Russian Medicine of IX-XVII centuries

In Russia traditional medicine was developed from the earliest times. Healers were called lechtsi. About them it was told in «Russkaya Pravda» — most ancient set of Russian laws which was written in the time of Yaroslav The Wise (in the first quarter of the XI century) and subsequently was supplemented repeatedly. «Russkaya Pravda» legislatively established compensation for lechtsi: under laws of that time the person who has put a damage to health of other person, should pay a penalty in the state treasury and give out to the victim money for payment for treatment.

Lechets transferred the medical knowledge and secrets from generation to generation, from the father to the son in so-called «family schools».

The drugs prepared from plants used great popularity: wormwood, nettle, plantain, Labrador tea, “peril hater” (fresh-water sponge), color of a linden, leaves of a birch, bark of an ash-tree, juniper berries, and also onions, garlic, horse-radish, birch sap, and many other folk remedies of doctoring.

Among drugs of an animal origin the special place was occupied by honey, a crude liver of a cod, horse milk and “pant” (antlers of young Siberian stags).

Remedies of a mineral origin also found the place in national doctoring and. At belly-aches accepted the stone inside pounded in a powder chrysolite. For simplification of childbirth of the woman carried ornaments from ruby or sapphire. Curative properties of vinegar and a copper vitriol, turpentine and saltpeter, «a sulfuric stone» and arsenic, silver, mercury, antimony and other minerals were known. Russian people long since knew also about curative properties of "acidic water".

Subsequently experience of traditional medicine was generalized in numerous herbariums and artzneibuchs (medical books) which were made after acceptance of Christianity. Unfortunately, many hand-written artzneibuchs were lost during wars and other disasters.

Up to now reached a little more than 250 Old Russian herbariums and artzneibuchs. They contain descriptions of numerous traditional methods of Russian doctoring as times of Christian Russia, Kiev, and later — in Novgorod, Smolensk, Lvov. The monastic hospital of Kiev Pechersk Lavra — the first Russian monastery which based in the first half of the XI century in vicinities of Kiev and has received the name from caves (pecher) in which monks originally lodged had wide popularity.

From all Russia wounded and patients with various illnesses went to Kiev Pechersk Lavra, and many found there healing. For seriously ill at a monastery there were special rooms (hospitals) where the monks who were looking after patients were on duty. Monastic chronicles («Kiev Pechersk Patericon», XII century) report about several monks-devotees who became famous for the iatrotechnics. Among them — come from Athos «the marvelous doctor» Antony (XI century) which personally looked after patients, giving them curing "potion"; Saint Alimpy and Saint Agapitos (died in 1095) — the pupil of Saint Antony.

Agapitos cured Vladimir Monomakh when that was still the Chernigov prince — sent it "potions" from which prince Vladimir quickly recovered. After recovery the prince wished to reward generously the healer, but Agapit asked to transfer expensive princely gifts to deprived people.

«Also heard about it in the city that in a monastery there is lechets, and many patients came to it and recovered».

Thus, «Kiev Pechersk Patericon» contains the first concrete data on medical ethics in ancient Russia: the lechets should be an example of philanthropy up to self-sacrifice, for the sake of the patient to perform all the manual labors, to be tolerant and piteous to him, to do all that he might for treatment of the patient and not to care of personal enrichment or professional vanity.

At the same time doctoring in ancient Russia wasn't church monopoly: along with the monastic there was also more ancient traditional medicine. However at this stage of history pagan healers appeared attendants of a devil and, as a rule, were exposed to prosecutions.

At princes’ and boyars’ courtyards secular lechets both Russian and foreign served. At a Chernigov prince’s court the famous healer Peter Siriyanin (i.e. the Syrian) served in the XII century.

Some Old Russian monastic hospitals were as well the education centers: in them trained in medicine, collected the Greek and Byzantine manuscripts. During the translation of manuscripts from Greek and Latin monks supplemented them with the knowledge based on experience of Russian national doctoring.

"Svyatoslav’s Izbornik" was one of the most popular books of the XI century. It was translated from Greek in Bulgaria for son Yaroslav of Wise prince Svyatoslav, from where received the name.

"Izbornik" according to the contents was beyond an initial task — to connect the public relations in Russia with norms of new Christian morals — and gained lines of the encyclopedia. Are described in it and some diseases corresponding to that time of idea of their reasons, treatment and the prevention, are given councils about a food (for example, «forces in vegetables are great», or «drink immense» in itself «is deleterious») and recommendations to keep a body clean, systematically to wash, carry out ablution.

In "Izbornik" it is told about surgeons, who are able «to cut tissues», to amputate extremities, other patients or the become lifeless parts of a body to do medical cauterizations by means of the heated iron, to treat the damaged place herbs and ointments. Knifes for a section are described also and medical sharpened. At the same time incurable illnesses were given in "Izbornik“: that against which the medicine of that time was powerless.

In Old Russian literature of the XII century there are data on female healers, the “grandmas” bone-setters who were skillfully making massage, on involvement of women for care of patients.

The level of development of sanitary business in the Old Russian state in the X-XIV centuries advanced such in the countries of Western Europe. At archeological excavations of ancient Novgorod the documents relating to 1346 in which it is reported about existence in Novgorod of hospitals for the civilian population and about experts the alchemists who were engaged in preparation of drugs are found.

In the territory of ancient Novgorod are open and studied many-tier (to 30 floorings) the wooden pavements created in the X—XI centuries, more than 2100 constructions with the subjects which were in them of hygienic use, are opened potter's and wooden catchment basins and drainage systems — one of the most ancient in Northern Europe.

Russian steam bath which long since was considered as remarkable means of doctoring was the integral component of a medicosanitary life of ancient Russia. The bath was the purest room in the estate.

That is why along with the direct appointment the bath was used and as a place where delivered, carried out the first care of the newborn, set dislocations and did phlebotomy, carried out massage and «imposed cupping glasses», treated cold and diseases of joints, pounded medicinal ointments at skin diseases. Nestor's chronicle (XI century) contains the first description of Russian steam bath.

In the Middle Ages Europe was the arena of devastating epidemics. In Russian chronicles along with numerous descriptions of diseases of princes and certain representatives of the highest estate (boyars, clergy) are given terrifying pictures of big epidemics of plague and other infectious diseases which in Russia called "pestilence" or “general diseases”.

In the people there was an opinion that pestilence arise from supernatural forces, change of provision of stars, anger of gods, weather changing. In aspiration to stop general diseases the people went on the most desperate measures. For example, when in Novgorod in the XIV century plague burst, citizens within 24 hours constructed Andrey Stratilat's church which remained up to now.

However neither construction of churches, nor prayers didn't rescue the people from disasters — epidemics in Europe carried away at that time tens of thousands of human lives. The largest number of epidemics in Russia falls on the period of a mongolo-tatar yoke (1240-1480).

Kirillo-Belozersky monastery which was not being exposed to enemy invasion was one of the centers of Russian medicine of that time. Within the precincts of a monastery at the beginning of the XV century monk Kirill Belozersky (1337-1427) translated from Greek «Galinovo to Ippokrat» (Galen's comments to «Corpus Hippocraticum»). At a monastery there were some hospitals. One of them is restored and is protected now by the state as an architecture monument.

Up to the end of the XVII century traditional medicine occupied leading situation in Russia. Experience of Russian traditional medicine is reflected in numerous historical and historical and household stories of that time. Among them — written down in XV century «The story about Peter and Fevronia of Murom» in which it is told about wonderful healing of prince Peter of Murom. Having cut a dragon animal with sword, he was sprinkled by its blood and fell ill with a serious skin disease. Seriously ill Peter went to the Ryazan earth which was famous for its lechets. The simple country girl — the daughter of the collector of honey of wild bees — Fevronia cured the prince (most likely, by means of honey). The recovered prince returned to the Murom earth, but without Fevronia the illness renewed, and Peter married wise Fevronia. They for many years lived happily and reigned in Murom. Prince David and his wife Euphrosinia, reigning in Murom in the XIII century were prototypes of heroes.

In medical books of this period the important place was allocated for surgery.

Lulled the patient by means of a mandrake, poppy and wine. Tools (files, scissors, chisels, axes) carried out through fire. Wounds processed birch water, wine and ashes, and sewed up with fibers of flax, hemp or small intestines of animals.

To extraction of metal splinters of arrows applied magnetic iron ore. Were famous in Russia and original designs of artificial limbs for the bottom extremities.

However overseas trade had also negative consequences. In the Middle Ages trading opened a way to epidemics.

The thought on "prilipchivost" (contagiousness) of an infection led to introduction of precautionary measures. At first it was expressed in isolation of patients and a cordon of unsuccessful places: the died buried «in the same yards in which who will die, in all dress and on what who will die». Communication with infected with pestilence houses stopped, their inhabitants fed from the street through gate.

At the end of XVI - the beginning of the XVII century quarantine measures began to gain the state character. From 1654 to 1665 in Russia more than 10 imperial decrees «about precaution from pestilence» were issued.

During plague of 1654-55 on roads outposts were established and mark, through which nobody was authorized to be passed on pain of capital punishment, despite of ranks. All infected subjects were burned on fires. Letters by the way of their following repeatedly copied, and originals burned. Money was washed up in vinegar. Dead must be buried behind city boundaries.

To priests on pain of capital punishment it was forbidden to read the burial service over the dead. If someone of doctors casually visited the "prilipchivy" patient, he was obliged to inform the sovereign and to be at home «until imperial permission».

Import and export of all goods, and also work on fields stopped. All this led to crop failures and hunger which always went along with epidemics. There was scurvy and other diseases which together with hunger gave a new wave of mortality.

The medicine of that time was powerless against epidemics, and thus the system of the governmental quarantine activities developed at that time in the Moscow state had bigger value. The importance in fight against epidemics had creation of the Aptekarskiy prikaz.

Initial task of the Aptekarskiy prikaz was providing medical assistance to the tsar, his family and confidants.

The medicine intended for a palace was tried by doctors, it registered, druggists, it prepared, and, at last, the person to whom it was given for transfer "upward". Intended for the tsar «perfect medical means» were stored in a drugstore in a special room — "kazenka" behind the seal of the clerk of the Aptekarskiy prikaz.

Being court establishment, «tsar’s drugstore» only as an exception served other people. Many petitions addressed to the tsar with a request remained to release them this or that medicine.

At existence in the country only one drugstore the population bought drugs at grocery benches where free trade of "potion" was conducted. It conducted to abuses of poisonous and strong substances. In this regard in 1672 the second drugstore in the country was opened.

The Aptekarskiy prikaz not only controlled drugstores. To the middle of the XVII century he grew from a court institution in the large nation-wide establishment which functions considerably extended.

Into its maintaining entered: the invitation to service of doctors (domestic, and together with the Posol’skiy prikaz – foreign), control of their work and its payment, preparation and distribution of doctors on positions, check of «stories of diseases, supply of armies by medicines and the organization of quarantine measures, medicolegal survey, collecting and storage of books, the management of drugstores, kitchen gardens. and collecting medicinal raw materials.

At the beginning of the XVII century overseas doctors used considerable privileges in the Moscow state. Preparation of Russian doctors at that time had craft character: the pupil was trained for a number of years at one or several doctors, then some years served in a regiment as the doctor assistant. Sometimes the Aptekarskiy order appointed testing (examination) then made in a rank of the Russian doctor gave out a set of surgical tools.

The first public Doctor school in Russia was open in 1654 at the Aptekarskiy prikaz. Accepted in it was children of strelets, clergy and servicemen. Training included collecting herbs, work in a drugstore and to practice in the shelf. Besides, pupils studied anatomy, pharmacy, Latin, diagnostics of diseases and ways of their treatment.

As textbooks herbariums and medical books, and also «doctorskie skazki» (stories of diseases) served. During hostilities bonesetting schools functioned. Teaching was conducted at a bed of the patient — in Russia there was no that scholasticism which dominated at that time in Western Europe.

The Aptekarskiy prikaz made high demands to pupils of Doctor school. Accepted for study promised: «... to anybody the evils not to make and not to drink and any theft not to steal...»

Training lasted 5-7 years. The doctor assistants attached to overseas experts, studied from 3 to 12 years. In different years the number of pupils fluctuated from 10 to 40. The first release of Doctor school in view of big shortage of regimental doctors took place ahead of schedule in 1658. The school irregularly functioned. In 50 years it prepared about 100 Russian doctors. Their most part served in regiments. Systematic preparation of medical shots in Russia began in the XVIII century.

Questions

1. How was Russian healers called?2. How did they get the knowledge of medical profession?3. Which medications were used in traditional Russian

medicine?4. Where was situated the first Christian hospital in Russia?5. How were the first medical books in Russia called?6. What was considered as remarkable means of doctoring?7. Who were prototypes of heroes of «The story about Peter

and Fevronia of Murom»?8. What measures were taken to fight epidemics?9. What problems were solved by the foundation of

Aptekarskiy prikaz?