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Asian Journal of Development Matters

Vol 3 (1), January 2009, 79-85Special Article

Anthropology and Genomics: Reconsideration

Parvathi Kumara Reddy Thavanati1* & A Chandrasekar

2

1Instituto de Genetica, Departmento de Biologia Molecular y Genomica, Universidad de

Guadalajara, Guaadalajara. Jal. Mexico.2

Anthropological Survey of India, SouthernRegional Centre, Mysore, India.

Introduction

Anthropology is a science, which

deals with the study of human beings. It triesto understand the socio-cultural and biological

aspects of humans in a comprehensive

perspective. Strictly speaking in this subjectwe study about ourselves. Anthropology is

neither dead nor dying as pointed out by

earlier scholars (Basu and Biswas, 1980;

Danda, 1981; Reddy et al., 1993; Rao, 1998),

but is progressively growing and developingwith its central theme of study of human

origin, evolution, migration and spread, and

finding the causes of human variations inspace and time. The sluggish or worthless

anthropologists who entered the discipline

accidentally are, unfortunately, trying to

triangulate it due to their non-contributiveefforts in the discipline.1

Anthropology is often defined as

being "holistic" and based on a "four-field"

approach. There is an ongoing dispute on thisview; supporters (Shore, 1999) consider

anthropology holistic in two senses: it isconcerned with all human beings across timesand places, and with all dimensions of

humanity (evolutionary, biophysical,

sociopolitical, economic, cultural,psychological, etc.); also many academic

programs following this approach take a

"four-field" approach to anthropology that

encompasses physical anthropology,

archeology, linguistics, and culturalanthropology or social anthropology. The

ROAD TRUST 2009

definition of anthropology as holistic and the

"four-field" approach are disputed by some

leading anthropologists, (Robert, 2002; RobinFox 1991.) that consider those as artifacts

from 19th century social evolutionary thought

that inappropriately impose scientificpositivism upon cultural anthropology. (Segal,

et al 2005) While originating in the US, both

the four-field approach and debates

concerning it have been exported

internationally under American academicinfluence (Smart 2006). 2

The four fields are:

Biological or physical anthropologyseeks to understand the physical human

being through the study of human

evolution and adaptability, population

genetics, and primatology. Subfields or

related fields include anthropometrics,forensic anthropology, osteology, and

nutritional anthropology.

Socio-cultural anthropology is the

investigation, often through long term,

intensive field studies (includingparticipant-observation methods), of the

culture and social organization of a

particular people: language, economicand political organization, law and

conflict resolution, patterns of

consumption and exchange, kinship andfamily structure, gender relations,

Address for correspondence* Profesory Y Investigador

Email: [email protected]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociocultural_evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_anthropologyhttp://pzacad.pitzer.edu/~dsegal/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primatologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropometricshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nutritional_anthropology&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nutritional_anthropology&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropometricshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primatologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_anthropologyhttp://pzacad.pitzer.edu/~dsegal/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociocultural_evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holism

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Parvathi Kumara Reddy Thavanati & A Chandrasekar 80

childrearing and socialization, religion,

mythology, symbolism, etc.

Linguistic anthropology seeks to

understand the processes of human

communications, verbal and non-verbal,variation in language across time and

space, the social uses of language, and therelationship between language and

culture.

Archaeology studies the contemporarydistribution and form of artifacts

(materials modified by past human

activities), with the intent ofunderstanding distribution and movement

of ancient populations, development of

human social organization, and

relationships among contemporary

populations; it also contributessignificantly to the work of population

geneticists, historical linguists, and many

historians.

In this paper it is mainly

focusing on Molecular Anthropology

which emerging and out coming field ofBiological Anthropology / Physical

Anthropology.

What is Molecular Anthropology?

Molecular Anthropology is a newly emergingdiscipline, which synchronizes the theoretical

and methodological concepts of physical

anthropology and Molecular Genetics in the

study of human diseases and promotion ofhealth of human populations. This includes

the integral approaches of physicalanthropologist with interests in human

biology, human genetics, molecular medicine,

human growth, development and nutrition,

and human being as physical entity, and of a

Socio cultural anthropologist whose interests

are in the areas of health behavior, medicalcare (intervention) systems, health planning,

psychosomatic illness including mental health,

correlation of demographic variables andmainly to trace evolutionary pattern. The

contention is that a Molecular Anthropology

approach suits the best when it emphasizes the

biological basis of health and disease, while at

the same time actively incorporating and

understanding the socio-cultural andeconomical constellations involved in the

nature of sickness process in the society. In

Molecular Anthropology, we use serologicaland biochemical markers not only in personal

identification in forensic science, but also for

clinical purposes in prenatal diagnosis ofgenetic anomalies, genetic counseling,

paternity disputes, sports and industry,

physiological experiments, etc. Thus,

biomedical anthropology has multifaceted

applications in diverse fields of science.

It is a recent field of academic work

called Molecular Anthropology. Molecularbecause information is derived from large

molecules such as proteins and the nucleicacids ribonucleic acids or RNA anddeoxyribonucleic acids or DNA.

It is Anthropology because we

reconstruct the nature of human societies in

their pre-literate stages, before industrial life

came along. As we are about 150,000 yearsold and live in industrial society for at most

400 years, molecular anthropology covers

most of human history. TraditionalAnthropology relied on archaeology (the

study of things left behind by humans long

after they have perished) as well aspaleontology (the study of bones and otheranatomical parts) to draw conclusions about

human life.

Now anthropology draws onadditional layer of information provided by

molecular biology, which is the study of the

structure and function of the large moleculesof living organisms. Knowledge of molecules

by no means replaces the importance of

archaeology or paleontology. It enhances

knowledge by introducing another layer, at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artifact_%28archaeology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artifact_%28archaeology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology

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Anthropology and Genomics 81

times confirming what we know from the

study of things and bones, and at times

questioning it and raising critical debate.

Therefore, molecular anthropology stands at

the cutting edge of modern biology and thesocial sciences. UCT human genetics

professor Raj Ramesar calls it the crossings'

in modern knowledge systems betweennatural, health and social sciences, as well as

the humanities.

It is the field that brings to us

scientific ancestry testing. A growing business

worldwide, everyone is interested in his or her

ancestry. Our first curiosity when we meet one

another is to decipher where we come from.The study of human genetic polymorphisms -

is fast and ever-growing branch of

Anthropology that holds a great promise forboth past and future. Some anthropologists

believe that genetic/Molecular Anthropologyis a science of future but it must be

emphasized that it is a science of the past andpresent too. DNA is an unbroken link to our

ancestors, populations and relatives.

Molecular anthropology is useful in

estimating the contribution of different genepools to the make-up of present-day

populations and test hypotheses about origin

of linguistic and historical populationmovements. In addition, anthropology is

playing a significant role in our understanding

of gene-environment interactions andcontribution of populations to the detection ofgenes in common and complex diseases.

Anthropologists interested in reconstructing

historical population movements and

phylogenetic relationships initially usedclassical genetic data to achieve these aims.

Classical genetic data uses proteins and blood

groups. The classical genetic datacomprehensively provided the basis for the

first phase in the development of molecular

anthropology, which has been remarkably

documented in many international and Indian

research compendiums (Bhasin et al., 1994;

Bhasin and Walter, 2001; Cavalli-Sforza et

al., 1994, Mourant et al., 1976, Nei and

Roychoudhury, 1988). These large-scale

studies have demonstrated that the gene poolis not a simple sum of genes, but is a dynamic

system, which is hierarchal organised and

which maintains the memory of past events inthe history of populations. All genetic

information has a historical, anthropological,

geographical and statistical context, therefore

requires co- operation and collaborationbetween researchers in different fields. The

new or second phase, is utilizing

DNA analysis for the reconstruction

of human population structure, histories andevolution. The potential benefits from this

research are vast and valuable including; a

better understanding of the genetic andevolutionary factors that influence

populations; an understanding of geneticarchitecture of common and complex diseases

such as diabetes mellitus, dementias, heart andskeletal diseases; and a better understanding

of the origin of modern humans. The pattern

of genetic variation in modern human

populations depends on our demographic

history (population migrations, bottlenecksand expansions) as well as gene specific

factors such as mutation rates, recombination

rates and selection pressure. By examiningpatterns of genetic polymorphisms we can

infer how past demographic events and

selection have shaped variation in the genome.Thus, molecular anthropology has importantimplications for evolutionary biology, disease

analyses, and forensics. In this paper, first the

anthropological and genomic basis for genetic

variation is overviewed followed by somespecific empirical research examples

highlighting the usage of the molecular

anthropological investigations. The focus hereis on Indian studies but it cannot be exhaustive

due to space considerations (Sarabjit Mastana,

2007).

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Molecular anthropology is able to

confirm too that we are the descendents of a

single line of human beings and that, at no

time have we successfully cross-bred with

members of our larger family like theNeanderthals. The idea that we constitute

races' is now unquestionably a myth

especially as gene flow has reached even themost isolated populations today.

History of Molecular AnthropologyStructure of human hemoglobin. Hemoglobins

from dozens of animals and even plants were

sequenced in the 1960s and early 1970s With

DNA newly discovered as the genetic

material, in the early 1960s proteinsequencing was beginning to take off (Wilson

and Kaplan 1963). Protein sequencing began

on cytochrome C and Hemoglobin. GerhardBraunitzer sequenced hemoglobin and

myoglobin, in total more than 100s ofsequences from wide ranging species were

done. In 1967 A.C. Wilson began to promotethe idea of a "molecular clock". By 1969

molecular clocking was applied to anthropoid

evolution and V. Sarich and A.C. Wilson

found that albumin and hemoglobin has

comparable rates of evolution, indicatingchimps and humans split about 4 to 5 million

years ago (Wilson, and Sarich (1969). In

1970, Louis Leakey confronted thisconclusion with arguing for improper

calibration of molecular clocks.(Leakey 1970)

By 1975protein sequencing and comparativeserology combined were used to propose thathumans closest living relative (as a species)

was the chimpanzee.(King and Wilson 1975)

In hindsight, the last common ancestor(LCA)

from humans and chimps appears to olderthan the Sarich and Wilson estimate, but not

as old as Leakey claimed , either. However,

Leakey was correct in the divergence of oldand new world monkeys, the value Sarich and

wilson used was a significant underestimate.

This error in prediction capability highlights a

common theme.

Advantages of studying molecular

Anthropology

Two major approaches are used in

Molecular anthropology, which involve

analyzing DNA. The first and most commonapproach is to compare the DNA of groups of

living organisms, for example, comparing

humans to humans or humans toprimates. Thesecond approach relies on isolating and

analyzing DNA from an ancient source, and

comparing it to other ancient DNA or tomodern DNA. In both cases, the number of

differences between the DNA sequences of

the two groups is determined, and these are

used to draw conclusions about the relatedness

of the two groups, or the time since theydiverged from a common ancestor, or both.

The essential postulate on whichmolecular anthropology is based is that closer

genetic similarity indicates a more recentcommon ancestry. All organisms are believed

to have evolved from a single ancestor. Asdifferent life forms evolved, their DNA began

to diverge through the processes ofmutation,

natural selection, and genetic drift. Even

within the same species, populations that do

not interbreed will accumulate geneticdifferences, which increase over time. The

number of these differences is proportional to

the amount of time since the two groupsdiverged. There are several advantages to

comparing DNA data instead of external

physical characteristics (collectively called thephenotype). Environmental factors can shapethe phenotype to make two individuals with

the same genetic makeup look different. For

instance, nutrition has a profound effect on

height, and if we used average height toclassify humans, we might mistakenly

conclude that medieval humans represented

different sub-species because they weresignificantly shorter than modern humans.

DNA comparisons, on the other hand, would

show no significant difference between these

groups. Another advantage is that DNA
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Braunitzerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Braunitzerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoglobinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myoglobinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Wilsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_Sarichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimphttp://cite_note-pmid4982244-2/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Leakeyhttp://cite_note-pmid5002096-3/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_sequencinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimpanzeehttp://cite_note-pmid1090005-4/http://cite_note-pmid1090005-4/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_common_ancestorhttp://www.answers.com/topic/primatehttp://www.answers.com/topic/postulatehttp://www.answers.com/topic/divergehttp://www.answers.com/topic/mutationhttp://www.answers.com/topic/interbreedinghttp://www.answers.com/topic/phenotypehttp://www.answers.com/topic/phenotypehttp://www.answers.com/topic/interbreedinghttp://www.answers.com/topic/mutationhttp://www.answers.com/topic/divergehttp://www.answers.com/topic/postulatehttp://www.answers.com/topic/primatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_common_ancestorhttp://cite_note-pmid1090005-4/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimpanzeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_sequencinghttp://cite_note-pmid5002096-3/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Leakeyhttp://cite_note-pmid4982244-2/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_Sarichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Wilsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myoglobinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoglobinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Braunitzerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Braunitzer

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sequence differences can be easily quantified

two base changes in a gene are more different

than one. Despite being random events,

mutations occur at a fairly steady rate,

constituting a "molecular clock," and so thenumber of differences can be use to estimate

the time since the two organisms shared a

common ancestor. Finally, since all organismscontain DNA, the sequences of any two

organisms can be compared. The same

techniques used in molecular anthropologycan also be applied to evolutionary questions

in other species, to determine the evolutionary

relations between different animal species, for

instance, or even between bacteria and

humans.

Critical Progress

Critical in the history of molecularanthropology.

That molecular phylogenetics couldcompete with comparative anthropology

for determining the proximity of species

to humans.

Wilson and King realized in 1975, thatwhile there was equity between the levels

of molecular evolution branching from

chimp to human to putative LCA, that

there was an inequity in morphological

evolution. Comparative morphologybased on fossils could be biased by

different rates of change (King

M.C.,1975)

Realization that in DNA there aremultiple independent comparisons. Two

techniques, mtDNA and hybridization

converge on a single answer, chimps as a

species are most closely related to

humans.

The ability to resolve population sizes

based on the 2N rule, proposed by

Kimura in the 1950s Kimura M (May

1954). To use that information tocompare relative sizes of population and

come to a conclusion about abundance

that contrasted observations based on the

paleontological record. While human

fossils in the early and middle stone age

are far more abundant than Chimpazee or

Gorilla, there are few unambiguous

chimpanzee or gorilla fossils from thesame period

ConclusionMolecular anthropology is a newly

emerging discipline, which combines the

theoretical and methodological concepts of

physical anthropology and Socio culturalanthropology in the study of disease and

health of human populations. This includes

the integral approaches of physical

anthropologist with interests in humanbiology, human genetics, molecular medicine,

human growth and development, nutrition,

human being as physical entity andevolutionary biology, and of a Socio cultural

anthropologist whose interests are in the areasof health behavior, medical care (intervention)

systems, health planning, psychosomaticillness including mental health, correlation of

demographic variables and mainly to trace

evolutionary pattern.. The contention is that a

Molecular anthropological approach functions

the best when it emphasizes the biologicalbasis of health and disease, while at the same

time actively incorporating and understanding

the socio-cultural nature of the sicknessprocess in the society. Molecular

anthropologist should move into the design

and provision of health services forintervention in improving the health status ofcertain at risk population groups, extending

their life expectancies, lowering morbidity,

mortality, arson, sexually transmitted diseases,

excessive drinking, and the other like publichealth issues. The entry of such unique

expertise is not only welcome in India, but is

imperative also. Thus, the strength ofanthropology lies in its analytical potentials,

constructive suggestions and practical

applications in the society. A Molecular

anthropologist has the responsibility to

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Identify him self with the cause and pursue his

role and goal with commitment and dedication

wherever he is entrusted. I think the study of

genetics of various human traits is still a

virgin area in anthropology. Deciphering andmapping of genes along with identification of

various characters in human genome is a vast

unexplored reservoir, with particular referenceto Indian lineage. Distribution and spread of

various genetic diseases in the world through

migrations, admixture and genetic drift, andexplaining their concentration in particular

geographical and ecological niches is still a

challenging task for a Molecular

anthropologist in India. Further, using the

tools of molecular Anthropology, DNAsequences can be compared among groups to

test hypotheses about the evolutionary

relatedness of organisms, and about the timethat has elapsed since divergence. Molecular

anthropology has made major contributions tounderstanding the migration and mixture

patterns of human groups. It has also providedsignificant new insights into the rise and

spread of modern humans and their relation to

earlier human groups. As more data becomes

available and better models are devised for

their interpretation, the results are likely tobecome less provisional and more certain.

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