The Big 5Five really important topics

SUSAN SCHOENIANSHEEP & GOAT SPECIALIST

UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND EXTENSIONSSCHOEN@UMD.EDU – SHEEPANDGOAT.COM – WORMX.INFO

TODAY’S SCHEDULE

TIME TOPIC

1 10 AM Maintaining hoof health

2 10:30 AM Increasing the birthing rate

3 11 AM Minimizing feed costs

4 11:30 AM Maximizing the potential of orphans

12 PM LUNCH

5 1 PM Managing internal parasitism

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Almost everything I say today is equally applicable to sheep and goats. Sheep are goats are sheep

Maintaining hoof health

• Is it foot scald or foot rot?

• How do I eradicate foot rot?

• Do you have some animals that are perpetually infected?

University of Maine Sheep Foot Health Research & Educationhttp://umaine.edu/sheep/

Hoof care is an important aspect of small ruminant management.

• Hoof health can affect an animal’s performance, disease resistance, and welfare.

• Hooves should be checked regularly for disease and excess or abnormal growth.

• Animals with diseased hooves or excessive or abnormal hoof growth should be culled.

• Lack of proper hoof care is an ANIMAL WELFARE ISSUE.

The need for hoof trimming varies.• From every few months to seldom to

never; average is probably once per year.

• Hoof growth is affected by many different factors, including species, breed, animal, nutrition, environment, and management.

• The more you trim hooves the more you trim hooves

• Over-zealous hoof trimming is discouraged. You should avoid drawing blood when trimming hooves.

What do you need trim hooves?Proper equipment

• Hoof shears (trimmers)• Hoof knife

(for thorough trimming) • Spray bottle

(to spray zinc sulfate solution on trimmed hooves)

• Brush• Tight fitting gloves• Disinfectant

(to disinfect between animals)

Proper restraint• Tip on rump (sheep)• While standing - lift feet

(goats)• While tied to gate• On milking or trimming

stand• On elevated platform

• Chair (sheep)

There are three primary hoof diseases.Foot scald Foot rotFoot abscess

Hoof diseases are bacterial infections.

• Occurs when Actinomyces bacteria invade tissue already weakened by interdigital infection.

• Usually only affects one hoof or digit.

• Overweight and mature animals most vulnerable.

• Not contagious

• Caused by interaction of two anaerobic bacteria (F. necrophorum and Dichelobacter nodosus).

• D. nodosus is introduced to farm, usually in hoof of carrier animal.

• Involves separation of horny tissues of hoof.

• Using affects both claws and multiple hooves.

• Highly contagious• Difficulty to eradicate• Can be a significant welfare

issue.

Foot scald Foot rotFoot abscess

• Caused by bacteria (Fusobacterium necrophorum) that is present wherever there are sheep, goats, and/or cattle.

• Starts with irritation (due to trauma or moisture) of interdigital tissue.

• Results in redness or inflammation of tissue between claws.

• Outbreaks occur during periods of wet weather.

• Not contagious, but can be a pre-cursor to foot abscesses and foot rot

Facts about footrot• Footrot is an introduced disease.• There are different strains of foot rot. • The bacteria that causes foot rot can

survive in the hooves of chronically-infected animals for ~3 years, but only for 14 days in the soil, manure, or pasture.

• Warm, moist conditions favor hoof disease.• Livestock do not develop immunity to

footrot; however, some animals are more resistant to it; genetic markers are being identified.

Treating and eradicating foot rot(and controlling foot scald)

US approach• Hoof trimming and scoring• Topical treatment (zinc sulfate)• Foot bathing (zinc sulfate) and drying• Isolation of infected animals

Move to clean area(no sheep/goats for >14 days)

• Repeat• CULL animals that fail to respond to

treatment after 4 weeks

[ University of Maine Foot Health Project]

European approach• Antibiotic therapy

• Sprays• Injections

Penicillin - OTC, ELDULA-200® - ELDU, RxNuflur® - ELDU, Rx*Zactran® - ELDU, Rx

• CULL animals that fail to respond to treatment.

Preventing foot rot• It’s all about biosecurity!

• Maintain closed or mostly closed flock/herd

• Don’t buy animals with foot rot• Don’t buy animals from farms or sales

with foot rot.• Don’t buy animals from sale barns.• Don’t introduce foot rot via bedding,

vehicles, equipment, or footwear.• Assume new animals are infected.• Quarantine new animals for 30 days• Cull animals with excessive or abnormal

hooves or hoof growth.

Increasing the birthing rate

• Do you know what your last birthing percentage was?

• What percentage of your lambs/die before weaning?

• What is your primary reason for culling ewes/does?

Tips for improving lambing/kidding percentageshttp://www.slideshare.net/schoenian/tips-for-improving-lambingkidding-percentage

In 2015, the national average lambing late was 111 lambs per 100 ewes (USDA, 2016).

THAT SUCK

S!

In Virginia, the average lambing rate was 116% in 2015 and 104% in 2014 (USDA, 2016).

THAT STILL

SUCKS!

Are goat producers doing a better job?

Don’t know.Maybe, maybe

not.Per doe kidding Average

Number born n=3057

1.84

Number weaned n=2906

1.56

Source: Kentucky State University GHIP FEB 2015

What is lambing/kidding percentage?

• NOT: # lambs born per ewe lambing• NOT: # lambs born per ewe exposed• NOT: # lambs weaned per ewe lambing.• NOT: # lambs weaned per ewe exposed• NOT: # lambs marketed* per ewe

lambing

*sold or retained for breeding

Lambing percentage is # lambs marketed (or retained) per ewe

exposed.100 ewes exposed to ram(s)95 ewes lambed (1-2 heat cycles)170 lambs born live160 lambs weaned150 lambs sold/retained

# lambs Per ewe lambing

Per ewe exposed

# lambs born 1.79 1.70# lambs weaned 1.68 1.60# lambs marketed 1.58 1.50

Lambing/kidding percentage is a composite trait.

1-Fertility (conception) + 2-Litter size (ovulation rate + embryo survival) + 3-Survival

Many factors affect birthing percentage. birthing percentage• Breeding during normal breeding season• Prolific genetics• Crossbred lambs have higher survival• First cross ewes have higher birthing

percentage• Postnatal loss < 10 percent• Optimal nutrition• Body condition score of > 3• Cull open ewes/does• Cull underperforming ewes/does • Disease prevention and treatment• Aggressive, fertile rams and bucks• Accelerated lambing/kidding• Match reproductive rate to labor and

management

birthing percentage• Breeding outside of normal breeding season• Lack of selection for prolificacy• Straight bred lambs have lower survival• Straight bred ewes have lower lambing

percentage.• Postnatal loss > 10%• Sub-optimal nutrition• Body condition score of < 2.5• Keep open ewes/does• Keep underperforming ewes/does• Lack of disease prevention and treatment• Lazy, gay, and infertile rams and bucks• Annual lambing/kidding• Mismatch of reproductive rate to labor and

management.

Season of breeding and birth• Estrus in ewes and does is triggered by

photoperiod. Sheep and goats are short-day breeders.

• While some sheep and goats are less seasonal, reproductive rates are almost always maximized when breeding and birthing times are matched to what is most natural for sheep and goats.

• With fall breeding, most females will conceived in their first 17-21 days, resulting in more concentrated lambing/kidding.

• Winter and fall lambing rates will be lower than spring lambing rates.

Nutritional effects on reproduction

• Ewes/does in better body condition will ovulate more eggs.• Thin ewes/does can be flushed to increase ovulation rate.

[flushing is when you increase the nutrient intake prior to and during the early part of breeding season, e.g. 0.5 lb. grain per head per day or better quality pasture].

• Obese (BCS >4.5) females have higher embryonic loss.• Obese (BCS >4.5) females have more problems during the

periparturient period, e.g. pregnancy toxemia, prolapses, dystocia.

• Improper nutrition during late gestation can cause many problems, i.e. pregnancy toxemia, milk fever, dystocia, over or undersized offspring, etc.

• Aim for a body condition score of 3/5 at the time of breeding and parturition.

Cull underperforming femalesIt cost just as much to feed a ewe with a single as one with twins.

• Open/barren• Fails to wean a lamb or kid• Fails to raise twins for two

years in a row.• Lambs or kids outside of normal

lambing/kidding season• Only milks on one side• Poor milk producer• Raises poor quality offspring• Physical defects that prevent female

from raising profitable litters, e.g. age (teeth, BCS).

• Don’t make excuses for ewes/does

• No lamb(s)/kid(s) – no $$$$$

Two ways to use genetics to improve reproductive rate

Selection• Use/purchase rams/bucks that

were born/raised as multiples from most productive families on farm.

• Purchase ram with above-average EBVs for number born/weaned.

• Select replacements born/raised as multiples from most productive families in flock/herd.

Crossbreeding• Choose a more prolific dam breed

e.g. St. Croix, Katahdin, Polypay

• Introduce a more prolific dam breede.g. Finn, Romanov

• Crossbred to improve fitness and fertility.

• Don’t save replacements from terminal sire matings, e.g. Texel, Dorper

Two advantages to crossbreedingBreed complementarity• Balance strengths and

weaknesses of different breeds, e.g. Texel x Katahdin

Hybrid vigor• Higher survival of crossbred

offspring• Superior performance of crossbred

female

Accelerated lambing/kiddingDecreasing lambing/kidding interval to less then 12 months.

Systems• Twice a year• Continuous, opportunistic

no defined breeding seasons.• Every 8 months - 2 times/3 years• Overlapping 2 times/3 years• STAR® system - 5 times/3 years

Characteristics• Spread out fixed costs• More efficient use of facilities• Year-round marketing• Better cash flow (for bank!)• Increased profitability [?]

But . . . management/labor intensiveChallenge . . . out-of-season breeding

Breeding ewe lambs and doe kids

Management • Breed at 7 to 9 months of age to

lamb/kid at 12-14 months of age.• Only if well-grown: 2/3rds of their

mature weight at time of joining.• Should be fed and managed

separately until they wean their first litter or are bred for the second time.

• Increased flock productivity. $$$$no “free loaders” except for males!

• Greater lifetime production of females• Reduce generation interval

Accelerate genetic improvement

CONS: ewe lambs/doe kids have more problems during the periparturient period. Possible delay in growth.

Advantages

Don’t forget the boys!• Rams/bucks need good nutrition, health care, and

management year-round.• Don’t wait until last minute to get new ram or buck.• Should perform breeding soundness exam prior to

breeding season (physical exam + semen evaluation)• Use marking harness or rattle paint to monitor

breeding activity, especially in single-sire flocks.• Males often require supplemental feeding during

breeding season.• Fertility is highest during normal breeding season

(fall). Males of some breeds could be limiting factor in accelerated lambing/out-of-season breeding. Remember that male contributes 50% of

genetics to flock, over 90% after several years of use.

Minimizing feed costs?

• Do you know how much your hay costs?

• Do you know how much it costs to feed one of your ewes or does for a year?

• Are you feeding balanced rations or just feeding?

Coping with high feed costs: http://www.sheepandgoat.com/#!copinghighfeed/caxv

Feed is usually the single greatest cost associated with feeding livestock.

Pasture is not FREE!

Two kinds of feed costsPurchased/harvested feedstuffs• Hay• Grain• By-product feeds• Minerals• Milk replacer

Pasture and browse• Seed• Fertilizer• Lime• Weed control• Fencing• Water

Maximize your pasture resource• Soil test

Lime and fertilize• Mixed swards

Grasses + clovers (forbs)• Control weeds• Rotational grazing• Extend grazing season• Plant annuals• Sacrifice field/lot• Strategic supplementation

Feed balanced rations• Nutrient requirements are based on

species, size (weight), breed, sex, age, stage and level of productivity.

• Meet, but not exceed nutritional requirements of animals.

• Balance rations for energy, protein, calcium, phosphorus (and other nutrients when necessary).

• Divide into production classes for feeding.• Maximum production not always goal;

profitability is!

Ration balancing 101• Weigh animals and feed.• Need to know how much you’re feeding and

how much animals are eating (and wasting).• Analyze forages and other feedstuffs that

can have variable nutritional composition

• You can use some book values or feed tags for many feeds,

• Balance by hand, use spreadsheet, ration balancing software, or balance online.

http://www.sheepandgoat.com/#!rationsoftware/c14p1

Feed least cost rations• Shop around for feed.• Buy feed by weight

(or know cost per lb. or ton).• Compare feed costs on cost

($/lb.) to provide specific nutrient to ration, e .g. protein, energy, calcium.

• Compare ingredients of commercial feed products.

Make your own simple, on-farm rations

• Corn/barley + pelleted protein supplement

• Corn/barley + soybean meal + minerals/vitamins

• Cracked corn + soybean meal + minerals/vitamins (creep feed)

• Legume or mix hay + corn/barley• Rations don’t have to be

complicated!

Balance feed costs with labor• The most expensive way to provide

nutrients is via nutritional tubs.But, they reduce labor.

• There can be substantial waste if you feed round bales, especially without well-designed feeders. But, it reduces labor

• When given free choice access to feed, livestock will eat more (than they need) and have reduced feed efficiency.But, it reduces labor.

Feed whole grain(s)• Once lambs/kids have functioning rumens, they are able

to utilize whole grains.• There is no benefit to processing grains for small

ruminants.• There are less digestive upsets when whole grain is fed.• Feed efficiency is improved with whole grains.• No forage source is necessary when whole grain finishing

diets are fed to lambs (goats ?)• You can balance simple, cost-effective rations utilizing

whole grains and supplements.• Some grains will pass through digestive system whole,

but loss is minimal, compared to cost savings.

Consider alternative feedsSoyhulls are the “almost” perfect feed

• Depending economics, soyhulls can substitute for either hay or grain in the diet.

• The nutrient composition of soyhulls is similar to ear corn or oats.

• 1 lb. of soyhulls = approximately 1.4 lbs. of hayIn forage diets, 1 lb. soyhulls = 1 lb. corn.

• Soyhull pellets are preferable to “loose” soyhulls• Bulk delivered soyhulls are considerably

cheaper than bagged hulls.

http://www.sheepandgoat.com/#!soyhulls/cbwi

Invest in feed storage• You can reduce feed costs

substantially by purchasing bulk quantities of feed.

• It doesn’t take a large flock to justify the cost of a feed bin.

• Uncovered hay deteriorates rapidly in quality.

• Storage gives you flexibility in feed purchases.

Fine tune your mineral supplementation program

• Read labels• Compare costs

Phosphorus most expensive ingredient – do you need it?

• Don’t supplement what you don’t need • Trace mineral salt vs. complete mineral mix• Measure intake• Keep fresh - put out week’s supply• Force feed when you can• Loose better than blocks• Different products for sheep vs. goats

Well-designed feeders• Use feeders• Don’t feed on ground.• Consider design of feeders• Remove feeders after feeding,

when appropriate. • Use feeders that minimize waste.• Limit feed, if option• Provide adequate feeder space

Maximizing the potential of orphan lambs/kids.

• Do you have too many orphans?

• Do you have ewes/does that can’t raise their lambs/kids?

• Do you consider orphan lambs/kids to be a burden or bonus?

Raising lambs and kids artificiallyhttp://www.sheepandgoat.com/#!artrearing/c514Abomasal bloathttp://www.sheepandgoat.com/#!abomasal-bloat/c7dx

How do we end up with orphans?• Reality: in order to raise a 200% lamb/kid crop (a good goal), you’re going to

have some triplets, maybe a set of quads occasionally. • Genetics: not all ewes/does can raise triplets. • Nutrition: it is difficult for a ewe or doe to raise triplets on pasture (alone) or

with inadequate nutrition.• Disease: mastitis orphans a lot of lambs/kids (clinical + sub-clinical)• Death: sometimes the ewe/doe dies as a result of parturition.• Mismothering: sometimes, you can’t get a ewe/doe to accept all of her offspring.• Other: some lambs/kids are too weak, small, or “stupid” to nurse.• Dairy enterprise: offspring are removed so dam can be milked• Disease elimination OPP, CAE•

How can we minimize orphans?• Select for milk production.• Proper nutrition during late gestation and

lactation; match nutrition to litter size.• Graft/foster extra lambs/kids,• Get ewe/doe to accept her offspring,

e.g. put her in a stanchion• Cull ewes/does with mastitis or scar

tissue.✗ Sell orphans or give them away

LIVE – SURVIVE – THRIVE – GROW

Hypothermia and starvation are primary causes of death in lambs and kids.

• Evaluate lamb/kid• Age +/- 5 hours old• Temperature

• Normal, >102°F• Mild hypothermia, 98-

102°F• Hypothermia, <98°F

• Condition• Hold head up • Swallow• Stand

• Be able to recognize a stressed lamb or kid

• Hunched posture• Hollowed out sides• Excessive bleating• Cold mouth• Dehydration• Unable to stand• Unresponsive

99-102°F < 99°F

Any ageCan swallowTube feed

milk or colostrum

+ 5 hours oldNo brown fat

left- 5 hours old

Can swallow

Warm

Tube feed milk

or colostrum

Can swallow Can’t swallow

Tube feed milk or

colostrumWarm

Glucose by IP injection

WarmTube feed

milk or colostrum

Lamb or kid is sluggish, cold, not nursing

Warming hypothermic lambs/kids• Normal temperature is 102-104°F.

Mild hypothermia is 98-102°FSevere hypothermia is < 98°F

• Warm lambs/kids slowly to restore body temperature; avoid overheating.

• Many ways to warm a lamb/kid: warming “hot” box, hot water bottles, blow dryer, heat lamps, towels, rubbing, and warm water immersion.

• Once a lamb/kid is actively nursing and healthy it does not need to have a heat lamp.

Intraperitoneal (IP) injectionInjecting dextrose directly into abdomen to give energy boost

• If a lamb/kid is more than 5 hours old and suffering from hypothermia, it is essential to provide it with an energy source (glucose) prior to warming.

• 20% warm dextrose solution, 4-5 ml per lb. [20 ml 50% dextrose + 30 ml freshly boiled water]

• Procedure• Hold lamb/kid by forelegs • Spray area to be injected with iodine

Injection site is 1 in. below and ½ in. to side of navel• Slowly insert needle (20 gauge x 1.5”), pointing towards tail head• Slowly inject solution

Importance of colostrum • First milk produced by dam. Produced during

last few weeks of pregnancy. Females vary in the quantity and quality of colostrum they produce.

• Darker and thicker than milk.• Contains high levels of fat, protein, vitamins,

and antibodies.

• Antibodies protect newborns against diseases which occur naturally (e. coli) as well as those dam was vaccinated for (clostridial diseases such as enterotoxemia and tetanus).

• Antibodies can only be absorbed within first 12 hours to have disease-fighting ability.

Link between colostrum consumption and mortality.

Moredun, 1977

Feeding colostrum• Feed as soon as possible after birth,

preferably within first 6 hours• 10% of body weight in first 24 hours

• 10 lb. lamb/kid – 16 oz• 5 lb. lamb/kid – 8 oz

Increase allowance by 15% for lambs/kids raised outside

• Small frequent feedings• Can tube feed or feed via bottle

Colostrum sourcesOwn dam↓ Another dam of same species in flock/herd↓ Frozen colostrum from same flock/herd↓ Fresh or frozen colostrum from neighbor’s farm

same species↓ Fresh or frozen colostrum from neighbor’s

farm different species↓ Commercial colostrum replacer (e.g. Land

O’Lakes)Supplies IgGs

↓ Commercial colostrum supplement (e.g. La Belle)No IgGs

Tube feedingA skill all shepherds should master.

• Means of placing milk directly into lamb/kid’s stomach.

• Quickest way to feed lamb/kid that can hold its head up.

• If lamb/kid is nursing or can take a bottle, you have to tube feed it.

• Some experts recommend tube feeding over bottle feeding if lamb will be dam raised.

1. Need flexible tube and catheter tip 60 cc syringe

2. Measure tube along outside of lamb/kid.

3. Wet tube with warm water.4. Insert tube into left side of

mouth, over tongue and back into mouth and throat.

5. Let lamb swallow tube or move gently down throat

6. Attach syringe.7. Let warm milk flow via gravity.8. Pinch end of tube when

removing.

Milk replacers for lambsNot all milk replacers are the same; read the label.

• Multi-species milk replacers are not recommended for lambs.

• Best to use a high quality milk replacer specifically formulated for lambs (to mimic ewe’s milk).

• Many quality milk replacers on the market.

• Best to feed milk replacer that is “medicated” with Deccox® [coccidiostat]

• Feeding cow and goat milk to lambs

• The fat content of sheep milk is much higher than cow’s or goat’s milk.

• Can feed full cream cow milk (or Jersey milk) or fortify milk with fats or oils to increase energy content.

• Waste milk from treated cows, does, and ewes is another viable option, with added fat.

Milk replacers for kidsNot all milk replacers are the same; read the label.

• Can feed multi-species milk replacer, but better to feed milk replacer that has been specifically formulated for kids (to mimic doe’s milk).

• Many quality milk replacers on market.• Best to feed kid milk replacer that is

“medicated” with Deccox® [coccidiostat]• No problem feeding whole cow milk to kids; no

need to mix with anything else.• Waste milk is another viable option.

Methods of feeding milk replacer

Methods of feeding milk replacerSmaller numbers

• Free choice feedingWarm or cool milkGroup fed

• Hand feeding, bottle with nipple

• Reduced laborHigher intakeHigher gain

Larger numbers• Limit-feeding

Set amount 2-4 times daily• Nipple on bottle

Nipple pailOpen vessel

• Labor intensiveReduced cost of milk

Primary health problems of artificially-reared lambs and kids

• Bloat• Constipation• Scours (diarrhea)

• Infectious• Non-infectious

Treatments, medicine cabinet for orphans

• ElectrolytesPedialyte

• Castor oil• Mineral oil

Vegetable oil• Antacid• Enema• Pepto-bismal, Kaopectate• Antibiotics• Injectables

Weaning orphan lambs/kids• Can wean as early as 3-4 weeks.

6-8 weeks more common.• When to wean depends upon whether lambs/kids are

eating dry feed and drinking water.• Size more important than age when deciding when

to wean (same with dam-raised offspring). • 20 lbs. minimum • 2.5x birth weight

• Can wean abruptly or after reducing # feedings.• Best not to feed hay until several weeks after

weaning.• Lambs/kids will suffer at temporary set-back after

weaning, but will adjust with compensatory gains.

Management tips for orphans

• Adequate colostrum intake• Feed in small pens• Good sanitation of feeding equipment and pen• Milk proteins not plant proteins

Skim milk vs. dried whey• Feed cool milk to prevent digestive upsets• Can add formulin or yogurt to milk as

prevention for bloat• Start on dry feed (grain) early• Vaccinate for CDT multiple times• Coccidiostat in milk replacer and starter diet

Can you make money with orphans?• Depends

• They increase lambing percentage• Economics

15-20 lbs. milk replacer per lamb/kid$40-60 for 25-lb. bag of milk replacer$32-$48 extra cost for orphan lamb/kid (excluding labor)

• What can you sell orphans for?• Could orphan lambs/kids be a profit

center on your farm: buy/sell?

Managing internal parasitism• Do you have to deworm your animals a lot?

• Do you know which dewormers work on your farm?

• Do you rely too much on drugs to control internal parasites?

American Consortium for Small Ruminant Parasite Controlwww.acsrpc.org or www.wormx.info

Internal parasites are the primary health problem of small ruminants.

• Sheep and goats can be infected by many different parasites, but two the most important and cause the most losses.1. Haemonchus contortus

Barber pole worm

2. Eimeria spp.Coccidia

Internal parasites cause losses in two ways.Clinical, including

deathSub-clinical, production losses

Anthelmintic/dewormer resistance is a reality and growing problem.

• Drug resistance was/is inevitable.• Worms have developed resistance to all

dewormers and dewormer classes.• Resistance varies by geographic region and farm

and is based on past use of drugs.• Most farms have resistance to benzimidazoles

(SafeGuard®, Valbazen® and avermectins (Ivomec®. Moxidecin (Cydectin®) and levamisole (Prohibit®) are still effective on many farms.

• On farms with resistance, dewormers may still be clinically effective; all producers need to manage to minimize development of resistant worms.

Testing for dewormer resistanceShould do every 2-3 years

Fecal egg count reduction test• Compare fecal egg counts from animals

before they are treated with fecal egg counts from after they were treated with anthelmintic.

• Need to do before/after fecal egg counts for each drug you want to test.

• Cost varies.• Need a lot of animals to get meaningful

data.

DrenchRite® • Submit pooled fecal sample to

University of Georgia for larval development assay.

• Labor-intensive lab test that determines resistance to all drugs.

• Costs $450• Can do with smaller number of

animals.

What about “natural” dewormers?A dewormer kills parasites in the animal!

• There’s only one: copper oxide wire particles (COWP). It is only effective against barber pole worm.

• Anything you do to reduce pasture contamination will reduce the number of animals that require treatment.

• Anything you do to improve the nutritional and immune status of your animals will reduce the number that require treatment.

• Always regularly monitor animals for clinical signs of parasitism and give them a commercial dewormer when they are clinically parasitized.

• There are ongoing studies evaluating various compounds for their effect on internal parasites.

Enemy #1: barber pole worm Haemonchus contortus

• Blood-feeding roundworm that attaches itself to the abomasum (true stomach) and causes anemia (blood loss) and submandibular edema (bottle jaw).

• Other symptoms include weight loss, loss of body condition, weakness, anorexia, and lethargy. Can also cause sudden death.

• Is difficult to control because of its short, direct life cycle, prolific egg laying ability, and ability to go into hypobiotic (arrested) state.

How do sheep and goats get infected with worms?

Enemy #2: Eimeria spp. Coccidia• Single-cell protozoa that destroys intestinal cells and

causes loss of blood and electrolytes and poor absorption of nutrients; recovering animals may be left with scar tissue and continue to show ill thrift.

• Most common symptom is scours (diarrhea), but not always. Other symptoms include weight loss, loss of body condition, rough hair coat, anorexia, and lethargy. Losses can be acute.

• Coccidia have a more complicated life cycle that stomach worms. Animals pick up infective oocysts from food, water, or bedding or anything they lick that has been contaminated by feces.

• Coccidia are species-specific; even sheep and goats are affected by different strains of coccidia. Not all strains are pathogenic.

Understanding immunityAbility to resist infection

• It is normal for sheep and goats to be “infected” with various parasites. Positive egg counts are normal.

• Sheep and goats eventually develop immunity to parasites. • The age at which they develop immunity depends upon the

parasite, the species(goats vs. sheep), the breed, and the individual sheep or goat.

• Sheep/goats must have continuous exposure to a low level of parasites in order to develop and maintain immunity; deworming prevents development of immunity.

• Immunity can be overcome by stressful conditions or heavy parasite exposure.

• Immunity is compromised during the periparturient period.

Two aspects of worm controlManagement Drug treatment

Two aspects of worm controlManagement• Pasture management• Grazing management• Zero grazing• Nutritional management• Genetic selection• Biosecurity

Drug treatment• Targeted selective treatment

• FAMACHA© system• Five Point Check© • Happy Factor©.

• Proper use of anthelmintics, including testing for resistance.

• DrenchRite® test• Fecal egg count reduction test

Management affects internal parasite risk.

• When/where you kid/lamb.• Age of weaning• Cleanliness of facilities• Stocking and penning rates• Nutrition, including

colostrum intake• Biosecurity practices

Zero grazing• Sheep/goats raised in dry lot have practically no

parasite issues.• There is no source of infection or re-infection in dry

lot or confinement.• It may be wise to feed some classes of sheep/goats

in dry lot• Pasture for ewe flock/doe herd• Zero grazing for weaned lambs/kids• Graze replacements so they can develop immunity

• Dry lot feeding can be forage or concentrate-based.• Coccidiosis is still a risk.

Pasture and grazing management

• Pasture rest/rotation• Clean pastures• Annual pastures• Alternative forages

e.g. Sericea lespedeza, chicory• Multi-species grazing• Minimum grazing height• Delayed grazing• Night penning• Browsing

Proper use of anthelmintics• Drench formulations only• Oral drenching only• Use oral dosing syringe with long metal nozzle, so you can

deposit drug over tongue into esophagus• Don’t under-dose; dose based on accurate weights• Give higher dosages (per lb) to goats (usually 2x sheep dose) • Proper extra-label use of dewormers• Fast when giving benzimidazoles (SafeGuard® and

Valbazen® and ivermectins.• Hold in dry lot for 48 hours after dosing• Test for dewormer resistance.

Periparturient egg rise

What is it?• Females suffer a temporary loss of

immunity to parasites from late gestation through early lactation.

• If eggs are deposited on pasture, they can become primary source of infection to grazing lambs/kids.

• Often coincides with hypobiotic larvae resuming their life cycle, the “spring rise.”

Manage it• Deworm females during late pregnancy

leave a few “fat” ones untreated).• Increase protein level of ration during

late gestation.• Maintain pregnant and lactating females

in dry lot during periparturient period.• Never let kids/lambs graze.• Lamb/kid in fall or winter.

Using genetics to control internal parasitism

• Between speciesGoats are more susceptible than sheep

• Between breedsSome breeds are more resistant

• Within breeds• Parasite resistance (fecal egg counts) is a

moderately heritable trait.• Fecal egg counts are not evenly dispersed in a

flock/herd; 20-30% of animals are responsible for 70-80% of fecal egg production.

• There is a correlation between FAMACHA© scores and fecal egg counts.

St. Croix

There are reasons why goats are more susceptible to internal parasites.

More resistant breeds

Sheep1. Hair sheep

St. CroixBarbados Blackbelly

2. Hair compositeKatahdin

3. WoolNatives (Gulf Coast, Florida, LA)Texel (?)

Goats (less data)• Spanish• Kiko• Myotonic• Savanna (?)

Selecting for parasite resistance• Principles of selection: select best males for breeding [top] and

cull the worst females• Don’t keep or buy males (especially) or replacement females that

require deworming (or frequent deworming).• Do fecal egg counts and keep animals with lowest egg counts;

make sure there is enough of a parasite challenge (compare apples to apples!)

• Consign and/or purchase rams to/from SW Virginia Performance Test. Rams are kept on pasture and challenged with worm larvae.

• Purchase Katahdin ram(s) with above-average EBVs for parasite resistance

• Consign and/or purchase (Kiko) bucks to/from Western Maryland Pasture-Based Meat Goat Performance Test. Bucks are raised on pasture and evaluated for parasite resistance.

What is Targeted Selective Treatment (TST)?

No whole-flock treatments. Only treating animals that require deworming (based

on clinical signs) Only treating animals that would benefit from

deworming.• Means of increasing “refugia.”

• Refugia are worms that have not been exposed to drug(s) in animal or on pasture.

• Refugia are essential to prolonging effectiveness of anthelmintics and slowing the rate of drug resistance.

What are the tools of TST?1. FAMACHA©

system2. Five Point

Check®3. Happy Factor™

FAMACHA© system• Utilizes a color eye chart to estimate the level

of anemia in the animal. Anemia is primary symptom of barber pole worm infection.

• FAMACHA© score is an estimate of packed cell volume (PCV) or blood hematocrit (% red blood cells in whole blood). A measure of anemia.

• FAMACHA© card gives treatment recommendations.

• Card only works for blood-feeding parasites, such as barber pole worm.

• Must take training to get card; online training in the works (new card being developed).

Five Point Check©• Extension of the FAMACHA© system.• Adds criteria for evaluating the need

to deworm for all parasites commonly affecting sheep/goats.

• 5 check points on animal’s body1.Eye (FAMACHA© score)2.Jaw (bottle jaw)3.Back (body condition score, 1-5)4.Tail (dag score/scours, 0-5)5.Nose (nasal bots)

Coat condition for goats (1-3)

Happy Factor™• Animals performing as expected are deemed “happy”

and are therefore not likely to benefit from treatment.• When animals fail to perform as well as they could,

they would benefit from treatment.• Weight gain is used as the primary criteria for making

deworming decisions.• Milk production could also be a criteria• Happy Factor™ is especially useful where/when

worms other than barber pole are problematic.• Could be useful for dealing with sub-clinical

parasitism, i.e. animals with FAMACHA© scores of 3

Control of coccidia• Prevent with good sanitation, nutrition, and

management.• Prevent with coccidiostats in feed, mineral, water, and/or

milk replacer.• Bovatec® - sheep• Rumensin ® - goats (toxic to equines)• Deccox® - sheep, goats• Corid® - OTC, Rx

• Treat with amprolium (Corid) or sulfa drugs [Rx]• Sericea lespedeza may provide natural control of coccidiosis• New Veterinary Feed Directive may affect how we

control/treat coccidiosis in sheep/lambs (sulfa drugs are affected by new regulations)

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Thank you for your attention.

Do you have any questions or comments?

SUSAN SCHOENIANSheep & Goat SpecialistUniversity of Maryland

Extensionsschoen@umd.edusheepandgoat.com