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The potential of cassava products in diets for poultry

N. CHAUYNARONG, A.V. ELANGOVAN and P.A. IJI

World's Poultry Science Journal / Volume 65 / Issue 01 / March 2009, pp 23 36DOI: 10.1017/S0043933909000026, Published online: 02 March 2009

Link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0043933909000026

How to cite this article:N. CHAUYNARONG, A.V. ELANGOVAN and P.A. IJI (2009). The potential of cassava products in diets for poultry. World's Poultry Science Journal, 65, pp 2336 doi:10.1017/S0043933909000026

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The potential of cassava products in dietsfor poultry

N. CHAUYNARONG, A.V. ELANGOVAN and P.A. IJI*

School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, ArmidaleNSW 2351, Australia*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Inadequate supply, exorbitant prices and diversion towards using cereal grains forbiofuel production, particularly maize, has led to a constant search for alternativeenergy sources for poultry and other non-ruminant species. The abundantavailability of cassava in certain regions makes it a good alternative to maizeand other cereal grains. Cassava root meal is rich in carbohydrate but low inprotein and all other nutrients, whereas, cassava leaf meal is a moderate sourceof protein. Results of studies to evaluate the replacement of cereals with cassavaproducts in poultry feed show wide variability due to differences in origin, variety,plant maturity at harvest, ecological conditions of plant growth and processingmethods. Cassava products contain a wide range of cyanogenetic glycosides,particularly linamarin and lotaustralin. The level of hydrocyanic acid releasedfrom the cyanogenetic glycosides limits the utilization of cassava, but with properprocessing, the dietary inclusion level of cassava meal can be increased for economicpoultry production. This paper reviews the nutrient composition of cassava and itsuses as a substitute for more conventional ingredients in poultry diets.

Keywords: cassava; Manihot esculenta; broiler; layer; energy; performance

Introduction

The feed industry is faced with a number of challenges, not only regarding theavailability of feed ingredients but also the ability to produce high quality products ina cost-effective manner. There is a need to exploit cheaper energy sources in order, and toreplace expensive cereals for livestock production, to relieve the food-feed competition inthe future. In the coming years, poultry producers will definitely have to look beyondmaize and other cereal grains because of their low availability; cost and inability to keeppace with ever-increasing poultry production. Further, as a result of increasing use ofmaize for producing ethanol and biofuel, maize prices in the US increased from $2.60 abushel in 2006 to near $4 a bushel in 2007 (USDA, 2007). Substantial efforts have beenmade in the past to replace cereals with cassava in poultry feeding but the response, in

doi:10.1017/S0043933909000002

© World's Poultry Science Association 2009World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 65, March 2009Received for publication August 8, 2008Accepted for publication November 11, 2008 23

terms of productive performance of chickens fed cassava products, has been widelyvariable.Cassava, manioc, tapioca, or yuca (Manihot esculenta) is a woody shrub of the

Euphorbiaceae (spurge) family, native to South America. Cassava is the third largestsource of carbohydrates for human food in the world and has been grown extensively asan important economic root crop in Southeast Asia, tropical Africa and Central America(Fauquet and Fargette, 1990). Cassava has the ability to withstand poor soil and drought,and the plant can yield 25 to 60 tons/ha, depending on variety and cultivation practice.Almost 70 percent of world's cassava production comes from five countries, namelyNigeria, Brazil, Thailand, Indonesia and the Congo Democratic Republic. The worldcassava production was 228 million tonnes in 2007, which represents a steady increase inproduction over previous years (FAO, 2008). There are two types of cassava; the sweettype, which is used for human consumption, which is either tough or tender texture, withno bitterness and low hydrocyanic acid content. Large amounts of this type are plantedthroughout the world. The second type is bitter cassava with high hydrocyanic acid(HCN) content and is not suitable for human consumption, but is only suitable for theprocessed tapioca industries, such as tapioca tablets, tapioca flour, and alcohol. Broadly,roots and leaves are the two main products from cassava but several different productscan be obtained from these through further processing (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Processes and end-use of different products from the cassava plant.Source: Howeler (2003).

WHOLE ROOTSNormally, whole roots or fresh cassava tubers are often fed to cattle and pigs, either

raw or in the boiled form. However, feeding of fresh tubers may cause cyanide toxicity,depending on the cyanide content in the tubers (Mathur et al., 1969). For storage, as wellas feeding to poultry, it is advisable to dry it and bring down the moisture level to about10% level.

Cassava in poultry diets: N. Chauynarong et al.

24 World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 65, March 2009

CHIPSCassava chips are the most common products used in animal feeding and are produced

extensively in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and some parts of Africa. Chips areproduced by a machine, which slices the fresh roots into small pieces. The freshchips are sun-dried on a concrete floor over about 2-3 days, depending on theweather conditions, until the moisture content is reduced to about 14%. Most cassavachips are directly sent to the factories for the manufacture of feed pellets. The generalspecifications for export cassava chips are 65% (minimum) starch, 5% (maximum) fibre,3% (maximum) soil contaminant and 14% (maximum) moisture (Balagopalan, 2002).

PELLETSPellets are obtained from dried cassava chips by grinding and hardening them into a

cylindrical shape. The standard specifications for hard pellets are similar to those of chipsfrom which pellets are produced (Balagopalan, 2002). According to reports, theexpansion in animal production in Europe has resulted in increased demand forcassava pellets in the European market. The advantage of using cassava pellets inanimal feed is the enhancement in animal performance, less pollution, and the pelletsare less bulky, so transportation cost is lower (Philips, 1974).

MEALCassava meal is the powdered residue of the chips and roots after processing to extract

edible starch. The quality of cassava meal is inferior to that of chips, pellets and brokenroots. It has lower starch content, and usually contains more soil contaminants. The useof cassava meal in the European Union has declined with a shift to the other cassavaproducts. In other producing areas, particularly Africa, cassava meal is produced from thewhole root, which may be peeled or unpeeled. This meal is higher in starch compared tomeals produced in Thailand and other parts of Asia where cassava is mainly used forstarch production.

LEAVESCassava leaves are a by-product of cassava root after harvest, and are highly nutritious.

Like other dark green leaves, they are an extremely valuable source of protein (140–400g/kg DM), minerals, vitamins B1, B2, C and carotenes (Eggum, 1970; Adewusi andBradbury, 1993). However, the leaf contains cyanogenic glucosides, six times higher thanin the roots. Moreover, tannin and phytin may also limit the nutritional value of cassavaleaves (Reeds et al., 1982). The leaf blade accounts for 10 to 40% by weight of theplant's aerial part, depending upon the age and ecological condition of the plant. Leavescan be harvested within 4 to 5 months of planting, without adversely affecting rootproduction, yielding up to 10 tonnes of dry foliage per hectare (Khajarern and Khajarern,1992).

Residual pulp

During the processing of cassava starch, the solid residual pulp separated in the screeningprocess is also used as an animal feed. This product is considered as a by-product of thecassava starch industry. The moisture content of cassava pulp is about 60-70%. Cassavapulp contains a large amount of carbohydrate, which is up to 50% on dry weight basis.The pulp also has a high fibre content and contains minerals such as Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe andMg. At the University of New England, there is on-going research aimed at evaluatingthe potential of cassava pulp for poultry feeding. Initial analyses show that four different


World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 65, March 2009 25

pulps, from three sources, have lysine levels varying between 43 and 64 g/kg of protein.The highest levels of methionine, alanine, leucine, isoleucine and threonine are 7.0, 106,82, 57 and 70 g/kg of protein, respectively. Calcium content varies from 3.15 to 6.5 mg/kg DM, while P, Na and K were 0.27-0.63, 0.21-1.20 and 2.28-3.86 mg/kg DM,respectively.

Nutrient composition of cassava

The nutrient composition of various cassava products as reported by different researchersis presented in Table 1. The metabolisable energy value of cassava root meals for poultryvaries from 12.0 to 14.6 MJ ME/kg of dry matter (Olson et al., 1969, Maust et al., 1972;Hutagalung et al., 1974; Muller et al., 1975; Fetuga and Oluyemi, 1976; Khajarern et al.,1982). However, Agwunobi and Okeke (2000) studied the AME and chemicalcomposition of 19 cultivars of cassava and observed no significant differencesbetween the cultivars. Silva et al. (2000) obtained values of AME and AMEn of 7.10and 7.08 MJ/kg DM for cassava leaf meal, respectively. It also contained very low levelsof protein (25 g/kg DM) and was deficient in essential amino acids, fat, minerals andvitamins. Cassava is very low in fat or lipids. The extractable lipids are mainly polar,galactosyl diglycerides, and the fatty acids in cassava are mainly saturated (Hudson andOgunsua, 1974). As cassava contains low amounts of lipids, it is a poor source of fat-soluble vitamins (Hudson and Ogunsua, 1974). Onwueme (1978) reported cassava tocontain low levels of vitamins such as vitamin A, B1, B2 and niacin but higher levels ofvitamin C was well as the mineral, calcium. Cassava root products are deficient incarotene and other carotenoids, making it necessary for supplementation of thesepigments for the maintenance of normal egg yolk and broiler skin pigmentation(Kanto and Juttupornpong, 2005).

Table 1 Nutrient composition of different cassava products.

Constituents (g/kg) Rootmeal

Rootmeal

Rootmeal

Peelmeal

Leafmeal

Leafmeal

Leafmeal

ME (MJ/kg) 14.6 13.2 13.4 7.5 6.7Crude protein 20 25 25 44 200 210 232Ether extract 7.5 3.0 6.0 2.0 35 48Crude fibre 40 35 29 120.1 200 219Ash 38 38 10.1 105 85 78NFE 899 900 710 422Calcium 1.2 1.8 13 15 3.7Phosphorus 0.5 0.9 4.4 4.5 5.8Lysine 0.9 0.4 71Methionine + cystine 0.6 0.2 25.3Threonine 0.7 0.5 47Tryptophan 0.2 0.1 11

Source: Muller et al., 1974; Hutagalung et al., 1974; Devendra, 1977; Khajarern et al. 1979; Khajarern andKhajarern, 1992; Ravindran, 1992; Akinfala et al., 2002; Kanto and Juttupornpong 2005; Nwokoro andEkhosuehi, 2005

CARBOHYDRATE (STARCH)Cassava starch has been reported to contain 17% amylose and 83% amylopectin,

compared to maize starch, which consists of 28% amylose and 72% amylopectin(Gomes et al., 2005). The amylose content of barley, rice and maize is higher than



that of tapioca starch. Promthong et al. (2005) reported that rapidly digestible starch washigher in cassava than in maize due to a higher content of amylopectin in cassava.

PROTEINThe major limitation for using cassava root meal in poultry feed is its low protein

content and deficiency of essential amino acids. Cassava flour and peels contain about 36and 55g protein/kg, respectively, although cassava leaves are richer in protein, asobserved in eight Brazilian varieties to be 178 to 348 g/kg (Rogers and Milner, 1963)and in Nigerian varieties, 298 to 337 g/kg (Tewe et al., 1976). The protein in cassava hasa higher arginine content while methionine, threonine, cystine, phenylalanine, isoleucineand proline are low (Muller et al. 1975; Onwueme, 1978).

ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORSCassava contains the anti-nutritional factors cyanogenic glycosides of two types,

primarily linamarin (93%) and some lotaustralin or ethyl linamarin (7%). Linamarin ischemically similar to glucose but is conjugated to cyanide (ion). Yeoh and Yruong (1993)reported that linamarin in cassava can vary from 2 to 395 mg/100 kg of fresh cassavatuber, depending on the variety. In the whole plant, linamarin is synthesised from theamino acid, valine, while lotaustralin is synthesised from isoleucine. Both cyanogenicglycosides are not harmful to the plant but serve as sources of aspartic and glutamic acidsand glutamine. The HCN concentration, resulting from the action of hydrolytic enzymesfound in the plant, is influenced by the nutritional status and age of the plant (Ravindranand Ravindran, 1988), and higher HCN levels were found in leaves from bitter than thosefrom sweeter varieties (Tewe and Iyayi, 1989). The hydrocyanic acid content of Nigeriancassava and some products used for animal feeding is presented in Table 2. Udedibie etal. (2004) reported that fresh cassava tubers contain 0.44 mg HCN/g, whereasunfermented and fermented meals contain 0.15 and 0.08 mg HCN/g, respectively. Thestudy by Panigrahi et al. (1992) showed that cassava root meal with a total cyanidecontent less than 40 mg/kg, can be fed to broiler chicks at 500 g/kg without any adverseeffects. A later study by Panigrahi (1996) suggested that low-cyanide cassava root mealsmay be incorporated in nutritionally-balanced poultry diets between 500 and 600 g/kgwithout any reduction in weight gain or egg production. However, an excess of cyanidecontent at 100 mg/kg diet appears to adversely affect broiler performance, and layinghens may be affected by levels as low as 25 mg total cyanide/kg diet (Panigrahi, 1996).Chronic cassava toxicity in layers has been reported to lower egg production, egg quality,and hatchability of eggs (Omole, 1977; Ngoka et al., 1982).

Table 2 Hydrocyanic acid content of Nigerian cassava products (air dry basis).

Cassava/Products Hydrocyanic acid content (ppm)

Fresh whole root 88.3-416.3Fresh pulp 34.3-301.3Fresh peel 364.2-814.7Sun-dried whole root 23.1-41.6Sun-dried pulp 17.3-26.7Sun-dried peel 264.3-321.5Oven-dried whole root 51.7-63.7Oven-dried pulp 23.7-31.3

Source: Tewe and Iyayi (1989)



Improving the nutritive value of cassava products

PHYSICAL PROCESSINGHigh moisture level is one of the major reasons for the spoilage of cassava products

during storage and feeding, therefore, the products benefit from drying. Different physicalprocessing methods have been tried for cassava, including sun-drying, boiling, mashingand pelleting, to improve the nutritive value and reduce cyanide content. Sun-drying isprobably the cheapest method in the tropics and is also the most effective. Khajarern etal. (1982) observed a reduction of HCN content from 111.83 ppm to 22.97 ppm on sundrying of cassava roots for 6 days and the reduction was appreciable from within threedays of sun drying. Gomez et al. (1984) reported that on sun-drying, more than 86% ofHCN present in cassava was lost probably due to the evaporation of free cyanide at about28°C. Eruvbetine et al. (2003) observed that the grinding together of cassava roots andleaves in the proportion of 50:50 before sun-drying improved the texture and crudeprotein content of the material when included in broiler diets. The cyanide contentwas also reduced. Eruvbetine and Adejobi (2000) reported that when cassava wasboiled and sun-dried, the nutritive value was improved and the physical texturebecame flaky. However, pelleting of diets generated high temperatures, but did notsignificantly alter the HCN concentration (Pangrahi et al., 1992).

FERMENTATIONThere are reports that fermentation can effectively reduce HCN content of cassava.

Generally, the total cyanide content in fresh root is up to 400 mg HCN/kg and in thestudy of Muzanila et al. (2000), it was reduced to 5.84 mg HCN/kg on wet fermentationin comparison to 14.0 mg HCN/kg by solid-state fermentation. Manilal et al. (1987)conducted a study on the use of Aspergillus niger to improve the quality of cassava wasteproducts through solid state fermentation, and observed that the initial biomass protein inthe material was increased from 1.60% (w/w) to 7.0% after three days of fermentation.Similar studies have been reported by Padmaja and Balagopalan (1990) who includedTrichoderma pseudokoningii-enriched cassava waste in diets for broiler chickens at up to600 g/kg in the feed without any adverse effect on growth performance and percentage ofcarcass yields. Aderemi (2006) also indicated that layers fed on biodegraded diet (cassavaroot fermented by Aspergillus niger) were similar in performance to a maize fed group.There is a possibility that cassava products can be incorporated at a higher level after

processing, and proper sun drying is one of easiest and most economical means ofprocessing. For storage, care should be taken to keep the moisture level to below10%, to avoid mould growth.

STUDIES ON BROILER CHICKENSCassava products have long being used for animal feeding under subsistent agriculture

in its major areas of production. In the earlier years when it was compared to cereals, theinclusion of cassava in poultry diets was reported to depress performance (Tobayayong,1935; McMillan and Dudley, 1941; Vogt, 1966) probably due to the presence of HCNand high levels at which it was incorporated. Some of the later studies (Tejada andBrambila, 1969; Job et al., 1980) observed satisfactory growth performance in broilerchicks on replacement of maize by cassava at up to 50 -100 g/kg in the diet. However,there are several reports on the use of cassava meal in poultry diets in the past fewdecades with encouraging results probably due to the balancing of nutrients to meetrequirements (Ravindran et al., 1986; Tewe and Egbunike, 1992; Khajarern andKhajarern, 1986; Khajarern and Khajarern, 1992; Aderemi et al., 2000; Akinfala etal., 2002).



Feeding sun-dried cassava root meal at 0, 150, 300 or 450 g/kg in broiler diets yieldedno significant changes in growth performance (Eshiett and Ademosun, 1980). Malebroiler chicks were given a diet from the age of 7 days with wheat replaced by 0,100, 200, 300, 400, 500 g/kg of dried cassava root meal, which did not significantlyreduce body weight and food intake (Stevenson and Jackson, 1983). In a study by Gomezet al. (1983), the performance of chickens on control diets was similar to that of chickensfed up to 200 g/kg cassava root meal of cultivars low or high in cyanide content.Replacement of one-third of the maize with cassava had no adverse effects on bodyweight gains of broilers but there was a reduction in weight gain at higher levels(Waldroup et al., 1984). Ravindran et al. (1986) recommended that up to 15%cassava meal could substitute for coconut meal in broiler diets without affecting thegrowth performance. When broiler chicks were given diets with cassava root meal at 375or 500 g/kg without or with zinc (50 or 100 mg/kg) for 56 days; body weight gain did notdiffer between the groups except that chickens given 500 g/kg cassava with 50 mg Zn/kgweighed significantly more than the others (Ekpenyong and Obi, 1986). The study byBrum et al. (1990) indicated that up to 66.7% of maize in broiler diets can be replaced bycassava meal without adversely affecting growth performance.Banday and Gowdh (1992) reported that broilers fed on boiled cassava meal showed

higher body weight than with raw or autoclaved cassava. The addition of sun-driedcassava peel meal at 50, 100 and 150 g/kg diet had no significant influence on feedconsumption, live weight gain and the efficiency of feed utilization, but feed intaketended to increase with increasing levels (Osei, 1992). Ogbonna et al. (1996) studiedthe effects of processing cassava by mashing, cold-pelleting, heat-pelleting and extrusionon broiler performance and observed that pellet feed gave a better weight gain and feed togain ratio than mash. When maize was replaced with fermented whole cassava meal at 0,20, 40, 60, 80 and 100%, lower weight gains were observed only on total replacement ofmaize (Onjoro et al., 1998). Diets containing >5% cassava peel meal reduced the feedconversion efficiency of the broilers whereas feed consumption was reduced in broilersfed >75 g/kg cassava peel meal (Elanchezhian et al., 1999). The birds fed ensiled cassavapeel meal diet had similar feed intake and body weight gain as the control group whereasthe FCR of birds on sun-dried cassava peel meal was poor (Obikaonu and Udedibie,2006). In a study by Oyebimpe et al. (2006), 200 g/kg cassava peel meal could replacemaize in broiler diets with no reduction in growth performance.There are few studies with respect to performance and utilization of cassava leaf meal

(CLM) in poultry. Available studies suggest a range of 100-400 g/kg of CLM inclusionwithout any adverse effect on performance. Montilla (1977) reported that CLM could beincluded at up to 200 g/kg in pelleted broiler diets, while Ravindran et al. (1986)observed that the performance of broilers can be sustained with up to 150 g/kg CLMin diet without negative effects on their growth. The inclusion of 100 g/kg cassavaproduct (50:50 of cassava root and leaf meal) in the broiler diet had no effect ongrowth, feed conversion, and carcass characteristics (Eruvbetine et al., 2003). Theweight of the small intestine, caeca, gizzard and pancreas increased with increase inCLM in the diet (Borin et al., 2006).There are wide variations in the inclusion levels of cassava products in broiler diets and

productivity appears to be adequate at seemingly high levels. It can be assumed that aslong as nutrient (ME, amino acids, minerals, vitamins etc) requirements are met, themaximum inclusion level can be manipulated to achieve a positive response, includinglow feed costs. Table 3 is a summary of the response of broiler chickens to cassava-containing diets and what various researchers currently recommend as the maximumlevel of inclusion in the diet.



Table 3 Suggested maximum inclusion levels of cassava products in the diet of broiler chickens.

Cassava product Maximum inclusionlevel in diet, g/kg

Response criteria Source

Root meal 575 Growth Khajarern et al., 1979200 Growth Gomez et al., 1983330 Growth Waldroup et al., 1984500 Growth Ekpenyong and Obi, 1986660 Growth Brum et al., 1990500 Growth, carcass traits Babiker et al., 199150% of <40 mg totalcyanide/kg

Growth, toxicity studies Panigrahi et al., 1992

50% of maize by rootmeal: dried leaves at 3:1

Growth, carcass yields Ochetim, 1992

80% of maize byfermented cassava

Growth Onjoro et al., 1998

400 Growth, nutrient utilization,blood biochemistry,histopathology

Sahoo et al., 2008

10% of tubers and leaves(1:1)

Growth, carcasscomposition, hematologicalparameters.

Eruvbetine et al., 2003

Peel meal 50% maize replaced byensiled or sun-dried peelmeal

Growth, economics Obikaonu and Udedibie,2006

200 Growth, carcass traits Ravindran et al., 1986100 Growth, nutrient utilization Supriyati and Kompiang,

2002200 Growth, economics. Oyebimpe, 2006.

Leaf Meal 200 Growth, carcasscomposition, economics

Tada et al., 2004

STUDIES ON LAYING HENSComparatively fewer studies have been undertaken with cassava products on layer

chickens (Table 4). In most of the studies, 40-60% of dietary maize has beensatisfactorily replaced by cassava root meal, without adverse effects on eggproduction (Enriquez and Ross, 1972; Hamid and Jalaludin, 1972). Cassava peel mealat 100 and 200 g/kg inclusion level was comparable to a maize diet in terms of eggproduction, egg weight and feed conversion ratio in layer chickens but 300 and 400 g/kgcassava peel meal inclusion gave inferior performance compared to maize (Obioha,1984). Khajarern and Khajarern (1986) reported that cassava could be used as anenergy source in layer diets at both pullet and laying stages with comparableproduction performances as those of maize. Hen-day egg production was decreasedby cassava meal, whereas egg weight, feed intake, shell thickness, Haugh unit andfeed efficiency were not affected (Aina and Fanimo, 1997). On feeding graded levelsof cassava peel meal up to 200 g/kg, the highest live weight gain and feed consumptionwere recorded in the layer strain male chicks fed 50 g/kg cassava peel meal. Inclusion ofcassava peel meal did not affect blood composition and dressing percentage(Elanchezhian et al., 1999). Parboiled cassava peel meal at 50% replacement of maizein layer diets resulted in optimum production with good economic returns (Salami, 2000).Saparattananan et al. (2005) observed that diets with maize or cassava had similar effectson laying rate and egg quality, but egg yolk colour score was lower in layers on thecassava diet. Idowu et al. (2005) reported that the replacement of wheat up to 10% bycassava could reduce the cholesterol content of the plasma and egg. More studies on



layers would be ideal, as results do not have a bearing on egg yield only but egg qualitymay be altered, and this has a strong repercussions for consumer acceptability.

Table 4 Suggested maximum inclusion levels of cassava products in the diet of layer chickens.

Cassava type Maximum inclusion levelin diet, g/kg

Response criteria Source

Root meal 500 Egg production Khajarern et al., 1979400 Egg production Eshiett and Ademosun, 1976600 Egg production Hamid and Jalaludin, 197250.0 Egg production Enriquez and Ross, 1972

Peel meal 200 Egg production,egg quality

Obioha et al., 1984

Complete replacement ofmaize

Egg production Khajarern and Khajarern. 1986

50% of maize Egg production,body weight

Salami, 2000

Complete replacement ofmaize

Egg production Saparattananan et al., 2005

Leaf meal 165 Egg production Khajarern et al., 1980

DIETARY CASSAVA AND GUT HEALTHThe interaction between cassava factors and intestinal function is one area that has not

been adequately researched. Promthong et al. (2005) demonstrated that feeding broilerson cassava chips and pellet diets reduced the counts of E. coli population in the jejunum,ileum and caecum compared to counts in birds on a maize diet. Broilers fed on cassavadiets exhibited better health status and required less or no antibiotic treatment comparedto birds fed on maize diets (Saentaweesuk et al., 2000; Tathawan et al., 2002). Stevensonand Jackson (1983) reported that the inclusion of dried cassava root meal increased theproportion of acetic acid in the caeca, which may be at the expense of propionic andvaleric acids. In a study on broiler chickens raised on diets containing cassava chips andpellets, Promthong et al. (2006) observed an increase in villus surface area and thenumber of absorptive cells in the jejunum, more rapid cell proliferation and highernumbers of goblet cells than those on control diets. The inclusion of cassava at 150g/kg in diets for layers had no adverse effect on gut morphology and the weight of lungsand gizzard was higher than those fed on maize diets (Aderemi et al., 2006).

Conclusions

A lot of research has been conducted on cassava products for feeding poultry, however,as with other alternative feed resources, these products have not been fully exploited forcommercial poultry feeding. This may be partly due to the scattered nature of suchresearch, and this review attempts to bring some of the research together in oneplace, to aid in the comparison of different results. There is no doubt that cassavaand other roots and tubers will play a stronger role in the near future as grain pricessoar. Contemporary research should aim at improving the nutritive value of cassavaproducts, similar to what has been achieved with temperate cereals that contain highlevels of non-starch polysaccharides.



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