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Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journalmerald Article: Utilisation potentials of industrial/mining rejects and

ailings as building materials

mit Rai, D.B.N. Rao

rticle information:

cite this document: Amit Rai, D.B.N. Rao, (2005),"Utilisation potentials of industrial/mining rejects and tailings as building

aterials", Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, Vol. 16 Iss: 6 pp. 605 - 614

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p://dx.doi.org/10.1108/14777830510623673

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Utilisation potentials ofindustrial/mining rejects andtailings as building materials

Amit Rai and D.B.N. RaoBuilding Materials & Technology Promotion Council, India Habitat Centre,

New Delhi, India

Abstract

Purpose This paper aims to provide information on the present status of waste-based buildingmaterials technologies in India.

Design/methodology/approach Numerous approaches are used, including the collection ofauthentic information on the demand for building materials in India; the availability of key building

materials; the utilization of waste from mining, industrial and ore beneficiation industries and R&Dstatus in their role as secondary resource materials; abstract information on proven technologies andfuture prospects; and aspects of technology transfer.

Findings Proven technologies in waste utilization are being standardized and a certificationscheme has been introduced through the Building Material & Technology Promotion Council(BMTPC) and government incentives for all waste.

Practical implications The paper emphasizes the role of the BMTPC in the dissemination ofinformation and the demonstration of new technologies, and also on emphasizes the favorable impacton environmental aspects.

Originality/value The papers findings may encourage the establishment of a wide database onthe new technologies of building materials utilizing various wastes.

Keywords Waste, Buildings, Standardization, Housing, India

Paper type General review

IntroductionGlobalization, rapid population growth and industrial development have led to thegeneration of a huge quantity of industrial waste during the last few decades. Millionsand millions of tonnes of waste have accumulated at different sites, and the fact that itis increasing at an alarming rate has prompted researchers, technologists andentrepreneurs to investigate solutions with technological options. Growing publicawareness about various health hazards and stringent pollution norms of pollutionmonitoring authorities have also created pressure on governments as well as theprivate sector to devise waste management and utilsation solutions for variousenvironmental hazards. Tables I and II give details about the increasing demand and

shortfall of materials for housing in India (Building Materials & TechnologyPromotion Council, 2000). The figures give an idea of the need for the development ofnew building materials using industrial wastes to meet growing demand and to savenatural resources.

Therefore the appropriate utilisation of industrial wastes in the manufacture ofbuilding materials with a waste to wealth or refuse to resource or trash to cashapproach needs to be emphasised to take advantage of dual benefits. The NationalHousing and Habitat Policy lays special emphasis on promoting these environmentally

The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister www.emeraldinsight.com/1477-7835.htm

Utilisation ofindustrial/

mining rejects

605

Management of Environmental

Quality: An International Journal

Vol. 16 No. 6, 2005

pp. 605-614

q Emerald Group Publishing Limited

1477-7835

DOI 10.1108/14777830510623673
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregisterhttp://www.emeraldinsight.com/1477-7835.htmhttp://www.emeraldinsight.com/1477-7835.htmhttp://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister


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friendly alternative materials in order to reduce environmental damage and bridge thegap between demand and supply of traditional materials. Table III presents data on theavailability of industrial wastes and their potential uses.

There is a well recognised group of industrial wastes which has found wide

applications, in almost all parts of India, as alternatives to clay, limestone and variousother argillaceous and siliceous materials in the production of bricks, tiles, cement,concrete, glass and ceramics. This group of wastes has considerable advantages, notonly in the conservation of natural resources, but also in saving precious energy assome of the wastes have their own intrinsic fuel value. Steel and aluminium and avariety of synthetic materials are now considered well established substitutes fortraditional timbers in buildings. Now, India is moving towards an era of adopting allsuch technologies, in which industrial, mining and mineral wastes form an integralpart.

Waste as concrete aggregate

Use of wastes and by-products as concrete aggregate is of great practical significancebecause about 75 percent of concrete is comprised of aggregate. There are several typesof waste materials that can be used as coarse, fine and lightweight aggregates.

Group I waste materials (see Table IV) are characterized by properties likesoundness, strength, shape, abrasion resistance and gradation. Hence, these have thegreatest potential as building material and road ballast and fillers. It has beenestimated that Japan, USA, Canada and UK utilize approximately 90-100 percent of thetotal blast furnace slag that they produce (Building Materials & Technology PromotionCouncil, 1998).

Group II materials are used to a limited extent because they need some processing.These materials include laterite waste, building rubble, steel slag (ferro-alloy industrymetallurgical slag), slag waste, foundry waste and broken glass. These have been used

as aggregates only occasionally. On testing they did not conform to IS specification 383for aggregate, but at the same time, for some curious reason, these aggregates do notfail in soundness. These wastes have not been used very much because they needextensive processing. They are not uniform in terms of physical and chemicalcharacteristics and do not meet the standard requirements of a good aggregate.

Group III materials include tailings of zinc, copper and gold ore beneficiation whichhave been studied for use as a fine aggregate or concrete filler material. Most of thewastes listed under Group III are yet to be evaluated, as they are in the form of sludge

water has to be removed before they can be used as a fine aggregate or as filler inconcrete or in bitumen mastic.

Residential Non-residentialMaterial Urban Rural Industrial RCC Load bearing

Other forms ofconstruction

Cement 195.89 77.26 175.22 117.99 99.91 368.69Steel 21.80 8.23 27.40 23.69 19.36 58.52Timber 13.24 9.26 6.71 4.24 5.31 50.94Bricks 501.76 443.92 208.76 93.77 94.43 785.40

Table I.Projected demand forbuilding materials (inmillions of tonnes) over afive-year interval(2001-2006)

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Cement

Steel

Planperiod

Requirement

Availability

Surplus/shortfall

Averageperyear

RequirementA

vailability

Surplus/shortfall

Averageperyear

2001-2

006

656

.02

623

.63

2

32

.39(24

.49)

2

6.4

8(24

.94)

100

.57

104

.18

3

.61(3

.58)

0

.72(3

.58)

2006-2

011

1034

.97

895

.30

2

139

.67(213

.5)

2

27

.93(213

.5)

158

.72

167

.74

9

.02(5

.68)

1

.80(5

.68)

Notes:Positivevaluesindicateasurplus,

whilenegativevalu

esindicateashortfall;figuresinpare

nthesesarepercentages

Table II.Projected

shortfall/surplus ofcement and steel (in

millions of tonnes) for2001-2006 and 2006-2011


mining rejects

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Technology development in IndiaIn India fly ash is one material which has attracted attention due to the fact that 95million tonnes are generated annually in India. Apart from fly ash, slag, by-productgypsum, red mud and mine tailing are the other wastes which are being commerciallyexploited. Due to all these efforts, fly ash utilization has gone up to 28 percent, and the

major credit goes to the cement industry, having a 49 percent share. Blast furnace slaghas also been utilized commercially to some extent, and the problem of red mud andmine tailing waste has been addressed aggressively with the development andcommercialization of a number of technologies.

Institutes and other organisations involved in building materials research anddevelopment include the laboratories of the Council of Scientific and IndustrialResearch (CSIR) including the Central Building Research Institute (CBRI), theStructural Engineering Research Centre (SERC), the National Environmental

WasteAnnual production(millions of tonnes) Potential uses

Blast furnace slag 11 Portland slag cement, super sulphated cement, oil

well cement, aggregate, ceramicsFerro-alloys slag 3.5 Masonry cement, blended cement, ceramics,

aggregateFly ash 95 Cement, Portland slag cement, concrete, cellular

concrete, lightweight aggregate, calcium silicatebrick, clay fly ash brick

By-product gypsum 4.0 Cement additive, plaster, building-blocks and fibrousgypsum board, special cement

Red mud 3.5 Cement raw material, brick and tiles, sinteredaggregate

Mine tailings (zinc,copper, gold, iron)

17.0 Filler in concrete, calcium silicate brick, cellularconcrete, clay brick and cement

Table III.Production of inorganicindustrial wastes in Indiaand their potential uses

Group I Group II Group III

Blast furnace slag Steel slag Alumina red mudBottom ash Bituminous coal rejects Acetylene lime sludgeFly ash Phosphate slag Sugar lime sludgeBoiler slag Slate mining waste Paper lime sludgeReclaimed concrete Laterite waste Tannery lime sludgeAnthracite coal refuse Foundry waste sand Gold tailingScrap iron Incinerator residue Copper tailingScrap aluminium Waste glass Zinc tailingStone waste Zinc smelter slag Feldspar tailingFeldspar waste Building rubble Iron ore tailingChina clay waste Sawdust Rubber tyresBurnt clay tile waste Coconut pith Marble-dressing wastePhosphogypsumFluorogypsumBorogypsum

Table IV.Classification of wastesand by-products in India

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Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) and the Regional Research Laboratories(RRL) and others such as the Centre for Application of Science and Technology inRural Areas (ASTRA, Bangalore), Development Alternatives (DA), The Institute forSolid Waste Research and Ecological Balance (INSWAREB, Visakhapatnam), the

Centre of Science for Villages (CSV, Wardha), the National Council for Cement andBuilding Materials (NCB, Ballabhgarh), the India Plywood Industries ResearchInstitute (IPIRI, Bangalore), the Forest Research Institute (FRI, Dehradun), the Indian

Jute Industries Research Association (IJIRA, Kolkata), COSTFORD (Thrissur),COSTED (Chennai), CSR (Auroville) and other state-level institutes. These premierresearch and development bodies in India and creative professionals like Laurie Bakerhave come up with many innovative options which can contribute to cost reductionand at the same time offer solutions which are durable, functional and acceptable.

The present scenario of mining and mineral waste utilization is based on theresearch findings of various research groups in this area during the last few decades.About five years ago, the BMTPC started a major project for the characterisation ofmining and mineral wastes in order to understand their basic physical, chemical and

mechanical/engineering properties in order to develop a database. The main emphasisof the project to create the database was to present all the information in a ready formof all the basic properties. One of the projects covered seven major wastes forcharacterization. These wastes were characterized and tested for the production ofburnt clay bricks. These bricks were tested as per IS 1077 for burnt clay bricks. Thetest results are summarized in Table V (Rai, 2000).

On the basis of the above finding a detailed study was conducted for bricks usingcopper tailing. Now the BMTPC is in the process to start a pilot plant to commercializethe plant near Hindustan Copper Limited, Khetri, Rajasthan, India. During the last fewyears BMTPC has initiated work on the development and promotion of the followingother technologies (Table VI) (Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council,

n.d.).Apart from this, in India, various technologies were developed from time to time inwhich fly ash and slag-based technologies found wide acceptance. But othertechnology needs a lot of effort for commercialization, and various agencies (e.g. DST,NRDC, BMTPC, TIFAC) are working towards this.

Networking and technology transferIn order to bridge the gap between research and development and large-scaleapplication of new building materials and technologies, in 1990 the Government of

Sample no. Sample mark Sample

Water absorption

(percent)

Density

(g/cc)

Compressive strength

(kg/cm

2

)

1 ZT Zinc tailing 19.50 1.89 175.002 CT Copper tailing 17.70 1.84 260.003 IT Iron tailing 20.90 1.76 130.004 GT Gold tailing 20.00 1.84 117.005 CO Copper over burden 21.00 1.76 115.106 L Low MnO slag 17.02 1.89 218.407 H High MnO slag 18.75 1.97 134.00

Table V.The average values of

properties of bricks madeof mine tailings and slag


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India established the Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC)

as an inter-ministerial body under the aegis of the Ministry of Urban Development. The

mandate given to the Council includes tasks such as:

. identification of potential technologies;

. scaling up of proven technologies for commercialization;

. diffusion of technologies;

. services to industry for technical assistance and guidance;

. standardization and certification; and

. development, assistance and the promotion of alternate innovative buildingmaterials and technologies.

The BMTPC has been playing a vital role creating and harnessing a fund of

technological talent, useful for upgrading of construction materials and other aspects

of construction industry. As an apex level institution and a nucleus of technology

transfer in India, the Council interfaces with R&D institutions, standardization

organisations, industrial promotion and financial institutions, and different players

from construction agencies in carrying out its multi-disciplinary activities. While

functioning as a national apex coordination body, the Council fosters its linkages

through national dialogues with the governmental organisations, professional bodies,

the industry and active NGOs in the sector. The Council has been undertaking thefollowing to improve productivity, efficiency and quality in the construction sector:

. collection of scientific and technological information comprehensively on a world

wide scale;

. processing of this information systematically; and

. dissemination of information rapidly and appropriately to organisations and

individuals, regularly or on request.

Material Technology transferred/promoted

Fly ash Clay fly ash bricksFly ash sand lime bricks

Fly ash lightweight aggregateFly ash blended cement

Red mud Red mud polymer door shutterRed mud binderRed mud bricksRed mud glass ceramics

Metallurgical slag Blended cementCeramic tiles

By-product gypsum BinderDoor/window panelFalse ceiling/partition materialsWalling/flooring building components

Table VI.Mining andmineral-based technologypromoted by BMTPC

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India has placed considerable and continued faith in science and technology to increasethe pace of economic and industrial development and to improve the living standardsand quality of life of its people. It has been easy to build a large infrastructure foreducation, research and industry. But India still finds it difficult to generate the

common climate and culture for maximizing returns from them, by making education,research and industry interact intimately to form a trinity.

Since 1965, a series of recommendations have been made at various forums for aregional mechanism to accelerate the transfer of technology with the Asia Pacificregion in the field of low-cost housing. In Europe, Basin is the first attempt tocoordinate and monitor this, with the support of a data bank created by appropriatetechnology institutions/organisations in specific areas relating to low-cost buildingmaterials and construction technologies for the initiation of information flow intodeveloping countries. Its work is closely coordinated with resource centres indeveloping countries. A similar network centre is therefore of vital importanceconsidering the housing conditions in the countries of the Asia Pacific region and thepromotion of human settlements. Unfortunately, the lack of a database, the absence ofa suitable technology transfer mechanism and a poor response in human resourcedevelopment have slowed down the pace of development, particularly in the field ofproduction of low-cost building materials and the application of appropriateconstruction techniques. It is therefore necessary to create a regional network withthe objective of carrying out this function. In this task, the utilization of industrialmining/mineral wastes and tailings assumes a significant importance.

International exhibitions organized by the Council. Exhibition on the theme IDNDR International Demonstration Projects during

the World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction, Yokohama, May 23-27,

1994.. INDEXPO 94, organised by HUDCO on behalf of the Ministry of Urban

Development, Johannesburg, August 22-28, 1994.

. Exhibition on Building and Construction 94, Ho Chi Minh City, October 4-8,1994.

. Plastic Waste Management Technology Transfer Form in Commonwealth,Kuala Lumpur.

. World Tech 95, International Trade Fair organised by ITPO NekhonRatchasima, Bangkok, November 4-December 16, 1995.

. Exhibition titled Towards Goals of Habitat II, Sustainable Human Settlements

& Housing for All, Display Centre, Nirman Bhawan, New Delhi, organised bythe Council during the visit of the Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago,January 24, 1997.

. Habitat II International Trade Fair, Istanbul, June 3-10, 1996. The India Pavilionwas managed, coordinated and organised by BMTPC at the behest of theMinistry of Urban Affairs & Employment.

. Exhibition titled Shelter for All Towards Visible Settlements The IndianExperience, at three locations in Trinidad and Tobago, April 14-May 4, 1997.


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. Exhibition at UNCHS during the session of the Commission on HumanSettlements, Nairobi, April 28-May 7, 1997.

. Exhibition titled Shelter for ALL Towards Viable Settlements: The IndianExperience, Kampala, April 3-10, 1998.

. India-UNIDO Exhibition on Building Materials and Manufacturing Technologiesfor Low Cost Housing in Africa, Dar-es-Salaam, June 30-July 9, 2000.

. India-UNIDO Exhibition-cum-Seminar on Building Materials and ManufacturingTechnologies for Low Cost Housing in Latin America, Caracas, May 15-19, 2002.

. Participation of BMTPC in Technology Fair of the Future, Sao Paulo,June 14-18, 2004.

Details of all these events can be found in Building Materials & Technology PromotionCouncil (various).

Role of standardisation for new technologies

The development and commercialization of new materials and technologies do notalways guarantee success in the field due to a variety of reasons. Major inhibitors inthe use of new materials and technologies are:

. ignorance about the new materials/technologies;

. attachment to conventional materials/techniques on the part of architects,engineers and users;

. indifference to the benefits of change;

. lack of design data and documentation;

. lack of skill in using such materials;

. fears regarding performance, durability, etc., in the absence of national

standards; and. lack of adaptability on the part government of agencies to new materials and

technologies.

Performance Appraisal Certification SchemeStandardization has played an important role in achieving the desired objectives.Several materials and techniques have been standardized at different levels (e.g.company, association, national/international level) and documented as standard.However, at a national level, for the effective use of materials and systems, nationalstandards are required. Compliance with a national standard, preferably one developedby third party/independent agencies like the Standard Mark Scheme operated by BIS,is considered a means to encourage confidence in users regarding the suitability ofmaterials/systems. However, not all materials/systems, especially newly developedones, are covered by Indian standards and therefore cannot be covered under theStandard Mark Scheme. The process of the formulation of a standard at the nationallevel requires necessary and authentic data regarding performance, including testing,durability, usability and a general acceptance of the material/technique by all thoseinvolved in the formulation of the standard. Due to a variety of reasons (e.g. a lack oftechnical data, the product being a proprietary item, the absence of a code of practice,lack of acceptance at national level, etc.) a time gap remains between the introduction

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of a new/innovative material/system and the availability of a national standard on thesubject. Therefore, many such technologies/materials are not easily translated intofield use, although they have the potential to replace conventional materials.

The Performance Appraisal Certification Scheme (PACS), introduced by the

Ministry of Urban Development & Poverty Alleviation of the Government of Indiathrough the BMTPC, aims to counter inhibitors to the adoption of new materials andtechnologies through the issuing of Performance Appraisal Certificates for manyproducts (Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council, n.d.).

PACS also focuses on those policies of the Government that are designed toencourage small-scale units, the use of local materials, environmental protection,pollution control and energy conservation.

Conceived in a similar fashion to other such schemes in operation in other countrieslike the United Kingdom, France, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia, PACS is athird-party operated voluntary scheme for providing a Performance AppraisalCertificate (PAC) to manufacturers/suppliers/installers of building products (includingbuilding materials, products, components, elements and systems, etc.) after a dueprocess of assessment. The assessment process includes:

. establishing criteria for the performance of the product;

. verifying through laboratory and field tests that the product conforms torequirements for satisfactory performance, durability and safety;

. operation of a Quality Assurance Scheme by the manufacturer/supplier/installer;

. issue of PAC providing, amongst other things, necessary data to designers andusers; and

. the operation of PAC includes a mechanism for obtaining proactive userfeedback and user complaint redress.

The verification process is a periodic activity, not merely confined to the initialgranting of the Certificate.

ConclusionThis paper emphasises the role of the utilization of industrial, mining/mineral wastesand tailings as secondary raw materials in the manufacture of common buildingmaterials such as cement, bricks, concrete, panel products, etc. and also in otherconstruction and infrastructure development activities. The information reportedpoints towards global trends in this area, with the most desirable benefits of savings inbasic raw materials, energy conservation and the elimination of environmentaldegradation through profitable avenues of disposal of waste, production of which in

India is more than 500 million tonnes/year.The paper also highlights the importance of technology transfer through the

compilation of a sound database and pilot demonstrations at national and internationallevels. The paper therefore outlines the role played by the Building Materials &Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC), part of the Ministry of Urban Employment& Poverty Alleviation in India. Another approach by BMTPC, through the use of thePerformance Appraisal Certificates Scheme for materials and technologies, is also veryappropriate.


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References

Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council (1998), Building Materials in India:50 Years A Commemorative Volume, Building Materials & Technology PromotionCouncil, New Delhi.

Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council (2000), Housing & Key Building Materialsin India: A Long Term Perspective 1991-2011, Building Materials & TechnologyPromotion Council, New Delhi.

Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council (n.d.), Information brochure forPerformance Appraisal Certification Scheme of BMTPC, Building Materials &Technology Promotion Council, New Delhi, available at: http://www.bmtpc.org/pacs/frequently_asked_questions.htm

Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council (n.d.), Strengthening the technologicalbase of the building materials industry, Building Materials & Technology PromotionCouncil, New Delhi, available at: http://www.bmtpc.org/pubs/strengthening.pdf

Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council (various), Annual Reports, BuildingMaterials & Technology Promotion Council, New Delhi.

Rai, A. (2000), database on characterization of inorganic waste materials, submitted to BuildingMaterials & Technology Promotion Council, New Delhi.

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