyrimidinone, quinolones, quinazolins, quinazolinones, enaminones, and acridines
have been reported to posses antimalarial activity. Further, assessment on quinazolinones has
showed fruitful results and their activity as antimalarial agent is appealing. In this regard,
febrifugine and its derivatives have been reported to have excellent activity.
Therefore, quinazolinones can be considered potential compounds in seeking for novel drugs
that act against the malarial pathogen.
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