105
Risk Management Lessons from Long-Term Capital Management 簡報 / 吳培菱 吳岱恩 張博能 楊庭杰 Philippe Jorion Published in: European Financial Management 6(September 2000): 277 300

Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

Page 1: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Risk Management Lessons from Long-Term Capital Management

簡報⼈人 / 吳培菱 吳岱恩 張博能 楊庭杰

Philippe JorionPublished in: European Financial Management 6(September 2000): 277 300

Page 2: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

論⽂文架構

Section1 Overview of the Long-term Capital Management (LTCM) saga

Section2 Review how to use the Value at Risk (VAR) to assess the capital

Section3 Discuss how the portfolio optimization(PO) went wrong

Section4 & 5 LTCM’s Risk Profile & Concluding comment

VARLeverage

Risk

LTCM

Page 3: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

本⽇日⼤大綱

21

3 4

LTCM 公司介紹LTCM 投資策略LTCM 如何隕落

VAR 介紹LTCM ⾵風險管理模型偏誤

LTCM 投資組合資產相關程度⾵風險估計偏誤

⾵風險概況

LTCM隕落結論整理

Page 4: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

曾經有⼀一家避險基⾦金公司只⽤用四年的時間,震撼了華爾街

但在第五年,卻突然⾯面臨了巨額虧損

倒閉前還把整個華爾街和美國政府⼀一起拖下⽔水。

Page 5: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

共同基⾦金 避險基⾦金

報酬⺫⽬目標 追求相對於指標指數的 相對報酬率 追求絕對報酬率

費⽤用 管理費 管理費(1%) 績效費(20%)

操作策略 較簡單 買進持有(buy and hold)

較具彈性 可放空、可使⽤用槓桿、 亦可交易衍⽣生性⾦金融商品

⾵風險較⼤大

無法使⽤用避險⼯工具, 或僅有少數避險⼯工具可供使⽤用

較⼩小 可使⽤用避險⼯工具降低⾵風險

透明度及 控制權

投資⼈人擁有較⾼高⾃自主權 與資訊取得權利

控制權主要在經理⼈人⼿手中, 投資⼈人的⾃自主空間相對縮⼩小。 亦不受主管機關監管。

報酬預測 預測共同基⾦金的報酬率 與預測市場⾛走勢⼀一樣困難

投資⼈人可預測某些策略的報酬區間、 可能之最⼤大獲利與最⼤大損失

Page 6: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

What happened ?

Page 7: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

LTCM’s Saga

Page 8: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

John Meriwether & Salomon Brothers1965 1970 1975

• 匯率固定

• 利率管制

• ⾦金價穩定 • 通貨膨脹

• ⽯石油危機

• 放鬆管制

1977

• 成⽴立套利部⾨門(Arbitrage Group)

John Meriwether

Page 9: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

1980 1985 1990

1977

(Arbitrage Group)

1995

1983

Eric Rosenfeld+Gregory Hawkins+William Krasker+Lawrence Hilibrand+

Scandal1991

✦ 成⽴立LTCM

+

+

+David Mullins

+USD$50 m/year

John Meriwether & Salomon Brothers

Page 10: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Market is Efficient

Page 11: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

LTCM1990

1992✦ LTCM 成⽴立

融資⺫⽬目標:USD$2.5b

績效費: 25%

管理費: 2%

閉鎖期間: 3年

投資⾦金額下限: USD$10 m

不提供正式的投資報告

Page 12: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

1990 1995

1992✦ LTCM 成⽴立

+USD$1.25 b

• 義⼤大利銀⾏行• 瑞⼠士信貸• 瑞⼠士銀⾏行• 美林證券• ⾹香港地產開發局• 新加坡政府投資公司• 台灣銀⾏行• 曼⾕谷銀⾏行• HP CEO 唐納德·⾺馬⻯⿓龍

• 花旗集團 桑迪•威爾• ⿆麥肯錫合夥⼈人• ⾙貝爾斯登執⾏行⻑⾧長肯恩• 德國德利銀⾏行• ⽇日本住友銀⾏行• 英國保誠⼈人壽公司• 瑞⼠士寶盛銀⾏行• 共和國國家銀⾏行• 聖約翰⼤大學捐贈基⾦金

1994.02✦ LTCM 開張

LTCM

+ +Eric Rosenfeld

Gregory Hawkins

William Krasker

Lawrence Hilibrand

+

David Mullins

++++

+USD$50 m/year

Page 13: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

LTCM

0

1250

2500

3750

5000

0

15

30

45

60

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Annual return (%) Equity (million)

4,990.3

3,990.4

2,540.4

1,6001,250

25

5759

2828

59 57

25

+USD$ 3,740,260,000

Page 14: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

A 當期國債與⾮非當期國債交易 (On the run vs. Off the run bond)

B 信⽤用價差套利 (Credit Spresd trades)

C 出售波動度策略 (Selling volatility)

交易策略

Page 15: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

On the run vs.

Off the run bond

Page 16: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

6%

2013

6.1%

2013

6.0%

2014

on the runoff the run

賺得10bp/元

6.0%on the run

6.1%off the run

Converge

Tiny profit Big leverage

當期國債與⾮非當期國債交易 (On the run vs. Off the run bond)

shortlong

Page 17: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

• 1994:

美國當期債券(On the run)與⾮非當期債券(Off the

run)相差12 bp

• LTCM⼤大量買⼊入⾮非當期債券、賣出當期債券

當期國債與⾮非當期國債交易 (On the run vs. Off the run bond)

Page 18: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

LTCM Bank回購債券

⽀支付現⾦金+回購利息

LTCM Bank以1.25 b為擔保

借⼊入 2 b 現⾦金

LTCM Market2 b

買⼊入 2 b ⾮非當期國債

LTCM Market以 2 b 為擔保

放空 2 b 當期國債

LTCM Bank以2 b⾮非當期國債為擔保

借⼊入 2 b - Hair cut

Repos

Page 19: Long-Term Capital Management Intro
Page 20: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

1998

✦ 25% 1997年報酬率

1998.08.17

• 俄羅斯國債違約

• 信⽤用利差(credit spread)、

⾵風險貼⽔水(risk premia)、

流動性價差(liquidity spread)飆升

- USD$550 m /day x55

LTCM

Page 21: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Credit Spread Trades

Page 22: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

信⽤用價差套利 (Credit Spresd trades)

1997. 亞洲⾦金融危機, 使俄羅斯國債與美國國債之間的yield spread 過⾼高

Converge

long

俄羅斯

high yield

short

美國

low yield

1998. 俄羅斯⾦金融危機

俄羅斯

long

high yield

Diverge 美國

short

low yield

Page 23: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

1998.09

- USD$550 m /day

1998.08.17

HELP!!

• 股市波動度劇增• 出售波動度交易虧損

1998.09.21

LTCM

Page 24: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Selling volatility

Page 25: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

出售波動度 (Selling volatility)

1998. 市場剛經歷亞洲⾦金融⾵風暴,隱含波動度過⾼高

shortVIX

Option

Page 26: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

1998.09

- USD$550 m /day

1998.08.17

HELP!!

• 股市波動度劇增• 出售波動度交易虧損

1998.09.21

- USD$550 m /day

LTCM

• Margin call耗盡所有流動性資產

Page 27: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

- USD$5,500,000 /day

1998.09.23

Bailout!

x14 +USD$3.6 b

1998.09.21

LTCM

• Next-to-zero haircut• ⾦金融機構急欲變現

LTCM的Repo• 設⽴立於開曼群島

Page 28: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

1998.09.28

x14

+USD$3.6 b

1998.09.23

+• LTCM已損失83%資產,共損失USD$4.4 b• 避險基⾦金價值僅存USD$400 m• 投資⼈人損失92%原始投資⾦金額

40.9%

15.9%

43.2%

PartnersUnion Bank of SwitzerlandOther Investors

LTCM

Page 29: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

1999.121998.12

• Oversight Partners I LLC• portfolio gained 13%

• LTCM 解散 • 還清負債

未完待續

LTCM

Page 30: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

VAR & Equity Capital

Page 31: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

釐清風險來源 衡量風險程度 控制風險

Page 32: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

► Introduction of VAR

► Equity coverage

Page 33: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

What is VAR ?Variance ?

Vector AutoRegression?

Page 34: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Value At Risk 風險值 u Definition 定義

- The worst loss that can happen under normal market conditions over a specified horizon at a specified confidence level.

- 在某一特定時間內、某一信賴水準下,金融商品由於價格變動所產生

的最大損失。

u Basel Committee on Banking Supervision

- Horizon : 10 day

- Confidence level : 99%

Value At Risk

Page 35: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

u Application

- 與市場⾵風險(market risk) 作連接,將⾵風險化為具體數據,作為解析和判斷相對⾵風險

- 交易若發⽣生突發損失,作為緩衝,所需資本的量

Value At Risk

Page 36: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Equity coverage

Page 37: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Desired rating� 1-year probability of default�

Equity coverage�normal� t(6)� t(4)�

Aaa 0.009� 3.75� 9.26� 15.96�Aa1� 0015� 3.62� 8.45� 14.03�Aa2� 0.022� 3.51� 7.89� 12.72�Aa3� 0.035� 3.39� 7.25� 11.30�A1� 0.05� 3.29� 6.79� 10.31�A2� 0.06� 3.24� 6.56� 9.83�A3� 0.07� 3.19� 6.37� 9.45�

Baa1� 0.13� 3.01� 5.67� 8.04�Baa2 0.16� 2.95� 5.44� 7.61�Baa3 0.7� 2.46� 4.01� 5.10�Ba1 1.25� 2.24� 3.52� 4.31�Ba2 1.79� 2.10� 3.23� 3.88�Ba3 3.96� 1.76� 2.62� 3.01�B1 6.14� 1.54� 2.30� 2.58�B2 8.31� 1.38� 2.08� 2.30�B3 15.08� 1.03� 1.65� 1.77�

Equity coverage(權益覆蓋率)

The number of annual S.D. necessary to achieve desired default probability.

VAR 協助訂定信賴⽔水準

Page 38: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Desired rating1-year

probability of default

Equity coveragenormal t(6) t(4)

Aa2 0.022 3.51 7.89 12.72 

Page 39: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

LTCM’s Risk Management Story

Page 40: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

How to apply VAR

to the LTCM story ?

Page 41: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

u 1978-1997 S&P 500 annual average volatility 15%

u σ daily $ =4.7b x 15% ÷ √(252)= 44m

u In May 1998, LTCM’s target daily volatility was 45m

Page 42: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Heroic assumption

{ 1 波動度是固定的

2 報酬分配為對稱

3 報酬符合常態分配

Page 43: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

波動度是固定的

事實上,在發⽣生狀況時,波動度會飆升!

1

Page 44: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Merton(1974)

選擇權賣⽅方-

上⽅方⾵風險有限

下⽅方⾵風險無限

short call

short put

2 報酬分配是對稱

Page 45: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

3 報酬符合 常態分配

實際上發⽣生極端情況的機率, ⽐比常態分配⾼高, 具有厚尾(Fat Tail)現象

Page 46: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Biases show upreturn annually = 18%

return monthly = 4.7b x 18% ÷12 = 71 m

VAR daily, 99% = 105m

VAR monthly, 99% = 105m x √21 =480 m

480 m - 71 m =409 m

May, 1998 June, 1998

310 m 450m 409 m 71 m

Largest Acceptable Loss

0

Page 47: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

u 移除投資組合中獲利較少的投資

u 然⽽而此舉也移除了投資組合中流

動性較佳的投資

u 因此,造成LTCM更無⼒力應付之後

的保證⾦金催繳

Adjustment

Page 48: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

u 每⽇日的計算波動,仍與模型計算的相異

u 可能有些錯誤

After adjustment

市場的波動度增加1模型有偏誤2

Page 49: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

♦ 1995-1997

平均波動度低於歷史⽔水準

♦ 1998.08

波動度飆升

0.019

Above 0.04

市場的波動度增加1

Page 50: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

u 1998. 8 lost 1710m

u σ monthly,$ = 45m x √21 = 206m

u 1710m ÷ 206m = 8.3 σ

u Occur once every 800 trillion

years

- Thus, normal assumption was

surely wrong.

u If assume with fatter tails, such as

Student t(4)

- Occur once every 8 years

- ➜ make sense

模型有偏誤2

Page 51: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

u 依據歷史資料去評估 - 低估⾵風險

模型有偏誤2

Page 52: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Some lessons1 壓⼒力測試的重要性 ➜估計最⼤大損失為 2.3b ➔1998年實際最⼤大損失為4.4b

2 歸因於兩種因素造成更⼤大損失

{ 投資部位規模

資產的流動性

Page 53: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Portfolio & Leverage

Page 54: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

債券

公司債券

房屋抵押債券

避險基⾦金

利率交換

套利策略

過期公債

當期公債

出售波動度策略

價差策略

低估⾵風險值

波動度變化

⾵風險值

模型估計偏誤

Value At Risk回購協議

操作槓桿收斂套利

MBS

流動性溢酬 信⽤用⾵風險

違約⾵風險

市場中⽴立策略

⻑⾧長期資本管理公司

Page 55: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

隨著越來越多的⼈人進⼊入這個市場,

要想發現新的市場不均衡,

並且從中獲利變得很困難。

Page 56: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

加⼤大投資槓桿“”

Page 57: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Risk

Return

Efficient frontier

Different Utility function

Risk-free rate

Market Optimal Portfolio

High leverage !

Page 58: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Corporate Bond

預期報酬: 7.28%

波動度: 1.58%

BAA-rated

Treasure Bond

預期報酬率: 5.75%

波動度: 1.90 %

公司債 vs. 國債

相對利差= 7.28% - 5.75% = 1.53%

買 賣

Page 59: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

建構⼀一組投資組合

效⽤用函數

找尋效⽤用最佳資產配置權重{ }

Page 60: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Portfolio and Leverage

Market Optimal Portfolio

High leverage !

“ Leverage ratio ≑20 ”“ Expected Annual Return ≑ 40% ”

Page 61: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Corporate Bond

預期報酬: 7.28%

波動度: 1.58%

Treasure Bond

預期報酬率: 5.75%

波動度: 1.90 %

相關係數: 0.9654

無⾵風險資產報酬: 5.36%

Input Data (⾼高度相關的兩個資產)

December 1997買

Page 62: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Output Data

Output Data(Position for 1 equity)

Corporate Bond: $19.66

Treasure Bond: -$15.60

Risk Free Asset: -$3.06

Page 63: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Figure 6 Table 2

Optimal Portfolio Return

初始資產

⽉月報酬率

⽉月波動度

年報酬率

年波動度

Risk

$1 $4,700m

每⽇日波動度

3.1% $145m

8.1% $382m

37.0% $1,740m

28.1% $1,322m

1.8% $83m

Page 64: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Ratio of equity to SD

= Equity Coverage(權益覆蓋率)

= Safety Factor(安全因⼦子)

i.e: Sum of Bond is $1 = $19.66 - $15.60 - 3.06Monthly volatility is 0.081.

Thus, safety factor value means $1/$0.081=12.3

Page 65: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

What’s the

Problem?

Page 66: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Portfolio’s Problem

Page 67: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

𝞀 =0.9654

Does it make sense?

“”

Always?1993~1997

Page 68: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

兩年的移動平均 v.s 五年的移動平均

1998 𝞀=0.8

1992 𝞀=0.75

Page 69: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

1998

8.1%

13.65%

0.965

1997

19.24%

資產相關程度與⾵風險程度

Page 70: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Ratio of equity to SD

= Equity Coverage (權益覆蓋率)

= Safety Factor (安全因⼦子)

1. December 1997(𝞀=0.965 S.D=8.1%)The safety factor = 1/0.081 = 12.34

2. In 1998(𝞀=0.8, S.D=19.24%)The safety factor = 5.20

Page 71: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Rho S.D Safety Factor

Monthly Probability of Ruin Normal Student-6 Student-4

0.970 7.58% 13.19 0% 0.00059% 0.000954%

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

0.800 19.24% 5.20 0% 0.1009% 0.32637%

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Table 3

171倍 342倍

Page 72: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Ju & Pearson(1999)- (True VAR / Estimated VAR)

Model

Observation(T)

Number of Assets (N)

10 20 50 100

Moving Average

50 123% 164%

100 110% 124% 201%

200 105% 111% 133% 199%

1000 101% 102% 105% 111%

Exponential 135% 185% 485% 2174%

Page 73: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

LTCM’s Risk Profile

Page 74: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

1

2

⾵風險集中度⾼高

假設錯誤 ➜ 低估⾵風險

LTCM 的隕落...

Page 75: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

違約⾵風險

1 ⾵風險集中度⾼高

{ }市場⾵風險

流動性⾵風險

Page 76: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Portfolio to Risk Factors

TradeLoss if risk factor increase

Long interest swap

Short equity options

Long off-the-run/ Short on-the-run Treasures

Long MBS securities(hedge)

Long sovereign debt

volatility default illiquidity

Table 5

Page 77: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

2 假設錯誤 ➜ 低估⾵風險

常態分配

獲利&損失呈現對稱波動度不變

Page 78: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Oct 245million�

Target 45million�

低估波動的的潛在⾵風險

Page 79: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

1998 年五⽉月 俄羅斯⾦金融危機爆發

債券價差的改變與預期相反

Page 80: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

short call

報酬分配的假設錯誤

Page 81: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

波動度常數假設錯誤

Page 82: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

LTCM vs. 投資銀⾏行

⾵風險因⼦子

⻑⾧長期資本管理公司 ⼀一般投資銀⾏行

較少 投資組合較多樣化

籌資速度 較慢 較快

勝!

勝!

波動度增加 損失 受益勝!

Page 83: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Conclusion

Page 84: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

LTCM失敗的關鍵槓桿+部位 ➜ ⽅方向錯誤容易瞬間⽡瓦解

⼤大

⾵風險 ➜ 集中過

假設不合理{ 模型常態分配

變異數常數

資產相關係數固定

1

2

(流動性⾵風險⇡)

3

4 VAR 能將市場⾵風險數據化但沒有考慮到流動性⾵風險等其他⾵風險

Page 85: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

⿊黑天鵝效應

Page 86: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

沒有⼀一個模型可以完全預測市場“ ”

Page 87: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Q & A ?

Page 88: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Thanks foryour attention

Page 89: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

附錄

Page 90: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Part 1

Page 91: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Robert C. Merton

哥倫⽐比亞⼯工程數學學⼠士

加州理⼯工理學碩⼠士

⿇麻省理⼯工經濟學博⼠士,師承Paul Samuelson

研究投資組合、選擇權定價理論

將⽤用於定價選擇權的數學分析⽅方法更廣泛地應⽤用在⾦金融領域上,

此後財務⼯工程學興起,進⽽而促進全球衍⽣生性⾦金融商品的繁榮

Page 92: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Dream TeamJohn Meriwether Robert C. Merton Myron Scholes

David Mullins Lawrence Hilibrand

Eric Rosenfeld Gregory Hawkins

William Krasker

Richard Leahy

Page 93: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

資產(Asset)� 負債(Liability)

現金 12.5億 REPO� 20億

同業拆放 20億 賣出公債 20億

買進公債 20億 資本(Equity) 12.5億

52.5億 52.5億

槓桿比率(Leverage ratio)=52.5/12.5=4.2

當期國債與⾮非當期國債交易 (On the run vs. Off the run bond)

Page 94: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

1995

核⼼心資本

50億

將30億資本抵押借⼊入

1250億

透過1250億擔保,操作表外衍⽣生性⾦金融商品

1.25兆

x25

x10

x250

Page 95: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

x25x28

x31

x55

Page 96: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Part 2

Page 97: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

u Measure

1. Horizon

- Related to liquidity of the assets.

- The normal reaction time should run into difficulties.

2. Confidence level

- High enough that the probability of exceeding VAR is very low.

Value At Risk

Page 98: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Value At Risk

LTCM

By the end of August, 1998

Equity capital 2.3 b

Excess liquidity 1 b

Reduce risk1

Raise fresh capital2

The size of its positions is

too enormous to cut its

risk exposure fast.

LTCM unable to attract

new investors.

Raise fresh capital2

Page 99: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Three major approaches of measurement:

JPM Risk Metrics (or variance/covariance approach)

Historic or Back Simulation

Monte Carlo Simulation

Value At Risk

Page 100: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Value At Risk-RiskMetrics Model

Daily Earning at Risk (DEAR)

= Dollars market value of position x price volatility

DEAR⬇p = √ DEAR⬇A ⬆2 + DEAR⬇B⬆2 + 2ρ⬇AB x DEAR⬇A DEAR⬇ B

Value at Risk = DEAR x √days

Page 101: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Revalue portfolio based on actual prices (returns) on the

assets that the day before

calculate 5% worst-case outcomes

Value At Risk-Historic Simulation

Page 102: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Value At Risk

Future

Face value 100m

Margin 10mPayoff 5m

u VAR resolves the paradox of how to

calculate rate of return that require

no upfront investment.

u Just consider the amount of equity

capital to cover most of the potential

losses at the predetermined

confidence level.

Page 103: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Part 3

Page 104: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

Notation of Portfolio Optimization

µ = µ1 µ2 ... µn⎡⎣

⎤⎦t

ω = ω1 ω 2 ... ω n⎡⎣

⎤⎦t

∑ =Var(µ) = σ ij⎡⎣ ⎤⎦n×n =

σ 12 σ 12 ... σ 1n

σ 21 σ 22 ... σ 2n

! ! ! !σ n1 σ n2 ... σ n

2

⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢

⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥

µp =ω1µ1 +ω 2µ2 + ...+ω nµn = ω iµii=1

n

Page 105: Long-Term Capital Management Intro

λ

𝛔 𝛔 𝛔

預期報酬 預期報酬 預期報酬λ >0 λ < 0

⾵風險趨避 ⾵風險中⽴立 ⾵風險愛好