Grammar Points on Bio-medical Writing - Dr. Steve Wallace

Grammar Points for

Medical Writing

Dr. Steve Wallace

Introduction

Teach at CUHK, NTU, NCU, NTHU and ITRI technical writing teacher and editor

Spoken at over 70 universities in Taiwan

Written 13 textbooks used in 28 universities, including:

“How to write and submit your paper in 18 weeks: a textbook for Taiwanese academic writers”

華樂絲學術英文編修

Introduction and outline of speech

- Active and passive voice in medical writing - “Hedging” in medical writing - The ambiguous antecedent - The missing antecedent - The vague antecedent - Dangling modifiers - Misplaced modifiers - Latin and Greek plurals - Using numbers and 16 other Grammar points

Active and passive

voice

What Is Active Voice?

The active voice emphasizes the performer of the action:

Wind disperses plant seeds.

Smith et al. investigated the relationship.

We have analyzed the results.

The active voice is direct (performer–verb–receiver), clear, and concise.

What Is Passive Voice?

The passive voice, emphasizes the receiver of the action:

Plant seeds are dispersed [by wind].

The relationship was investigated [by Smith et al].

The results have been analyzed [by us].

The passive voice is indirect and can be weak, awkward, and wordy.

Tradition and the Passive Voice

More than a century ago, scientists wrote in the first-person pronouns I and we.

Example: Charles Darwin

“I have called this principle by the term of Natural Selection, in order to mark its relation to man's power of selection.”

Beginning in the 1920s scientists adopted a passive writing style.

The passive voice was thought to be objective, impersonal, and well suited to science writing.

Exception

“We wish to suggest a structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid (D.N.A.).”

Watson and Crick's classic article is simple, direct, and clear.

“In this paper, a structure is suggested for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid (D.N.A.).”

Emphasize the Active Voice

Currently, most medical and scientific style manuals prefer active voice

Some journals ask authors to limit first-person pronouns or restrict them to certain sections.

Other journals prefer authors to use first-person pronouns over passive voice.

AMA Manual of Style

recommends that:

“In general, authors should use the

active voice, except in instances in which the author is unknown or the interest focuses on what is acted upon.“

AMA Manual of Style: A Guide for Authors and Editors. 10th ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2007.

The Journal of Trauma and

Dissociation:

"Use the active voice whenever possible: We will ask authors that rely heavily on use of the passive voice to re-write manuscripts in the active voice.“

Guidelines for authors. International Society for the Study of Trauma Web site: The Journal of Trauma & Dissociation. http://www.isst-d.org/jtd/journal-trauma-dissociation-info-for-authors.htm. Accessed March 5, 2009.

Ophthalmology

"Active voice is much preferred to passive voice, which should be used sparingly....Passive voice...does notrelieve the author of direct responsibility for observations, opinions, or conclusions (e.g., 'The problem of blood flow was investigated...' vs. 'We investigated the problem of blood flow...').“

Guide for authors. Elsevier Web site: Ophthalmology: Journal of the American Academy of Ophthalmology.http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/620418/authorinstructions. Accessed March 5, 2009.

The Journal of Neuroscience

"Overuse of the passive voice is a common problem in writing. Although the passive has its place—for example, in the Methods section—in many instances it

makes the manuscript dull by failing to identify the author's role in the research....Use direct, active-voice sentences.“

Westbrook G, Cooper L. Writing tips: Techniques for clear scientific writing and editing. The Society for Neuroscience Web site:The Journal of Neuroscience. http://www.jneurosci.org. Accessed March 5, 2009.

British Medical Journal

"Please write in a clear, direct, and active style....Write in the active [voice] and use the first person where necessary.“

The essentials of BMJ style. BMJ Publishing Group Web site: British Medical Journal.http://resources.bmj.com/bmj/authors/bmj-house-style. Accessed March 5, 2009.

The Publication Manual of the American Psychological

Association (APA) has similar advice:

"Prefer the active voice....The passive voice is acceptable in expository writing and when you want to focus on the object or recipient of the action rather than on the actor.“

American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Behavioral Ecology

“Active voice is preferable to

the impersonal passive voice.“Instructions to authors. Oxford Journals Web site: Behavioral Ecology.http://www.oxfordjournals.org/our_journals/beheco/for_authors/general.html. Accessed March 5, 2009.

Science

"Use active voice when suitable, particularly when necessary for correct syntax (e.g., 'To address this possibility, we constructed a lZap library ...,' not 'To address this possibility, a lZap library was constructed...').“

http://www.sciencemag.org/about/authors/prep/res/style.dtl. Accessed March 4, 2009.

Nature

"Nature journals like authors to write in the active voice as experience has shown that readers find concepts and results to be conveyed more clearly if written directly.“

How to write a paper: writing for a Nature journal. Nature Publishing Group Web site: Nature. http://www.nature.com/authors/author_services/how_write.html.

Accessed March 4, 2009.

http://www.nature.com/authors/author_services/how_write.html

When should an author choose the passive voice?

1. If the performer is unknown,

irrelevant, or obvious

“Up to 90% of the energy in light bulbs is wasted in the form of heat.”

“The first edition of Freud's earliest writings on dreams was published in 1899.”

“Drosophila melanogaster has been one of the most extensively studied species in genetics research.”

2. If the performer is less

important than the action“The honey bees were kept in a humidified chamber at room temperature overnight.”

“The solution was heated to 90°C for approximately 30 minutes and then allowed to cool.”

If active:

“We kept the honey bees in a humidified chamber at room temperature overnight.”

“We heated the solution to 90°C for approximately 30 minutes and then allowed it to cool.”

Passive Voice in the Methods

Section

In the methods section the active voice changes the focus from the research to the researchers, an emphasis the author may not want in the Methods section, where the general topic is the research materials and procedures.

Most sentences will begin with we, which is distracting.

The passive voice redirects attention to the action (or the recipient).

3. If the recipient is the main

topicPut important information at the beginning of a sentence. The following active-voice sentence begins a new section in

which the topic is "green plants" (the performer):

Green plants produce carbohydrates in the presence of light and chlorophyll.

If, "carbohydrates" (the receiver of the action) is the opening topic, passive is better:

Carbohydrates are produced by green plants in the presence of light and chlorophyll.

Watson and Crick (1953)

The topic must identify the subject and prepare the reader for upcoming material by connecting it to the previous discussion.

“We wish to suggest a structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid (D.N.A.). This structure has novel features which are of considerable biological interest. A structure for nucleic acid has already been proposed by Pauling and Corey.”

The authors used the active voice in the first and second sentences, but the passive in the third. If the third sentence is changed to active voice, it becomes:

Pauling and Corey have already proposed a structure for nucleic acid.

Summary on Passive Voice

Choose the active voice whenever possible.

Choose the passive voice when: 1) The performer is unknown, irrelevant,

or obvious. 2) The performer is less important than

the action. 3) The recipient is the main topic. You can also use the passive voice to

hedge (i.e., to be noncommittal). Not recommended

Hedging in

Scientific Writing

"Hedging" in Scientific Writing

Hedging is using cautious language to make noncommittal or vague statements to:

Report the limits of their findings

Protect themselves from the risk of error

Show humility

Cautious language is important in scientific writing, but authors should not use it too much.

3 hedging techniques:

Qualifiers (modifiers)

Passive voice

Apologetic quotation marks

1. Word choice: Unnecessary

qualifiers Qualifiers modify or limit the meaning of other

words. Qualifiers are added to scientific writing to

express:

approximation probability doubt limit the scope of a statement

Examples of qualifiers

Adjectives: apparent, certain, consistent with, few, many, most, possible, presumed, probable, putative, several, some, supposed

Adverbs: about, apparently, arguably, fairly, in general, largely, likely, more or less, mostly, often, perhaps, possibly, presumably, probably, quite, rather, somewhat, unlikely, usually

Nouns: appearance, indication, inference, likelihood, possibility, probability, suggestion, tendency, to my knowledge

Verbs: aim, appear, assume, can, could, estimate, indicate, infer, intend, may, might, presume, propose, seem, seen as, should, speculate, suggest, suppose, tend

Unnecessary qualifiers (continued)

In moderation, qualifiers reduce a researcher's certainty about a method or observation.

However, double, triple, and quadruple synonyms are unnecessary

Example: may be possible seems to suggest rather likely to indicate may be seen as rather likely

To strengthen your argument and increase clarity, limit the number of qualifiers in each sentence.

How would you modify

this sentence?

“A possible cause is likely the apparent tendency of a certain number of patients with diabetes to develop indications of retinopathy.”

“A possible cause is the tendency of patients with diabetes to develop retinopathy.”

2. Point of view: Unnecessary

passive voice A noncommittal form of the passive voice occurs

when authors fail to name themselves (with the personal pronouns I, we) or other researchers as the performers.

This type of passive often begins with the word It Example: It was apparent... It has been noted... It was decided... It is known to be... Who reported the results? To whom was it

apparent? The reader is forced to guess who holds the view.

Passive in the Methods Section

“It was concluded that sleep deprivation has three effects on cognitive performance.”

The passive voice protects the authors from the risk of uncertainty. However, who concluded?.

The reader may find it difficult to determine who did the action when authors use the passive voice to describe their own work other researcher’s work.

Unless you have good reason to write in the passive voice, use the active voice to identify the performer (e.g., We concluded that...).

3. Punctuation: Unnecessary

quotation marks

Some authors add quotation marks to emphasize expressions that are being used for irony or in a nonstandard sense:

“Many patent "medicines" in the 1800s contained little more than alcohol and water.”

Apologetic quotation marks tell the reader that an expression is not being used in the usual way.

Summary on Hedging

Devices for hedging include qualifiers, passive voice, and quotation marks.

These devices are useful when used carefully. However, to reduce ambiguity and improve readability:

1) Eliminate unnecessary qualifiers 2) Use the active voice when

necessary 3) Seldom apply apologetic quotation

marks

Pronoun Errors

The Ambiguous Antecedent

A pronoun (e.g., you, ours, she, this, whom, which, himself) takes the place of a noun. The noun, pronoun, or clause that a pronoun refers to, called an antecedent, usually appears earlier in the sentence.

A pronoun should refer to one specific antecedent.

An ambiguous pronoun antecedent occurs when a pronoun has two or more possible antecedents.

Example: Does the pronoun it refer to the first

study or to the second study?

“The second study was designed to enroll 2000 more participants than the first study. It tested three dose levels of the study drug.”

Correction 1The second study, which tested three dose levels of the study drug, was designed to enroll 2000 more participants than the first study.

Correction 2The second study, designed to enroll 2000 more participants than the first study, tested three dose levels of the study drug.

Example of an unclear

antecedent

Smith et al. compared their study results with those of previous researchers and presented them at the conference.

At the conference, Smith et al. presented their study results, which they had compared with those of previous researchers.

Quick Tips: The Ambiguous

Antecedent

Make sure that each pronoun refers to only one antecedent.

To correct:

remove the pronoun,

shorten the sentence, or rearrange sentence elements.

You may need to do all three.

The Missing Antecedent

A missing pronoun antecedent is when the author implies an antecedent but does not include it in the sentence.

The true antecedent, or reference, is missing.

How can we modify this

sentence?After reading the nursing professor's recent publication on patient care, the students contacted her to obtain more information.

Correction 1 After reading the recent publication on patient care by their nursing professor, the students contacted her to obtain more information.

Correction 2After reading the recent publication on patient care by Johnson, the students contacted her to obtain more information.

Correction 3The students contacted the nursing professor to obtain more information after reading her recent publication on patient care.

Quick Tips: The Missing

Antecedent

Look for missing antecedents when the implied antecedent of a pronoun is in possessive case (and thus an adjective).

To correct a missing antecedent

1) Replace antecedent adjectives with nouns or noun phrases; or

2) Replace pronouns with nouns or noun phrases.

The Vague Antecedent

Sometimes authors use the pronouns this,that, it, or which to refer to a noun or clause (called an antecedent) in the previous sentence.

If the reference is not obvious readers may not review the previous sentence to understand what the author is saying.

A vague pronoun antecedent occurs when a pronoun refers to one or more groups of words and the reference is not clear.

The Vague AntecedentExample 1Patients with a latent infection may need to be monitored for several months because they are at risk of developing the active form of the disease. This diminishes over time.

orExample 2

Patients with a latent infection may need to be monitored for several months because they are at risk of developing the active form of the disease, which diminishes over time.

The Vague Antecedent

Correction 1Patients with a latent infection may need to be monitored for several months because they are at risk of developing the active form of the disease. This risk diminishes over time.

Correction 1Patients with a latent infection may need to be monitored for several months because they are at risk of developing the active form of the disease. The need to monitor these patients diminishes over time.

Correction 1Patients with a latent infection may need to be monitored for several months because they are at risk of developing the active form of the disease. As the risk diminishes over time, so too does the need to monitor these patients.

Quick Tips: The Vague

Antecedent

Be careful with the pronouns this, that, it, and which.

Correct vague pronoun antecedents by:

changing the pronoun into anadjective,

replacing the pronoun with a noun or noun phrase, or

revising the sentence more extensively.

Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies the wrong subject in a sentence. This occurs because the implied subject is missing. The resulting sentence can be unclear.

Most dangling modifiers are verbal phrases:

Participles (verbs used as adjectives)Gerunds (verbs used as nouns)Infinitives (verbs used as nouns

adjectives, or adverbs)

Dangling Participles

(end in “ing” or “ed”) Example

Using the survey data, the effects of education on job satisfaction were examined.

(Who is using the data? Implied subject = we/researchers; grammatical subject = the effects)

CorrectionUsing the survey data, we examined the effects of education on job satisfaction.

Dangling Participles

(end in “ing” or “ed”)Example

Based on the results, we concluded that the drugs are equally effective.

(What is based on the results? Implied subject = conclusion; grammatical subject = we)

Correction 1On the basis of the results, we concluded that the drugs are equally effective.

Correction 2We concluded from the results that the drugs are equally effective.

Correction 3Based on the results, our conclusion is that the drugs are equally effective.

Dangling Gerunds (end

in “ing”) Example

After preparing the samples, our focus was on collecting the data.

(Who did the preparing? Implied subject = we/ researchers; grammatical subject = our focus)

CorrectionAfter preparing the samples, we focused on collecting the data.

Dangling Infinitives

(include the word “to”) Example

To investigate the relationship, a series of experiments were designed.

(Who is going to investigate? Implied subject = we/researchers; grammatical subject = a series)

CorrectionWe designed a series of experiments to investigate the relationship.

Quick Tips: Dangling Modifiers

Watch for dangling modifiers at the beginning of sentences.

Ask who or what is doing the action and make sure the implied subject is doing it.

Write in the active voice whenever possible. The passive voice "encourages" dangling modifiers to appear.

Misplaced Modifiers

Misplaced modifiers are an error in sentence structure involving the order of words.

A misplaced modifier has been incorrectly placed in a sentence, describing the wrong word or phrase.

Adjectives and adverbs are easily misplaced, producing unclear results.

Example: Misplaced

Modifier

ExampleThe 49-year-old patient experienced severe pain in the left heel when walking for two months.

CorrectionFor two months, the 49-year-old patient experienced severe pain in the left heel when walking.

The word only modifies the word that

directly follows it. Example

Only eradication of this disease can be achieved through immunization. (Eradication, but no other outcome, can be achieved.)

Alternative 1Eradication of only this disease can be achieved through immunization. (Eradication of this disease, but not of any other, can be achieved.)

Alternative 2Eradication of this disease can only be achievedthrough immunization. (Eradication can be achieved, but no other action can occur.)

Alternative 3Eradication of this disease can be achieved only through immunization. (Eradication can be achieved through immunization but not by any other means.)

The word only modifies the

word that directly follows it.

They were only asking about the deliverable. (As if it were a minor issue)

They were asking only about the deliverable. (They asked about nothing else.)

Only they were asking about the deliverable. (No one else asked.)

Quick Tips: Misplaced Modifiers

Place words and groups of words as close as possible to the words that they are describing.

Place words such as only, almost,and even just before the word that you want them to describe.

Other Grammar Errors

Latin and Greek Plurals

Common in scientific and medical writing.

The preferred plural form of many of these words is the same as in the original language. But for other plurals, the usual English rules of adding "s" or "es" now apply.

The acceptability of an English plural form may differ by journal

Caution: Read the dictionary entry carefully. Sometimes the English plural is used for only a narrow definition of the term.

Common traditional endings for Latin or

Greek singular nouns and their

corresponding plural endings Singular ending Plural ending -a → -ae -en→ -ina -ex→ -ices -is → -es -itis→ -itides -ix → -ices -on→ -a -um→ -a -us→ -i

Singular and Plural Nouns Derived From

Latin and Greek

Singular form Plural form

alga algae or algas analysis analyses bacterium bacteria basis bases criterion criteria or criterions datum data focus foci or focuses foramen foramina or foramens formula formulae or formulas fungus fungi or funguses genus genera hypothesis hypotheses index indices (math) or indexes

Singular and Plural Nouns Derived From

Latin and Greek (continued)

Singular form Plural form

larva larvae or larvas

matrix matrices or matrixes

medium media

nephritis nephritides

nucleus nuclei or nucleuses

parenthesis parentheses

phenomenon phenomena

radius radii or radiuses

stimulus stimuli

stratum strata

synthesis syntheses

vertebra vertebrae or vertebrasa

Do not insert a comma before but also in a

sentence with not only...but also

Correlative conjunctions are pairs (not only...but also, either...or,

neither...nor, and both...and). These conjunctive pairs are used when

there is a continuous flow of ideas. A comma signifies a pause in the line

of thinking so no comma should be used to separate the elements joined by correlative conjunctions.

Do not insert a comma before but also.

How would you change

this sentence? We observed that poor drug

efficiency was due to not only lack of absorption, but also increased clearance.

We observed that poor drug efficiency was due to not only lack of absorption but also increased clearance.


this sentence? Radiotherapy is valuable not only in

reducing the number of courses of chemotherapy, but also in producing superior overall survival.

Radiotherapy is valuable not only in reducing the number of courses of chemotherapy but also in producing superior overall survival.

Avoid double negatives

Double negatives are used in English to make a very positive statement, but this is not appropriate for a scientific paper.

In Chinese a double negative can actually strengthen the negativeness of a statement, which does not translate into English.


this sentence?

"No background staining was not seen..."

"No background staining was seen..."

Hyphens

Hyphenation joins ordinarily separate words into compound words

Incorrect use of compound adjectives can lead to confusion

“twenty-four hour reactions”

has a different meaning from

“twenty four-hour reactions”

Do not use a hyphen in a compound adjective

when the first word is an adverb ending in ly

No hyphen is required to make a compound adjective when the first word is an adverb ending in “ly”

“intensely colored crystals” = “intense-colored crystals”

Not “intensely-colored crystals”


this sentence?

We developed a fully-automated method that estimates the position of the diaphragm.

We developed a fully automated method that estimates the position of the diaphragm.


this sentence?

The surgically-removed tissue specimen was then subjected to histopathological examination.

The surgically removed tissue specimen was then subjected to histopathological examination.

Do not use the same or similar

word/phrase in quick succession in two

consecutive sentences

The baseline characteristics are shown in Table 1. Table 2 shows the body temperature of all female subjects.

The baseline characteristics are shown in Table 1, and the body temperature of all female subjects are shown in Table 2.

Table 1 and Table 2 show the baseline characteristics and body temperature of all female subjects, respectively.


these sentences? Percutaneous RF ablation of the lung

tumors was approved by our institutional review board. The institutional review board also approved tumor biopsy and specimen analysis with the novel approach.

Our institutional review board approved percutaneous RF ablation of the lung tumors as well as tumor biopsy and specimen analysis with the novel approach.

Numbers

The numbers one to nine should be written in full in text except when used with units of measurement or in a range including a number greater than nine

“The control group (three males and two females)…”

“Patients were administered 3 mg/kg TNF…”

“There were 5–10 patients in each group”

Numbers

Numbers at the beginning of a sentence should be spelled out or the sentence should be restructured

Spelled out numbers require spelled out units

“Thirty-three sections were cut from each block using a cryostat”

“Ten microliters of drug was administered to each patient”

“Drug (10 μl) was administered to each patient”

Numbers

Always use a space between numbers and units (this includes % if the journal follows SI guidelines, exceptions are plane angular degrees, minutes and seconds. The Chicago manual asks for no space between the % sign and the number)

20 mg, 40 mL, 25 °C, 2°3’4’’

Use “of” to follow amounts but not concentrations

5 g of NaOH was added to the solution

5 mol/L NaOH was added to the solution

Insert a space between a numeral and its

corresponding unit of measurement and

before and after mathematical operators

The body weight of the Beagles ranged between 5kg and 10kg; their average body weight was 7.5kg.

The body weight of the Beagles ranged between 5 kg and 10 kg; their average body weight was 7.5 kg.


this sentence? Of the 91 participants (average age

60±5years), 51 and 40 were divided into 2 groups based on their response to the drug.

Of the 91 participants (average age 60 ±5 years), 51 and 40 were divided into 2 groups based on their response to the drug.

Repeat the percentage sign

(%) in a series or range of

percentages The range of annual incidence rates

of URTI was 0.4-1.9 %.

The range of annual incidence rates of URTI was 0.4 %-1.9 %.


this title? Approximately 60.0, 14.3, and

16.7% patients in Groups A, B, and C, respectively, showed significant improvement.

Approximately 60.0 %, 14.3 %, and 16.7 % patients in Groups A, B, and C, respectively, showed significant improvement.

Do not begin a sentence

with a numeral 24 patients were assigned to receive

radiotherapy and 30 to receive a combination of radio- and chemotherapy.

Twenty-four patients were assigned to receive radiotherapy and 30 to receive a combination of radio- and chemotherapy.

A total of 24 and 30 patients were assigned to receive radiotherapy and a combination of radio and chemotherapy, respectively.

Do not begin a sentence

with a numeral 60 % of the enrolled subjects

continued their participation until the end of the study.

Sixty percent of the enrolled subjects continued their participation until the end of the study.

Of the enrolled subjects, 60 % continued their participation until the end of the study.

Do not use a plural verb with a

spelled-out unit of measurement

Use the singular form of the verb with units of measurement

Note: Although milligrams ends in s, a singular verb should be used because units of measurement are treated as singular collective nouns.


this sentence?

Fifty milligrams of the pulverized crude drug were mixed with 100 mL of the solvent.

Fifty milligrams of the pulverized crude drug was mixed with 100 mL of the solvent.


this sentence?

Twenty milliliters of blood were drawn from the affected and unaffected (control) individuals.

Twenty milliliters of blood was drawn from the affected and unaffected (control) individuals.

Do not use nonstandard

mathematical symbolsIn MS Word, these symbols can be obtained from Insert > Symbol.

Symbol errors: An apostrophe (') is incorrectly used to represent

the prime sign (’) in chemical names and gene sequences.

While representing standard deviation, +/-(plus/minus) or + (an underlined plus sign) is used instead of the symbol ±.

>= and <= are used to represent greater than or equal to (>-) and less than or equal to (<-) signs.

x is used instead of the multiplication sign ( × ).


this sentence?

The equation for estimating this value is A = 3.56 x 10-2 γ [a + b].

The equation for estimating this value is A = 3.56 × 10-2 γ [a + b].

Insert > Symbols > Multiplication sign

Useful links on numbers

Typefaces for symbols in scientific manuscripts:

physics.nist.gov/Document/typefaces.pdf

SI guidelines:

physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/rules.html

Asian Fonts

Asian fonts such as MS Mincho and SimSum possess characters with different widths from those of Latin fonts

Do not use Asian fonts in your manuscripts

Frequently encountered problems include those caused by Asian-font brackets, plus and minus signs and other mathematical symbols, and units of temperature

“temperature was increased （1 ° C/min”)

Colon and semicolon

The colon “:” is used to introduce a list or a clause that explains what precedes it

The semicolon “;” is used to separate the elements in a list too long for commas or where commas could be ambiguous. Use ‘and’ before the last item in the list.

“There are a number of journals for organic chemistry manuscripts: Organic Electronics, produced by Elsevier; The Journal of Polymer Science, produced by Wiley; The Journal of…”

Use a colon (:), not a semicolon (;) to introduce a list


this sentence? The following parameters were used as

outcome measures; morning stiffness, number of tender joints, and ESR.

The following parameters were used as outcome measures: morning stiffness, number of tender joints, and ESR.


this sentence?

The article includes the following sections; Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion.

The article includes the following sections: Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion.

Use the present tense

for in-text reference to

figures and tables

The vital signs upon presentation were summarized in Table 1.

The vital signs upon presentation are summarized in Table 1.


this sentence?

Figure 1 showed the relationship between age and incidence of dementia.

Figure 1 shows the relationship between age and incidence of dementia.

Do not use a period at the end of

the title of a manuscript

Title and subtitles are not full sentences and do not need a period at the end.

Do not insert a period after the title


this title?

Prespondylosis and some Pain Syndromes following Denervation Supersensitivity.

Prespondylosis and some Pain Syndromes following Denervation Supersensitivity


this title?

Acupuncture and the Peripheral Nervous System: A Radiculopathy Model.

Acupuncture and the Peripheral Nervous System: A Radiculopathy Model

Do not use a comma after a salutation in

a formal letter written in the American

style

In American English, the salutation ends in a colon in a formal letter and ends in a comma in an informal letter.

In the British style of writing, a salutation is followed by a comma in both formal and informal letters.


this salutation?

Dear Editor,

Dear Editor:


this salutation?

Dear Dr. Thomson,

Dear Dr. Thomson:

References in the AMA style

Book, single author Shepard TH. Catalog of Teratogenic

Agents. 7th ed. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press; 1992.

Book—more than one author(list all authors if six or less, otherwise list first three followed by "et al.")

Baselt RC, Cravey RH. Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man. 4th ed. Foster City, CA: Chemical Toxicology Institute; 1995.


Monographic series

Davidoff RA. Migraine: Manifestations, Pathogenesis, and Management. Philadelphia, Pa: FA Davis; 1995. Contemporary Neurology Series, No. 42.


Article from journal—single author

Moldofsky H. Sleep, neuroimmune and neuroendocrine functions in fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome. Adv Neuroimmunol.1995;5:(1):39-56

Article from journal--more than one author(list all authors if six or less, otherwise list first three followed by "et al.")

Raux H, Coulon P, Lafay F, Flamand A. Monoclonal antibodies which recognize the acidic configuration of the rabies glycoprotein at the surface of the virion can be neutralizing. Virology.1995;210(2):400-408.


Online journals with volume and page information

Simon JA, Hudes ES. Relationship of ascorbic acid to blood lead levels. JAMA. 1999;281:2289-2293. http://url. Accessed July 11, 2009.

Online journals without volume and page information

Mast CT, DeMuro-Mercon C, Kelly CM, Floyd LE, Ealter EB. The impact of rotavirus gastroenteritis on the family. BMC Pediatrics. 2009;9:11. doi:10.1186/1471-2431-9-11

(Based on AMA Manual of Style, 10th ed., 2007.)

Verb Tenses in the

Academic Paper

Tenses in the Introduction

Stage one: Current knowledge or previous studies - Present tense or Present perfect

Stage two: Literature review - Present, (information prominent citation) Present perfect (weak author prominent citation) or Past (author prominent) • Complement verb difference: present, past or modal

Stage three: Knowledge gap - Present, (for fact) Present perfect, (for studies)

Stage four: Problem statement - Present, (report focused) Past, (research focused)

Stage five: Rational for study - Present tense and modal

Stage one: Current knowledge or previous

studies - Present tense or Present perfect

“Motor skills require action based on rapid change in the environment.”

“Clean water is a basic human need”

“Previous studies have indicated the need for further research in X.”

Stage two: Literature Review - Present,

Present perfect or Past

Information prominent:- “In most deserts of the world, transitions

between topographic elements are abrupt (Kramer, 1993).”

Weak author prominent:

- “Several researchers have studied the relationship between classroom adjustment and mobility (Madsen, 2009).

Author prominent:

- Allington (1998) found that teachers allocated equal time to all groups.

Complement verb difference in

Author prominent citation: present,

past or modal

Johnson found that X affects Y

Johnson found that X affected Y

Johnson suggested that X may affectY

Stage three: Present or present

perfect

“However, few studies have reportedon the effects of computer assisted instruction.”

“But there is little information available on the air flow rates on simple solar collectors.”

Stage four: Present or past

“The aim of this paper is to determine whether and automatic measurement system can be applied to educational settings.”

“The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not genetic differences exist at low temperatures in pepper species.”

Stage Five: Present tense and

modal

“This research may provide an alternative to the problem of manually demonstrating instrumentation principles in classroom environments.”

Modal auxiliaries ranked by

certainly

Will

Would

Should

May

Could

Might

Methods

Describing conventional material: Present tense

Describing modified material: Past tense

Describing populations: Present tense

Specific samples: Past tense

Procedures: Past tense

Describing conventional material:

Present tense

“A typical chemical reactor includes a helical, tube-in-tube heat exchanger.”

Describing modified material: Past

tense

“For the testing program this collector was protected from weather by an outer window of .10 mm tedlar.

Describing populations: Present

tense

“All students who apply for admission to NCTU take the General English Proficiency Test.”

Specific samples: Past tense

“The subjects were 18 Chinese-speaking students attending at NCTU.”

Procedures: Past tense

“Stress was applied to the rubber segments.”

Results

Locating figures: Present tense

Presenting the findings: Past tense

Comparing results with the results of other studies: Present tense and modals

Commenting on results: Present tense and/or tentative verbs:

Locating figures: Present tense

Results of the t-tests are presented in Table 1.

Presenting the findings: Past tense

As a group, divorced mothers spentover twice as much time in employment as married mothers (Figure 2).

Presenting different types of

results: Past Tense

“The highest incidence of Otitis Media was found among Australian Indians.”

“Prices showed a tendency to increase over the three year period.”

“Dry weight of top growth was not highly related to total nitrogen.”

Commenting on results: Present

tense and/or tentative verbs:

“Hyperactive children may be generally responsive to amphetamines.”

“Hyperactive children appear to be generally responsive to amphetamines”

Limiting findings: Past tense or

present with modals

“The sample was small.”

“Other industries may producedifferent results.”

Discussion

Referring to the purpose, Referring to the hypothesis, Restating the findings: Past tense

Explaining findings: Present tense with modals or past tense

Limiting findings: Past tense or present with modals

Comparing findings: Present tense Implications: Present tense and tentative

verb Recommendations and applications:

Present and modal or tentative verbs

Referring to the purpose, Referring

to the hypothesis, Restating the

findings: Past tense “This research attempted to assess two

theories of behavior.”

“We originally assumed that physical decrements would be more apparent in speed jobs that in skill jobs.”

“The principle of readability was not followed in the income tax booklet on any of the counties studied except Hsinchu.”

Explaining findings: Present tense

with past or present in the

complement These results indicate that microbial

activity caused some immobilization of labial soil phosphorus.

These results indicate that microbial activity cause some immobilization of labial soil phosphorus.

Comparing findings: Present tense

“These results are in substantial agreement with those of Bates (2).”

Implications: Present tense and

modal/tentative verb

“Squatter housing markets appear to behave as economically rational entities.”

Recommendations and

applications: Present and modal or

tentative verbs “The approach outlined in this study

should be replicated in other manufacturing plants.”

“We recommend that the approach outlined in this study be replicated in other manufacturing plants.”

Sources

Zeiger M. Essentials of Writing Biomedical Research Papers. 2nd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2000.

Gopen GD, Swan JA. The science of scientific writing. Am Scientist.1990;78:550-558.

Watson JD, Crick FHC. Molecular structure of nucleic acids. Nature.1953;171:737-738.

Iverson C, Christiansen S, Flanagin A, et al. AMA Manual of Style: A Guide for Authors and Editors. 10th ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2007.

American Psychological Association. (2009). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Instructions to authors. Oxford Journals Web site: Behavioral Ecology.http://www.oxfordjournals.org/our_journals/beheco/for_authors/general.html. Accessed March 5, 2009. Accessed March 4, 2009.

Sources (continued)

The essentials of BMJ style. BMJ Publishing Group Web site: British Medical Journal.http://resources.bmj.com/bmj/authors/bmj-house-style. Accessed March 5, 2009.

Westbrook G, Cooper L. Writing tips: Techniques for clear scientific writing and editing. The Society for Neuroscience Web site:The Journal of Neuroscience. http://www.jneurosci.org. Accessed March 5, 2009.

Guidelines for authors. International Society for the Study of Trauma Web site: The Journal of Trauma & Dissociation. http://www.isst-d.org/jtd/journal-trauma-dissociation-info-for-authors.htm. Accessed March 5, 2009.

How to write a paper: writing for a Nature journal. Nature Publishing Group Web site: Nature. http://www.nature.com/authors/author_services/how_write.html. Accessed March 4, 2009.

Guide for authors. Elsevier Web site: Ophthalmology: Journal of the American Academy of Ophthalmology.http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/620418/authorinstructions. Accessed March 5, 2009.

Some notes on Science style. American Association for the Advancement of Science Web site: Science. http://www.sciencemag.org/about/authors/prep/res/style.dtl

Sources (continued)

Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. 11th ed. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc.; 2007.

Sternberg RJ. The Psychologist's Companion: A Guide to Scientific Writing for Students and Researchers. 4th ed. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 2005.

Matthews JR, Bowen JM, Matthews RW. Successful Scientific Writing: A Step-by-Step Guide for the Biological and Medical Sciences. 2nd ed. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 2000.

Iverson C, Christiansen S, Flanagin A, et al. AMA Manual of Style: A Guide for Authors and Editors. 10th ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2007.

American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 6th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2009.

The Chicago Manual of Style. 15th ed. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press; 2003.

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