The best research method طرق البحث

Research Method (P a g e | 1) abdullah alhriri

Emil: [email protected]

unit 1 Meaning of research

The word of research is composed of two syllables, re and search. Re is a prefix

meaning again, a new or over again search is a verb that means to examine closely and

carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun describing a careful,

systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to

establish facts or principles.

The Webster‟s International Dictionary process a very inclusive definition of research

as “ a careful critical inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles diligent

investigation in order to ascertain something ”.

It is a systematic process of solving a problem. This process consists of three

elements: (1) a question, problem, or a hypothesis; (2) data; and (3) analysis and

interpretation of the data.

The concept of research refers to Searching for knowledge, Adding new knowledge,

Finding out something undiscovered, and Rediscovering something gain.

Verbs that have similar meaning as research To find, to discover, to investigate, to

inquire, to explore.

Research Methodology

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may

be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study

the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research

problem along with the logic behind them.

Research features:

• To find solution to problem.

• To get the information purposeful.

• To apply systematic and scientific methods.

Characteristics Research

A good research has the following two qualities:

• Reliability: It refers to whether the research can produce the same or very similar

results if is conducted again under the same or very similar conditions.

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a. Internal reliability: It refers to the consistency of data collection, analysis and

results interpretation.

b. External reliability: It refers to whether replicating a research by other

researchers produces similar results to those obtained in the original study.

• Validity: It refers to whether the research investigates the problem that it is

intended to investigate.

a. Internal validity: It has to do with factors, which may directly affect outcomes.

b. External validity: It is concerned with generalizability.

These are some more characteristics:

• Controlled:

The concept of control implies that you set up your study in a way that

minimizes the effects of other factors on the relationship between the study

variables.

• Rigorous:

You must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed are

relevant, appropriate and justified.

• Systematic: This implies that the procedures adopted to undertake the investigation

follow a certain logical sequence.

• Verifiable: This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your

findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.

• Empirical: This means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence

gathered from information collected from real life experiences or observations.

• Critical: This implies that the process of investigation must be foolproof and free

from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to

withstand critical scrutiny.

• Replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating

the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

Motivation in research:

The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits.

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems.

3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.

4. Desire to be of service to society.

5. Desire to get respectability.

6. Social cause.

7. Curiosity of human being.

8. Social welfare.




Because of the interaction between people and the environment we have problem and

knowledge for solving the problems.

Cause and effects:

A problem:

A problem is interpreted as a problem in terms of context. A problem is an

arrangement of elements or factors.

A solution:

A solution is an arrangement of elements or factors in a particular context.

A knowledge:

Knowledge expresses the relationship between elements. It is nothing but the

exploration or relationship between elements. There is nothing called absolute knowledge

to things. The concept of knowledge changes from person to person and situation to

situation.

We can define any concept on the basis of parameters:

• Objectives: They differ from person to person but there are common objectives.

• Content: It differs from person to person but sometimes it is similar but the manner

is different.

• Methodology: Manner

• Theories: They explore phenomena. They give explanation to phenomenon. They

provide a frame for explanation. Many things can be solved by mixing different

theories and content. The various steps regarding the research process:

1. defining the research problem

2. reviewing literature (Reviewing concepts and theories, reviewing previous

research finding)

3. formulating hypotheses

4. designing research (including sample design)

5. collecting the data (execution)

6. analyzing data (Test hypotheses if any)

7. interpretation

8. preparation of the report or the thesis

Step 1:Defining the research problem

person

Environment Problem

Knowledge




Essentially, there two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz.,

understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms

from an analytical point of view. Forms for stating the research problem:

a. Stating the problem as the research purpose: This from is obligatory and should be used

in all types of research. The statement of the research purpose has to be decisive,

inclusive, preventive, and related.The present study aims at investigating the

relationship …..

b. Stating the problem as questions to be answered: It is used along with the research

purpose as a single questions or a group of questions., es/No questions or Wh.

questions.

c. Stating the problem as objectives to be achieved:

d. Stating the problem as hypotheses to be tested:

Step 2:Reviewing the literature:

Reviewing the literature is an essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself with

the available body of knowledge in your area of interest. It is integral part of entire research

process and makes valuable contribution to every operational step. It can be time-

consuming, daunting and frustrating, but it is also rewarding. This step (Reviewing

literature) brings clarity and focus to your research problem, improves your methodology,

broadens your knowledge, and contextualizes your findings.

Procedures for reviewing the literature:

i) Searching for existing literature in

your area of study.

ii) Reviewing the literature selected.

iii) Developing a theoretical

framework. iv) Developing a

conceptual framework.

Step 3:formulating hypotheses

Hypothesis is a mere assumption or some suppositions which can be proved or disproved.

Also, it is defined as a temporary imaginative solution.

According to Kothari, there are two types of hypothesis which are null hypothesis and

alternative hypothesis. Alsamawi, however, claims that there are three types of hypothesis

which are null hypothesis and directional and non-directional hypothesis. The two types

which are added by Alsamawi are, to some extent , similar to Kothari's alternative.

Step 4:Preparing the research design

Research design is the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.

Its function is to help in collecting the relevant information with minimal expenditure of

effort, time and money.

There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non- experimental

hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as

beforeand- after without control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control)




or formal designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block design,

Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher

must select one for his own project.

The preparation of research design involves the consideration of the following: a.

the means of obtaining the information;

b. the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);

c. explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be

organized and the reasoning leading to the selection; d. the time available for research;

and

e. the cost factor relating to research

Step 5: collecting the data

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data. Primary data can be collected

either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment,

he observes some quantitative measurements. But in the case of a survey, data can be

collected by any one or more of the following ways: Observation, Personal interview,

Questionnaire, Tests, …etc.

Step 6: Analyzing data (Test hypotheses if any)

After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The

analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of

categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and

then drawing statistical inferences. The researcher should classify the raw data into some

purposeful and usable categories. In brief, the researcher can analyze the collected data

with the help of various statistical measures.

Step 7:Generalizations and Interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization,

As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain

generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain

his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of

interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further

researches.

Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a

position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier.

Step 8:Preparation of the report or the thesis

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done. Writing of report

must be done with great care keeping in view the following:

1. The layout of the report should be as follows:




(i) the preliminary pages;

(ii) the main text, and (iii)

the end matter.

2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language

avoiding vague expressions such as „it seems,‟ „there may be‟, and the like.

3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the

information more clearly and forcibly.

Type of Research

Research can be classified from three perspectives:

1. Application of the research study

2. Objective in undertaking the research

3. Inquiry mode employed




A. Application

1. Pure Research : ( Basic research or Fundamental research) involves developing

and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the

researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or

in the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order

to add to the existing body of research methods and knowledge. It seeks to

discover basic truths and principles.

2. Applied Research: applied research is done to solve specific, practical

questions; for understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but is

usually descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of basic research.

Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial institutions.

B. Objectives :

1. Descriptive Research: includes the surveys and fact-finding enquiries of

different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the

state of affairs as it exists at present.

2. Correlational Research: the main emphasis in a correlational research study is

to discover or establish the existence of a relationship between two or more

aspect of situation .

3. Explanatory research : attempts of clarify why and how there is a relationship

between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon.

4. Exploratory Research: this is when a study is undertaken with the objective

either to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities

of undertaking a particular research study.

C. Inquiry mode

Type of research

Inquiry Mode Objective Applicati on

Pure research

Applied research

Exploratory research

Descriptive research

Explanatory research

Correlational research

Quantitative research

Qualitative research




1. Quantitative Research : structured approach to inquiry is classified as

quantitative research. In the structured approach everything that forms the

research process – objectives ,design ,sample ,and questions – is

predetermined. It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem.

The study is classified as quantitative study if you quantify the variation in a

phenomenon , situation , problem or issue ,if information is gathered using

predominantly quantitative variables , and if analysis is geared to ascertain the

magnitude of the variation.

2. Qualitative Research : unstructured approach to inquiry is classified as

qualitative research. The unstructured approach allows flexibility in all aspects

of process. It is more appropriate to explore the nature of the problem. The

study is classified as qualitative study if the purpose of the study is primarily

to describe a situation , phenomenon , problem or event , the information is

gathered through the use of variables measured on nominal of ordinal scales

and if analysis is done to establish the variation in the situation , phenomenon

or problem without quantifying it

Some Other Types of Research:

All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated

approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to

accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the

basis of some other similar factor. - From the point of view of time:

1. one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research

is confined to a single time-period.

2. longitudinal research is carried on over several time-periods.

- From the point of view of environment in which it is to be carried out 1.

be field-setting research.

2. laboratory research or simulation research,

Scientific inquiry

Scientific research is a systematic , controlled empirical and critical investigation of

propositions about the presumed relationships about various phenomena.

Scientific methods consist of systematic observation , classification and interpretation of

data . now, obviously, this process is one in which nearly all people engage in the course

of lives. The main difference between our day-to- day generalizations their daily and the

conclusions usually recognized as scientific method leis in the degree of formality

,rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of the latter .




Scientific method means observation based on verifiable evidence or systematic body of

proof that can be cited. For eg. Scientific approach will test notion another man is more

intelligent than woman rural are more hard working than urban people and so on.

Scientific explanation on observed facts rules of philosophical and metaphysical

explanation of relation that cannot be tested. Scientific studies believe in testing and

validity.

The goal of a scientific inquiry is to obtain knowledge in the form of testable explanations

that can predict the results of future experiments. This allows scientists to gain an

understanding of reality, and later use that understanding to intervene in its causal

mechanisms (such as to cure disease). The better an explanation is at making predictions,

the more useful it is, and the more likely it is to be correct. The most successful

explanations, which explain and make accurate predictions in a wide range of

circumstances, are called scientific theories.

Four characteristics of good scientific research. These characteristics apply equally to

quantitative and qualitative investigations.

1. The goal is inference.

2. The procedures are public

3. The conclusions are uncertain

4. The content is the method

The scientific method may be described as consisting of four steps:

1. Observation and description of a phenomenon or a group of related phenomena.

When an investigator has little prior information, the first step is description, or as

Steiner characterizes it, “natural history.” This is the stage when qualitative methods

may provide considerable information about what-is.

2. Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomena. Based on qualitative

and/or descriptive studies, investigators begin to speculate about which variables

might be related to other variables and in what manner (directly or indirectly). In

educational research, the hypothesis is often a question about the relationship

between or among variables that may influence learning. The hypothesis may be one

that merely asks whether a relationship exists (correlational research), or the

hypothesis may state a cause-and-effect relationship.

3. Predict the existence of other phenomena using the hypothesis, or predict the

results of new observations. Consider the Rosenthal & Jacobson study as an

example.

4. Conduct experimental tests of the predictions by several independent

experimenters who use proper experimental methods.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictability



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theories





Features of scientific study:

1- Verifiable evidence (factual/ tangible)

2- Accuracy (what really exists )

3- Precision (eg. 190 instead of large word)

4- Systemization (finding all relevant data )

5- Objectivity (free from biases)

6- Recording (jotting down at earliest)

7- Controlling conditions (controlling all variables except one and then attempting to

examine what happens when what variable is varied)

8- Training investigation (what to look for, how to interpret it and avoid inaccurate

data collection)

Elements for scientific inquiry

There are different ways of outlining the basic method used for scientific

inquiry. The scientific community and philosophers of science generally agree on the

following classification of method components. These methodological elements and

organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of natural sciences than social

sciences. Nonetheless, the cycle of formulating hypotheses, testing and analyzing the

results, and formulating new hypotheses.

Four essential elements of the scientific method are

iterations, recursions, interleaving, or orderings of the following:

• Characterizations (observations, definitions, and measurements of the subject

of inquiry)

• Hypotheses (theoretical, hypothetical explanations of observations

and measurements of the subject)

• Predictions (reasoning including logical deduction from the hypothesis or

theory)

• Experiments (tests of all of the above)

Philosophical and Sociological foundations of research


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophers_of_science



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iteration




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recursion



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_set



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method#Characterizations

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method#Characterizations

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method#Hypothesis_development

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method#Hypothesis_development

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explanation



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method#Predictions_from_the_hypothesis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method#Predictions_from_the_hypothesis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasoning



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method#Experiments

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method#Experiments

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment





The researchers use social laws of rules in researches . the researcher selects research area

that accepted by the society . society accepts researches that are in the benefits on it.

Philosophical foundation:

According to all religion philosophy , researches must achieved .

Theoretical perspectives and philosophical approaches to sociology informed

methodology and it is informed by epistemology.

All research is based on assumptions about how the world is perceived and how we can

best come to understanding it.

Epistemology is another philosophical concept , which gets the researcher consider what

counts as valid knowledge in society . our view on what counts as valid knowledge will

be reflected in other theoretical perspectives and thus methodology and methods

employed .

Phenomenology focus on the processes and experience one goes through .

phenomenology is the study of phenomena or the thing we experience and the ways we

experience such things (qualitive studies).

Positivism , according to positivism reality is stable, observable, and can be measured.

Knowledge is obtained using the scientific method, which is objective and measureable.

Also the researcher when repeated should yield the similar results. (quantitative studies)

Interdisciplinary approach and its implications in various research area.

Interdisciplinary Research (IDR) is a mode of research by teams or individuals that

integrates information, data, techniques, tools, perspectives, concepts, and/or theories

from two or more disciplines or bodies of specialized knowledge to advance fundamental

understanding or to solve problems whose solutions are beyond the scope of a single

discipline or area of research practice.

IDR has a collaborative focus and blend and integrates research between discipline. This

may range from the sharing of idea to full integration of concepts , methodology

procedures , theory , terminology , data , and organization of research and training in a

fairly large field.

Researchers from two or more disciplines work together and create a shred discourse

about the research problem . sometimes this offers a vantages point from which to

interrogate the core assumptions of a discipline and to trace or even redraw its

boundaries .

IDR interdisciplinary approach:




1. Generate better researches.

2. Reduce the overall cost of constructing and operating research facilities

3. Helps recuit and retain the best staff

4. Attracks more money in research grants

5. Opens up a lot more a venues for innovation and getting more knowledge in other

specialty disciplines for researchers.

Implications in various research area:

• At sociology: how does your topic or problem affect individuals ? are there

emotional or mental effect?

• At business: what are the financial aspects of your topic ? how will money

or lack thereof affect, what are the solution?

• At history: what is the history of this problem ? it is a new issue or one with

roots in the recent of ancient past?

• At politics/ law: how does politics enter in to problem?

• At technology: is the technology a factor in the problem? Could technology

solve the problem

unit 2 Qualitative and Quantitative Methods

Research methods:

It may be understood as all those methods /techniques that are used for conduction of

research . it refer to the methods the researcher use in performing research operations. In

other word, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of

studying his research problem are termed as research methods.

It can be put into following 3 groups:

1. Including those methods , which are concerned with the collection of data .

2. Consisting of those statistical techniques, which are used to establish relationships

between the data and unknowns.

3. Consisting of those methods , which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the result

obtained.

Qualitative studies:

Qualitative studies are those in which descriptions of observation is not ordinarily

expressed in quantitative terms. It is not that numerical measures are never used but that

other means of descriptions are emphasized.

Quantitative research:

Quantification has been defined as numerical methods of describing observations of

material or characteristic when a defined portion of material or characteristics used as a




standard for measuring any sample a valid and precise method of data description is

provided.

Quantitative Qualitative

General idea

-Emphasizes numbers,

measurements, control, and

experimentation -This is the

traditional approach in

AEE research -Inductive approach

-Emphasizes natural settings,

observations, verbal narratives, and

interpretations -Emerged in the mid-1970s as an approach to

educational research - Deductive data

Philosophy Positivism Phenomenology

Goals

Test theory Establish facts Show relationships Predict Statistically describe To quantify to predict causal

relationships to describe

characteristics of a population

Understand theory Develop understanding Describe multiple realities Capture naturally occurring behavior To describe variation To describe and explain relationship To describe individual experience To describe group norms

Design

Structured Predetermined Formal Specific

Evolving Flexible General

Sample Large Small

Representative Random Selection Control Groups Stratified

Non-representative Purposeful sampling Comprehensive Sample Maximum Variation Sample Network or Snowball (a chain referral sampling) Sampling by Type Typical case Quota sampling

Data

Quantities Counts Measures Instruments Numbers Statistics - Data are tabulated and described statistically

Verbal descriptions Field Notes Observations Documents

Photographs

People‟s own words Narrative -Tabulation limited to help identify patterns and

used to support qualitative meanings




Question format

Close-ended So Participant responses do

not influence or determine

how and which questions researcher ask next

Open-ended Participant responses affect how and which

questions researcher ask next

Methods

Experiments Quasi-experiments Surveys Structured Interviews Structured Observations

Observation Open-ended interviewing Review of documents and artifacts In-depth interview Focus groups. In-depth

interviews. Direct observation. -Dairy methods – the researcher or subject keeps

a personal account of daily events, feelings. --

Discussion, interactions etc. -Role-play and simulation – participants may be

asked to play a role, or may be asked to observe

role-play, after which they are asked to rate

behavior, report feelings and predict further

events. -Case-study – this is an in-depth study of just one

person, group or event. this technique is simply a

description of individuals.

Meaning Meaning is derived from

statistical procedures employed

Meaning is derived from qualitative strategies employed

Classification of Research Method:

Method of research may be classified from many points of view:

1. The field to which applied: social science, education, philosophy etc.

2. Purpose: description, prediction, determination of causes determination of statues.

3. Place where it is conducted: In the field or in the laboratory.

4. Application : Pure research or applied research .

5. Data gathering devices employed: Tests, questionnaires, rating scales etc.

6. Character of data applied: Objective, subjective, quantitative e etc.

7. Forms of thinking: Deductive, inductive etc.

8. Control of factors: controlled and un controlled experiments.

Research Methods 1. Historical Research Method

The word history originally means the search for knowledge and truth. When a

researcher studies the development of a problem, back history of a problem, and stages

history of a problem.




The historical research conducts critical evaluation and interpretation of historical

documents and records .According to Walter R. Borg, Historical research is the

systematic and synthesis objective location, evaluation synthesis of evidence in orderto

establish facts and draw conclusions concerning past event. n such a manner that general

laws, trends or hypothesis can be framed.

There are two types of resources in historical research methods.

1. Primary sources which refer to documents and events. All the information is one

hundred percent true.

2. Secondary sources depend on primary sources. Some writers use primary sources

to write novels. It is called secondary because it can be changed. So when you

collect information from secondary sources, your result is not completely true.

Sometimes, some researcher duplicates duplicate the use of primary sources in

their work, so we can make research to criticize them.

Steps involve in historical research:

The main steps can be discussed below:

1- Selection of the problem.

2- Objective of the study.

3- Formulation of the hypothesis.

4- Preparations for Collection of Data.

5- Testing of Hypothesis: It is necessary in historical method.

6- Evaluation of data: Data is verified validated through the process of criticism.

7- Organization of Data.

8- Interpretation and Writing Report.

Advantages of historical method:

The advantage of historical method can be listed below:

1. Some problems can be investigated only by this method, so that this method fills

in a big gap of making the research possible and meaningful on such problems that

may not offer to other methods. In a sing time series data for assessing the progress

or the impact of several polices and initiatives, the historical records … bisk main

sources to the study. For such problems therefore, only historical approach would

suit better.

2. Historical data is not repeatable under any circumstance, and therefore, historical

methods serves a ready hand method to the researchers whose problems depends

on historical observations. Historical methods has also an advantage to offer the

past data under the then prevailing conditions and afford an opportunity to the

research to views these observations in the past setting.

3. Historical records provide very useful information that gose a long way towards

the solution of a research problem. Sometimes the research is compelled to fall




back upon past data since he cannot create these afresh and hence it is highly

advantageous to follow historical method where the use of time series data is

unavoidable in any case.

Limitations:

Historical method is not free from limitations. The main drawbacks are 1-

Non-matching situations.

Any past situation cannot be matched to an existing one. Iy might have been influenced

by socio-economic and political factors that are no longer existing and hence comp

ratability of the past to the present can easily be questioned. This is more so in social

sciences where it is very difficult to keep the socio-economic conditions and other

dimensions on the problems under control.

2- Over-generalization :

Researcher with this approach tends to over-generalization their results. This sometimes

leads to unplansible explanation and inaccurate of specification of research problem.

Sometimes also, the results may be generalized beyond reasonable limits. And

accordingly, these may lead to misleading understanding of historical process.

3- Subjective interpretation:

The researcher sometimes becomes compelled to go in for subjective interpretations at

the cost of objective analysis, only to defend is findings, which could otherwise be

challenged or disproved by others. Hence, the loss of objectivity in such cases can lead to

considerable inaccuracies in the research. In short, subjectivity of interpretation is a basic

limitation of the historical approach to the research. Limitation may also arise in the

writing of history itself because:

1- Historians cannot write history life-sizes.

2- Not all happenings in time and space can be known of the time of writing. 3- Personal biases and private interpretations often enter unconsciously.

Necessary condition for historical research:

As we know that historical method needs to find explanation of question of current

interest by an intensive study of the past which is not any easy task for this purpose a

research must have some essential qualities. The following are the condition necessary

for historical research:

1. Selection of a topic for research: The research should be capable and competent to

choose the topic for his study

2. Social insight: the research should have great deal of social insight to understand

the cause effect relation of social events.

3. Historical Orientation: correct conclusion can be drawn only when the facts and

event are understood and seen by the researcher in the historical perspective.

4. Knowledge of related social sciences.




5. Wide education background.

6. Familiarity with the topic its objectives.

7. Dispassionate study.

8. Imaginative capacity: the researcher should be capable of understanding the topic

discussed by history. He must have an imagination power to get a complete picture of the

topic in order to complete his study.

9. Selection and rejection of the material.

10. Analyzing and co- ordinating capacity.

11. Knowledge of the study field.

12. Knowledge of his own limitation.

13. Availability of necessary facilities.

2. The Case Study Method

The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and

involves a careful and complete observation of a social unit. That unit may be a person,

afamily, an institution, a cultural group or even the entire community. It is a method

of study in depth rather than breadth. The case study is essentially an intensive

investigation of the particular unit under consideration to locate the factors that

account for the behaviour-patterns of the given unit as an integrated totality.

Important definitions of the case study method are:

• “Case study is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit, be

that unit a personal, a family, institution, cultural groups or even an entire

community.” - P.V. Yong.

• ” Case study is a way of organizing social data so as to preserve the unitary

character of the social object being studied. Expressed somewhat differently, it

is an approach which views any social unit as a whole.” - Goode and Hatt.

“Case study is a complete analysis and report of the status of an individual

subject with respect as a rule to specific phases of his total personality.” –F.I.

whitney.

Source of Data

Case studies are not limited to any single sources of data collection. A number of

sources of data collection should be employed by the researcher In the case study method

the main source data are Personal documents, Life history.




Characteristics:

The important characteristics of the case study method are as under:

1. The researcher can take one single social unit or more than one unit for his study

purpose.

2. The selected unit is studied intensively so as to obtain enough information for

drawing correct inferences.

3. This method enable us to understand the complex of factors that are operative

within a social unit as an integrated totality.

4. In case study, we make every possible effort to collect information concerning all

aspects of life, so case study deepens our perception and gives us a clear insight into

life.

5. In case study method an effort is made to know the mutual inter-relationship of

causal factors.

6. Under case study method the behavior pattern of the concerning unit is studied

directly and not by an indirect and abstract approach.

Assumptions:

The case study method is based on several assumptions:

i. The assumption of uniformity in the basic human nature.

ii. The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned.

iii. The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned.

Step involved in Case Study

Following main steps are involved in case study method:

1. Selection of cases and Identification of situations .

2. Collection and Recording of Data .

3. Interpretations of Data .

4. Report Writing.

Advantages:

There are several advantages of the case study method:

1. The case study method enables us to understand fully the behaviour pattern of the

concerned unit.

2. Through case study a researcher can obtain a real record of personal experiences,

tensions and motivations that drive him to action along with the forces that direct

him to adopt a certain pattern of behaviour.

3. This method enables the researcher to trace out the natural history of the social

unit and its relationship with the social factors and the forces involved in its

surrounding environment.

4. It helps in formulating relevant hypotheses along with the data which may be

helpful in testing them.

5. The method facilitates intensive study of social units.




6. Information collected under the case study method helps a lot to the researcher in

the task of constructing the appropriate questionnaire for his study.

7. The researcher can use one or more of the several research methods under the case

study method such as depth interviews, questionnaires, documents, study reports

of individuals, and letters.

8. Case study method has proved beneficial in determining the nature of units to be

studied along with the nature of the universe.

9. This method is a means to well understand the past of a social unit.

10. Case studies constitute the perfect type of sociological material as they represent

a real record of personal experiences .

11. Case study method enhances the experience of the researcher and this in turn

increases his analyzing ability and skill.

12. This method makes possible the study of social changes.

13. Case study techniques are indispensable for therapeutic and administrative

purposes.

Limitations:

Important limitations of the case study method may as well be highlighted.

1. Case situations are seldom comparable and as such the information gathered in

case studies is often not comparable.

2. Real information is often not collected because the subjectivity of the researcher

does enter in the collection of information in a case study.

3. The danger of false generalisation because only few units are studied.

4. It consumes more time and requires lot of expenditure.

5. The case data are often vitiated because the subject, according to Read Bain, may

write what he thinks the investigator wants.

6. Case study method is based on several assumptions which may not be very

realistic at times.

7. Case study method can be used only in a limited sphere., it is not possible to use

it in case of a big society.

8. Response of the investigator is an important limitation of the case study method.

He often thinks that he has full knowledge of the unit and can himself answer

about it.

3. The survey Method

Survey or descriptive method is used to study the present problem.

It is a systematic method for gathering information from ( a sample of ) individuals

for the purpose of describing the attributes of larger population of which the

individuals are members. The attributes attempt to describe basic characteristics or

experiences of large and small populations in our world.

Characteristics




1. Information is gathered by asking people questions.

2. Information is collected either by having interviewers ask questions and record

answers by having people read or hear questions and record their answers.

3. Information is collected from only a subset of the population to be described ( a

sample) rather than from all members.

When do we use this method?

We use this method when we have large data and large population. University

use this method to evaluate the level of learners.

Type of surveys

The surveys may be classified with following types:

1. General or specific surveys

2. Regular and Ad hoc Survey

3. Preliminary and final surveys

4. census and sample survey

steps of social survey

The essential steps involved in planning and execution of a social survey are:

1. Selection of a problem .

2. Preliminary study or pilot study.

3. General objective of the study .

4. Specific objective .

5. Resources and personnels.

6. Sampling .

7. Method of Collecting Data .

8. Training the investigating staff .

9. Organization of the field work .

10. Content analysis.

11. Analysis .

12. Reporting.

Merits(Advantages):

survey method has following advantages in comparison with other methods: 1. Direct and close contact Between researcher and the respondents

2. Greater objectivity

3. Testing the validity of theories

4. Formulation and testing of Hypothesis

5. Social surveys are based on actual observation




6. Universal application

Limitations

1- A methodology relying on standardization forces the researcher to develop

questions general enough to be minimally appropriate for all respondents, possibly

missing what is most appropriate to many respondents.

2- Surveys are inflexible in that they require the initial study design (the tool and

administration of the tool) to remain unchanged throughout the data collection.

3- The researcher must ensure that a large number of the selected sample will reply.

4- It may be hard for participants to recall information or to tell the truth about a

controversial question.

5- As opposed to direct observation, survey research (excluding some interview

approaches) can seldom deal with "context."

4. Experimental Method

It is quantitative research method that involves collecting numerical data about

measurable phenomena to measure the effect of one or more variable

(independent, cause, experimental, treatment) on other fixed variables(dependent

variable) using inferential statistics. They differ according to the number of the samples

involved and the variables under investigation.

Three types of experimental designs can be identified:

1. Pre-experimental design 2. Quasi-experimental design 3. True experimental design.

According to Festinger, “ The essence of experiment may be describe as observing

the effect on a dependent variable of the manipulation of an independent variable. ”

V. H. Bedkar ” Experimental method implies a controlled observation of a

succession of events. The aim is to for causal connection. ”

Experimental Characteristics

1- Experiments are the only means by which cause and effect can be established. 2- It

allows for precise control of variables. The purpose of control is to enable the

experimenter to isolate the one key variable which has been selected (the IV), in order to

observe its effect on some other variable (the DV); control is intended to allow us to

conclude that it is the IV, and nothing else, which is influencing the DV.

3- Experiments can be replicated. We cannot generalize from the results of a single

experiment. The more often an experiment is repeated, with the same results obtained,

the more confident we can be that the theory being tested is valid. The experimental

method consists of standardized procedures and measures which allow it to be easily

repeated.




4- It is also worth noting that an experiment yields quantitative data (numerical amounts

of something) which can be analysed using inferential statistical tests. These tests

permit statements to be made about how likely the results are to have occurred through

chance.

5- Observation.

6- Controlling.

7- To find out cause and effects.

8- Repetition.

Merits

1- True result.

2- Researcher can build basic laws and principles through experimental method.

3- This method is used to find out the truth of the universe.

4- It is useful in basic and applied sciences.

5- researcher can have control over variables 6- use to determine what is best for

population.

7- gain insight into methods of instruction

8- intuitive practice shaped by research

Limitations of laboratory experiments:

1- Artificiality:

2- Behavior in the laboratory is very narrow in its range. By controlling the situation

so precisely, behavior may be very limited.

3- A major difficulty with the experimental method is demand characteristics.

Imagine you have been asked to take part in a psychology experiment. Even if you did

not study psychology, you would be trying to work out what the experimenter expected

to find out. Experimenters too have expectations about what their results are likely to be.

Demand characteristics are all the cues which convey to the participant the purpose of the

experiment.

4- The experimental method as used in psychology has a history of using biased or

unrepresentative sampling

5- It has already been noted that a strength of the experimental method is the amount

of control which experimenters have over variables. However it must also be noted that

it is not possible to completely control all variables. There may be other variables at work

which the experimenter is unaware of. In particular, it is impossible to completely control

the mental world of people taking part in a study.

6- A very major problem with the experimental method concerns ethics.

7- political pressure may skew results.

8- groups may not be comparable.

9- results may only apply to one situation and may be difficult to replicate 10- sample

may not be representative.




11- human response can be difficult to measure

12- subject to human error

Other Methods:

1. Ethnography Ethnography has a background in anthropology. The term

means “portrait of a people” and it is a methodology for descriptive studies of

cultures and peoples. The cultural parameter is that the people under

investigation have something in common.

Examples of parameters include:

1. geographical – a particular region or country

2. religious

3. tribal

4. shared experiences

Ethnographic studies entail extensive fieldwork by the researcher. Data collection

techniques include both formal and informal interviewing, often interviewing individuals

on several occasions, and participant observation. Because of this, ethnography is

extremely time consuming as it involves the researcher spending long periods of time in

the field. - Analysis of data adopts an “emic” approach. This means that the researcher

attempts to interpret data from the perspective of the population under study.

Ethnographic research can be problematic when researchers are not sufficiently

familiar with the social mores of the people being studied or with their language.

Interpretation from an “etic” perspective – an outsider perspective – may be

misinterpretation causing confusion. For this reason, the ethnographic researcher usually

returns to the field to check his interpretation with informants thereby validating the data

before presenting the findings.

2. EX – Post Facto Research:

This is mean from after the fact. It is systematic empirical inquiry. It is occurs

when data or information is reliable but could not be generated by experimental

research. This kind of research is based on a scientific and analytical examination of

dependent and independent variables. In this research the researchers control on the

behavior of independent variables is very weak and in many cases no control is

possible.

Ex Post Facto method is often used for descriptive research studies in social

science and business research. The main characteristic of this method is that the

researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or

what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive

studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example,




frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies

also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control

the variables.

Procedures when conducting ex-post facto method:

1. The first step should be to state the problem

2. Determination of the group to be investigated

3. Data is collected

4. Next follows the interpretation of the research results, the hypothesis is either

confirmed of rejected.

5. Lastly, it should be mentioned that this type of the research has shortcomings

In any case, this type of research has some of the weaknesses which, at times,

obstruct its application and adaptability on a larger scale. These weaknesses are:

1. The inability to control the changing patterns of independent variables.

2. The ex-post facto research findings owe the risk of improper interpretations.

3. The ex-post facto research may not have any particular hypothesis as there is a

likelihood that such an hypothesis may predict a spurious relationship between

independent and dependent variables.

Ex-post facto research is a good explanatory instrument of changes that take place in

the dependent variables .

3. Field Investigation Research

A field experiment is a research study in a realistic situation in which one or more

independent variables are manipulated by the experimenter under as carefully

controlled conditions as the situation will permit . where the laboratory experiment

has a maximum of control , most field studies must operate with less control a factor

that is often a severe handicap to the experiment .

The weakness of field experiment , therefore , are of practical nature . the control

can not be held as very tight , the investigator himself works under several influences

and may at times be faced with unpleasant situations and the independent variables

may got affected by uncontrolled environmental influences.

4. Evaluation Research

Evaluation research is a recent addition to the types of research . it would be

appropriate to call this category of research as a product of development programming

which has been adopted on a very large scale in the recent years, more particularly

after second world war when most type of research is primarily directed to evaluate




the performance of the development projects and other economic programs that have

already been implemented .

The objective being to realistically assess the impact of any such programes .

Evaluation is held to mean comprehensive concept of measurement and it is because

of this definition of evaluation that project evaluation that project evaluation have

become frequent in the recent years.

The evaluation is carried out with respect to the broader charges and major

objectives of a program .

The evaluation research is of three types , mainly:

1. Concurrent evaluation

2. Phasic or periodic evaluation

3. Terminal evaluation

5. Laboratory Research

By definition , research of this type is confined to laboratory experiments alone.

The basic feature of such research is that there exists a possibility of exercising control

over independent variables and isolating their influences for plausible explanations .

A Laboratory experiment is a research study in which the variance of all or nearly

all of the possible influential independent variables not pertinent to the immediate

problem of the investigation is kept at a minimum. This is done by isolating the research

in a physical situation apart from the routine or ordinary living and by manipulating one

or more independent variable.

This type of research has l limited application in social sciences as it is extremely

difficult to study social variables in isolation of each other. However , it may , at times be

possible to create a situation wherein a maximum control can be exercised to keep the

variations among the independent variables at m minimum. In such cases laboratory

experiment types of research may find its applicability in social research as well.

6. Action Research

This is a recent classification . this type of research is conducted through direct

action . the actual study may consist of a number of phases, say, base-line survery,

systematic action, periodical assessment. Etc.

Action research in the phasic order may not be much different than merely

conducting survey research at different stages . it has the advantages of direct

actionoriented solutions to the real world problems and sometimes has the potentialities

of suggesting significant improvements in the existing solutions .




Unit 3 Research proposal and its elements

Research proposal

A research proposal is a document written by a researcher that provides a detailed

description of the proposed program. It is like an outline of the entire research process

that gives a reader a summary of the information discussed in a project.

A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a worthwhile

research project and that you have the competence and the work-plan to complete it.

Generally, a research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in the

research process and include sufficient information for the readers to evaluate the

proposed study.

The quality of your research proposal depends not only on the quality of your

proposed project, but also on the quality of your proposal writing. A good research

project may run the risk of rejection simply because the proposal is poorly written.

Therefore, it pays if your writing is coherent, clear and compelling.

Elements of the proposal

1. Title

2. Executive summary

3. Significance of study

4. Problem statement

5. Objectives

6. Hypothesis

7. Reviewing the literature

8. Research design

9. Duration of the study

10. Costing and budget

11. References




Formulation of research problem

After the problem has been selected, it must be definitely formulated and stated.

Ability to formulate a viable research problem that is concise with adequate theoretical

support and feasible solution strategies.

There are five components to helps find out the problem:

1. Research consumer:




There must be a person or group, who has some difficulty. The person may be a

researcher himself and the group also may be researchers or scientists.

2. Research – consumer’s objectives:

The research – consumer must have something he wants to get at or some ends he

desires.

3. Alternative means to meet the objective:

The research consumer must have available alternative means for obtaining the

objectives he desires.

4. Doubt in regard to selection of alternatives:

The existence of alternative courses of action not enough. the research consumer

must have some doubt as to which alternative to select.

5. There must be one or more environments:

A change in environment may produce or remove a problem.

Source of research problem

The research problems may be selected from the following sources:

• Theory of one's own interest

• Daily problems

• Technological changes

• Unexplored areas

• Discussions with supervisor

Definition of the problem

It implies the separation of the problem from the complex of difficulties and needs . it

means to put a fence around it , to separate it by careful distinctions from like questions

found in related situation of need . it is important to define and elucidate the problem as

a whole and further define all technical and unusual terms employs in the statement. By

this research worker removes the chance of misinterpretation of any these crucial terms.

The definition helps to establish the frame of reference with which the researcher

approaches the problem.

Criteria of a good research problem

1. Novelty:

It should be sufficiently original so that it does not involve objectionable

duplication. The study should employ the most recent data.

2. Interesting :

The problem should be interesting tor the investigator himself. If he is not

interested in it , he will not be able to face and overcome the obstacles which come

at every step in research.

3. Importance :




It should be significant enough and involve an important principle or practice.

4. Feasibility or Amenability

The problem should be good for the investigator. He should be able to carryit to

successful conclusion.

5. Availability of data :

The research worker should ensure the availability of valid and reliable

datagathering devices and procedures.

6. Availability of co-operation:

The investigator must make sure that necessary permission and cooperation will be

readily available .

7. Availability of guidance:

Every research activity needs the patronage of a guide and the approval and

sanction of a competent authority.

8. Aim of research :

The aim of research also influences the selection of the problem . if it is producer

research , the problem will be studied to enhance existing knowledge for its own

sake. If it is consume type, the results should be fit for immediate application.

9. Level of research:

The nature and scope of a study will be determined in the light of levels likes

,Master's degree, M.phil. degree and Ph.D .

10. Experience and creativity

Good research problems stem from a clear understanding of the theoretical ,

empirical and practice aspects of the subject derived from personal experience and

from a through review of the literature.

How to formulate the research problem

There are three components to proceed the problem as follow:

1. The originating questions:

These questions represent the beginning of certain difficulties of challenges which

formulated in such specific terms so as to indicate where exactly the answers to

them can be searched for, attain the status of a research problem.

2. Rationale of questions

Rationale is the statement of reasons why a particular question is worth putting

across. The rationale states how the answer to the question will contribute to theory

and/or practice.

3. Specifying questions

This is the phase of culmination in the process of formulating a research problem.

Necessary conditions for formulation of research problem

The following are the conditions that experience has proved to be conductive to

formulation of significant research problems:

1. Systematic immersion in the subject matter through first-hand observation




2. Study of relevant literature on the subject

3. Discussions with persons having rich practical experience in the field of study.

Literature Review:

Reviewing the literature is an essential preliminary task in order to acquaint

yourself with the available body of knowledge in your area of interest. It is integral

part of entire research process and makes valuable contribution to every operational

step. It can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating, but it is also rewarding. This

step (Reviewing literature) brings clarity and focus to your research problem, improves

your methodology, broadens your knowledge, and contextualizes your findings.

Procedures for reviewing the literature:

1. Searching for existing literature in your area of study.

2. Reviewing the literature selected.

3. Developing a theoretical framework.

4. Developing a conceptual framework.

Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction section.

However, most professors prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough

review of the literature. The literature review involves a systematic study and analyze

of documented ideas in the areas of study.

Ideas in the literature may be used to justify the research approach, the selection

of methods, and to demonstration that the research contributes something new to the

present state of knowledge.

For a proper literature review, the following questions should be explored:

What are the basic ideas, concepts and terms in the area of research?

Where is the source(s) of the current body of knowledge in the area of research and

how is it presented?

How is knowledge structured and organized in the areas of research?

Who are the key authorities and how are sources cited and listed in the research

communication?

What are the major current questions, issues and debates about in the area of

research?

What are the techniques currently used in conceptualizing, representing, analyzing,

designing, implementing and evaluation in the research area.

Benefits of conducting the review of literatures:

1. Reviewing previous literatures helps us to avoid investigation a problem to topic

are already investigated

2. It facilities choosing research topic especially for novice researchers




3. Through review of literature we discover the problems and mistakes into which the

previous researchers fell and try to avoid them .

objectives : objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. Since

these objectives inform a reader of what you want to achieve through the study , it is

extremely important to word them clearly an specifically.

Objectives should be listed under two heading :

1. Main objectives:

Main objectives is an overall statement of the thrust of your study . it is also a

statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to discover or

establish.

2. Subobjectives:

Subobjectives should be numerically listed they should be worded clearly. Make

sure that each subobjective contains only one aspect of the study.

Use action-oriented words or verbs when writing your objectives . the objective

should start with word such as 'to determine' ,' to find ', 'to ascertain' ,'to measure',

and ' to explore'.

Characteristics of objectives

The way of the main and subobjectives are worded determine how your research

is classified (e.g. descriptive , correlational or experimental).

Irrespective of the type of research , the objectives should be expressed in such

a way that the wording clearly , completely and specifically communicates to your

readers your intention.

There is no place for ambiguity , non-specificity or incompleteness ,either in the

wording of your objectives or in the idea they communicate.

The following figure displays the characteristics of the wording of objectives

in relation to the type of research study.

If the study is primarily descriptive , the main objective should clearly , complete, and

specific describe the major focus of the study.

specific Identify the main variable to be correlated

c omplete clear Identify t he direction of the relationship

Descriptive studies

Corr e lational studies experimental and non ( - experimental)

Hypoth e sis - testing studies




If the study is correlational in nature, in addition to the above three properties , the

wording of the main objective should include the main variables being correlated. If

the overall thrust of the study is to test a hypothesis , the wording of main objectives ,

in addition to above , should indicate the direction of the relationship being tested .

Hypothesis

Definition of Hypothesis:

There are many definition of hypothesis.

• According to Kerlinger , " A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the

relationship between two or more variable "

• Webster's international dictioanary of English language ," A hypothesis is a

proposition condition , or principle which is assumed , perhaps withour belief,

in order to draw out its logical consequences and by this method to test its accord

with facts which are known or may be determined.

• Black and Champion ," A hypothesis is a tentative statement about something ,

the validity of which is usually unknown"

• Bailey ," A hypothesis is a proposition that is stated in a testable form and that

predicts a particular relationship between two or more variables."

• Grinnel and Stothers, '' a hypothesis is written in such a way that it cat proven of

disproven by valid and reliable data- it is in order to obtain these data that we

perform our study "

From the above definitions it is apparent that a hypothesis has certain characteristics:

1. It is a tentative proposition.

2. It is validity is unknown.

3. In most cases, it specifies a relationship between two or more variables.

Importance of hypothesis

The important of hypotheses lies in their ability to bring direction , specificity ,

and focus to a research study. They tell a researcher what specific information to

collect and thereby provide greater focus.

The importance of hypothesis can be more specifically stated as : \

1. It provide direction to research . it define what is relevant what is irrelevant

2. It is a guide to the thinking process and the process of discovery

3. It focuses research. Without it research would be like a random and aimless

wandering

4. It prevent blind research. prevents indiscriminate gathering of data which may

later turn out to be irrelevant

5. It places clear and specific goals before us .

6. It serves the function of linking together related facts and in formation and

organizing them into one comprehensible whole.

7. It serves as a framework for drawing conclusions.




The function of hypothesis

A hypothesis is important terms of bringing clarity to the research problem.

specifically a hypothesis serves the following functions:

• The formulation of a hypothesis provides a study with focus. It tells what

specific aspects of a research problem to investigate.

• A hypothesis tells what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby

providing focus to the study.

• As it provides a focus , the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity

in a study.

• A hypothesis may enable to add to the formulation of theory . it enables you

to specifically conclude what is true or what is false.

Characteristics of a hypothesis:

There are a number considerations to keep in mind when constructing a hypothesis

, as they are important for valid verification.

• A hypothesis should be simple, specific and conceptually clear.

• A hypothesis should be capable of verification .

• A hypothesis should be related to the existing body of knowledge. A

hypothesis should be operationalisable.

• A hypothesis should be limited in scope

• A hypothesis must explain the facts that give rise to need of explanation.

Different forms of hypothesis:

The hypothesis can be stated in a number of forms which are:

1. Null form:

It stated that no significant difference exists between the variables concerned.

This form of statement more readily defines the mathematical model to be

utilized in the statistical test of the hypothesis.

2. Prediction form:

It is chosen because it allows the research worker to state principles which he

actually expects to emerge from the ixperiment . this type of hypothesis is more

useful in action research studies.

3. Declarative form:

It generally states a relationship between the variables concerned

4. Question form :

Phase 1

Formulate your hunch or assumption

Phase 2

Collect the required data

Phase 3

Analyze data to draw con clusions about the hunch - true of false




The above mentioned hypothesis in question form may read . for example "is

there difference in the instructional standards of boys and girls school?"

Type of hypothesis

There are two categories of hypothesis :

1. Research hypothesis :

a. Hypothesis of difference:

A hypothesis in which a researcher stipulates that there will be a

difference but does not specify its magnitude.

b. Hypothesis of point-prevalence:

A hypothesis in which a researcher may have enough knowledge and its

likely outcomes to speculate almost the exact prevalence of the situation.

c. Hypothesis of association

This type of hypothesis stipulates the extent of the relationship in terms of the

effect of different treatment groups on the dependent variable or the

prevalence of a phenomenon in different population groups.

2. Alternate hypothesis

Its main function is to explicitly specify the relationship that will be considered

as true in case the research proves to be wrong.

Null hypothesis: A hypothesis that there is no difference between two situations

, groups , outcomes, or the prevalence of a condition. It is usually written as H0

Type of hypothesis can be categories also as :

1. Directional hypotheses:

These are statements that show not only the direction of the assumed relationship

between the variables but also the magnitude of the effect of a variable on another

variable.

For example:

- Children with high IQ will exhibit more anxiety than children with low IQ.

- " ….is more than…..""….will be lesser than…." 2. Non-directional:

They are statements that assume the existence of a significance relationship

between two or more variables or show the effect of the independent variable on the

dependent variable without stating the direction of that relationship or effect.

For example:

- Students' background of the world have some effects on their reading achievement.

- There is a difference in the anxiety level of the children of high IQ and those of

low IQ.

- " there is a difference between…." 3. Null Hypotheses:

They are based on the assumption that relationship between different variables does

not exist at all or if it exists it is not significant. We use it with the other types of




hypotheses to assure a very high level of confidence that the results are not due to

any chance but to the treatment.

Difficulties in the formulation of hypothesis:

There are a number of difficulties from which a beginner may suffer at the stage of

formulating a good hypothesis:

• Lack of knowledge and clarity of theoretical framework of the area in shich the

investigator chooses to work

• Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical framework logically

• Lack of acquaintance with available research technique resulting in failure to

be able to phrase the hypothesis properly

• Vagueness of the statement. For example, a course in ethics will make a student

a more ethical adult.

Sources of hypothesis :

There are two kind of sources:

1. Individual sources:

It includes researcher's own thought , imagination sentiments,view and sights.

2. External sources:

It include socilolgy , humanities, literature, images which are related to men and

their several parts .

Goode and hatt given the following resources:

a. Central culture

b. Scientific theories

c. Analogies

d. Personal experience.

Type of hypothesis

te hypothesis Alterna Research hypothesis

Hypothesis of association

Hypothesis of point - prevalence

Hypothesis of difference

Hypothesis of no difference (null hypothesis )

Null hypothesis




Unit 4 Sampling

Sampling may be defined as the selection of some part of an aggregate or

totality on the basis of which a judgement or inference about the aggregate or totality

is made. In other words, it is the process of obtaining information about an entire

population by examining only a part of it. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample, their

selection process or technique is called sample design and the survey conducted on the

basis of sample is described as sample survey.

Need of sampling:

Sampling is used in practice for a variety of reasons such as:

1. Sampling can save time and money. A sample study is usually less expensive than

a census study and produces results at a relatively faster speed.

2. Sampling may enable more accurate measurements for a sample study is generally

conducted by trained and experienced investigators.

3. Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many

members.

4. Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the destruction of the item

under study.

5. Sampling usually enables to estimate the sampling errors and, thus, assists in

obtaining information concerning some characteristic of the population.

Some Fundamental Definitions

1. Universe/Population: From a statistical point of view, the term „Universe‟refers

to the total of the items or units in any field of inquiry, whereas the term

„population‟ refers to the total of items about which information is desired.

2. Sampling frame:

The elementary units or the group or cluster of such units may form the basis of

sampling process in which case they are called as sampling units. A list containing

all such sampling units is known as sampling frame. Thus sampling frame consists

of a list of items from which the sample is to be drawn.

3. Sampling design:

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from the sampling

frame. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in

selecting some sampling units from which inferences about the population is

drawn. Sampling design is determined before any data are collected.

4. Statisitc(s) and parameter(s):

A statistic is a characteristic of a sample, whereas a parameter is a characteristic

of a population. Thus, when we work out certain measures such as mean, median,




mode or the like ones from samples, then they are called statistic(s) for they

describe the characteristics of a sample.

5. error:

Sample surveys do imply the study of a small portion of the population and as such

there would naturally be a certain amount of inaccuracy in the information

collected. This inaccuracy may be termed as sampling error or error variance.

Type of sampling

Sampling method can be divided into two categories: probability and nonprobability

sampling and each one of them has various subcategories and a number of ways of

selecting the sample can be used. Both probability and non-probability sampling

methods seek to gather data that provide a fair representation of the larger population,

although the definition of "representative" varies between the two methods.




1. probability Sampling:

Probability sampling is also known as „random sampling‟ or „chance sampling‟.

Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of

inclusion in the sample. Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity

which states that if on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will

have the same composition and characteristics as the universe. This is the reason why

random sampling is considered as the best technique of selecting a representative

sample.

There are four types of probability sampling:

1. Simple Random Sampling:

Each and every individual of population has an equal opportunity of being

included in the sample and also the selection of on individual or unit is in no way

dependent upon the selection of another individual. The implications of simple

random sampling are:

(a) It gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into

the sample; and all choices are independent of one another.

(b) It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being

chosen.

2. Stratified Random Sampling :

If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a

homogeneous group, stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order to

obtain a representative sample. Under stratified sampling the population is divided

into several sub-populations that are individually more homogeneous than the total

Type of Sampling

Random/Probability Sampling

Non - Random / Non - Probability Sampling

Mixed Sampling

Simple Random

Stratified Random

Cluster Random

proportionate stratified

Disproportionate stratified

Single stage

Multi - stage

Double stage

Judgmental

Accidental

Quota

Snowball

Systematic Sampling




population (the different sub-populations are called „strata‟) and then we select items

from each stratum to constitute a sample.

3.Cluster Random Sampling:

If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient way in which a sample

can be taken is to divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and then

to randomly select a number of these smaller areas (usually called clusters), with the

ultimate sample consisting of all (or samples of) units in these small areas or clusters.

4. Systematic Sampling :

In some instances, the most practical way of sampling is to select every ith item

on a list. Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of

randomness is introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick

up the unit with which to start. Systematic sampling has certain plus points. It can be taken as an improvement

over a simple random sample in as much as the systematic sample is spread more evenly

over the entire population. It is an easier and less costlier method of sampling and can

be conveniently used even in case of large populations. But there are certain dangers too

in using this type of sampling. If there is a hidden periodicity in the population,

systematic sampling will prove to be an inefficient method of sampling.

2. Non-Probability Sampling:

Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any

basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included

in the sample. Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as

deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgement sampling. Non-probability

sampling is almost always used for qualitative data collection methods and can be used

for quantitative methods for which statistical inference is not desired. Some reasons for

using non-probability

1. The subjects ( or objects) may be scarce or hard to locate.

2. The researcher may want to be able to compare some subset of the population to

the larger population of interest.

3. The researcher may want to compare groups, but not use stratified probability s 4. The researcher may need to rely on volunteers.

5. The researcher may want to establish specific criteria used to select participants.

There five types of non-probability sampling :

1. Accidental (incidental ) sampling :

It applies to those samples that are taken because they are most frequently available

. but it is not representative of the population, and it is not free from error and

parametric statistics cannot be used;

2. judgment sampling:




This involve the selection of a group from the population on the basis of available

information though. It is an economical method . it is to be representative to the total

population . it includes uncontrolled variation.

3. Quota sampling :

It combined both judgment and probability sampling . the population is classified into

several categories, the size of population falling into each category is decided.

Therefore a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed, and the observer is allowed to sample

as he likes .it is not representative sample.

4. Purposive sampling:

It is selected by some arbitrary method because it is known to be representative of the

total population. In purposive sampling , inability to make generalization and utilize

the inferential parametric statistics.

5. Snowball sampling:

In snowball , researcher start by identifying a few respondents that match the criteria

for inclusion in his study, and then ask them to recommend others they know who

also meet selection criteria

Criteria of selecting a sampling procedure:

1. Inappropriate sampling frame.

2. Defective measuring device.

3. Non- respondents.

4. Indeterminacy principle.

5. Natural basis in the reporting of data.

Step in sample design:

While developing a sampling design , the research must pay attention to the following

points:

1. Type of universe.

2. Sampling unit .

3. Source list.

4. Size of sample.

5. Parameters of interest.

6. Budgetary constraint.

Characteristics of a good sample design :

From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a good sample

design as under:

• Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.

• Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.

• Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research

study.




• Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a

better way.

• Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in

general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

Factors while determining the size of sampling :

Size of sample refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to form the

sample . there some factors must be kept while determining the size of sampling :

1. Size of sample should be neither be excessively large, nor too small

2. It should optimum, that means efficiency , representativeness, reliability and

flexibility.

3. The size of population variance needs to be considered as in case of larger variance

usually a bigger sample is needed

4. The size of population must be kept in view

5. The parameter of interest in research study must be kept in view

6. Budgetary constraint must be taken into consideration , when decided the sample

size .

Data Collection

Collecting data comes after defining the problem and designing the research. There

are two major approaches to gathering information about a situation , person, problem ,

or phenomenon. Based upon these broad approaches to in information gathering , data are

categorized as :

1. Secondary data

2. Primary data

Information gathered using the first approach is said to be collected from secondary

sources, where as the sources used in the second approach are called primary data. There

are some factors must be kepts in consideration when selecting the method of collecting

data :

1. Nature , scope ,and object enquiry

2. Availability of funds

3. Time factor

4. Precision required.

Methods of data collection




Collecting data using Primary Sources:

Several methods can be used to collect primary data . the choice of method

depends upon the purpose of the study , the resources available , and the skills of

the researcher.

1. Observation:

Observation is a purposeful , systematic and selective way of watching and

listing to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place. The observation method

is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to behavioural

sciences.

We can classify two types of observation

From the point of view of structure:

1- structured observation.( descriptive study).

2- unstructured observation. (exploratory study)

From the point of view of researcher's sharing:

1- Participant observation.

2- Non-participant observation. ( disguised observation)

From point of view of control:

1- Controlled observation. Systematic

2- Uncontrolled observation. Simple

Types of observation based on objectives 1-

Purposive observation.

2- Accidental observation. (Newton)

Advantages:

1- the subjective bias is eliminated if observation is done accurately.

Documents

structured

Mailed questionnaire

Unstructrued

Observation Interviewing Questionnaire

Participant

Non - Participant

Methods of data collection

Primary Sources Secondary sources

- Gov publications – Earlier research - Census - Personal records - Client histories - Service records

Collective questionnaire




2- The information is obtained records what is currently happened. It does not talk

about what happened in the past or what we expect to happen in the future.

3- It is independent of respondents' willingness.

4- It is suitable to deal with the respondents who are not capable to give verbal reports

of their feeling for one reason or another.

Limitation

1- It is an expensive method.

2- The information provided by this method is limited.

3- Unforeseen factors may interfere with observational task.

4- Some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this

method to collect data effectively.

2. Interview

Interview is a conversation between interviewer and respondents with the

purpose of certain information. The interview method of collecting data involves

presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This

method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone

interviews.

Research who use the interview as a tool for collecting data should think about

four concepts time , location, style, and recording. The interview can be classified

according According to their formality:

1- Formal interviews which require extensive preparation, formal language and time

and setting planning.

2- Informal interviews which do not require such things.

According to their topic:

1- Focused ( structured) interviews in which participants concentrate on the topic and

that has previously determined and questions are fixed.

2- Free interviews in which participants may go from one topic to another.

• Based on the degree of control

: 1- Structured 2-

Unstructured.

• Based on situation

1- Face to face interviews

2- Video conferencing interviews

3- Telephone interviews

4- Computer assisted interviews

Advantages




1. The interview is more appropriate for complex situations

2. It is useful for collecting in depth information

3. Information can be supplemented

4. Interviewing has a wider application

5. Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method

6. The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions.

This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group

discussions may also be held.

7. Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the

missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.

Disadvantages:

1. Interviewing is time-consuming and expensive.

2. The quality of data depends upon the quality of the interaction.

3. The quality of data depends upon the quality of the interviewer.

4. The quality of data may vary when many interviewers are used.

5. The researcher may introduce his/ her bias.

6. The interviewer may be biased.

3. Questionnaire

This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big

enquiries. It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and

public organizations and even by governments.

In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned

with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire. A

questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order

on a form or set of forms.

Researcher should care about the three main parts of questionnaire:

1. General form: it should be definite, concrete , and predetermined. Form of

questionnaire can be ranking, category , scale , list , grid, verbal or open , or

close or open. 2. Questions sequences : it should be written in proper sequence , reduce

misunderstanding . it must be clear and smooth-moving

3. Question formulation and warding : it must be clear, impartial , logical ,easy to

understand, simple and concrete.

There are seven question types:

1. Verbal or open: This type is used to get basic information on the research topic.

It takes the form of a single or group of open-ended questions asked to the

participants with open space for their answer.

2. List: In this type, answers to each question item are arranged as a list from

which the respondent may select.




3. Category: In this type, each question has a list of many different choices; each

represents a range or a category from which subjects can choose.

4. Ranking: In this type, subjects are asked to rank a group of items according to

certain criteria.

5. Scale: In this type, question items are arranged as a list of statements and

answers represent a scale.

6. Quantity: In this type, subjects are asked to select a number that represents the

amount of some characteristics.

7. Grid: In this type, question items and answers are arranged in grid tables.

8. Closed-open questions

Advantages :

1. It is less expensive.

2. It offers greater anonymity.

3. It is easy to administer.

4. It can be used with other methods of data collection as subsidiary tools.

5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more

dependable and reliable.

6. It does not require direct contact with the researcher.

Disadvantages:

1. Application is limited .

2. Response rate is low

3. There is a self selecting bias

4. Opportunity to clarify issues is lacking 5. Spontaneous responses are not

allowed for .

6. The response to a question may be influenced by the response to other

questions

7. It is possible to consult others.

8. A response can not be supplemented with other information.

4. tests

Tests are instruments used mainly for measuring attitude or performance before

and after certain treatments. They can also be used to evaluate the progress of

participants in certain program after certain period of time.

There are different types of tests. They will be divided into three categories.

A. Classifying tests according to the purpose:

1. Pretests: They are given before the treatment to measure the homogeneity of

the groups of the samples.

2. Posttests: They are given after the treatment to measure the effects of the

treatment on them.

B. Classifying tests according to their source:




1. Self-developed tests

2. Ready-made tests

C. Classifying tests according to their structure:

1.Oral tests

2. Essay tests

3. Completion tests

4. Multiple-choice tests

5. True/false tests

6. Matching tests 7. Arranging items tests

8. Production tests.

• Elicited imitation

• Elicited translation

• Communication games Role-play tasks

Collecting data using secondary Sources:

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data

which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else. There are occasions when data has already been collected by someone else and you

need only to extract the required information for the purpose of the study. The secondary

sources can be grouped in to the following categories:

• Government or semi-government publication

• Earlier research

• Personal records

• Mass media

Problems with using data from secondary sources:

When using data from secondary sources , you need to be careful as there may be certain

problems wit availability, format, and quality of data. While using such data some issues

should keep in mind are:

• Validity and reliability : the validity of information may vary markedly

from source to source.

• Personal bias: the use of information from personal diaries , newspapers,

and magazines may have the problem of personal bias.

• Availability of data : it is common for beginning researchers to assume

that the required data will be available.

• Format: before deciding to use data from secondary sources it is equally

important to ascertain that the data are available in the required format.

Unit 5

Analysis:

Analysis is the process of examining the collected data or the content under study

by breaking them up into original components. Data may have different forms; it may




be linguistic units such as words, sounds, phrases or sentences, it may be pictures, lines

or numbers. These data are called raw materials. They do not have any benefit if they

are not analyzed to reflect a complete meaning.

Analysis involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the

population and testing of hypothesis for drawing inferences. The analysis of data

requires a number of closely related operations.

Processing operation

• Editing of data is the process of examining the collected raw data( especially in

survey) to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. It is

done to assure that the data are accurate. It is also the procedure that improves

the quality of the data for coding.

• Coding operation is the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to

answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or

classes.

• Classification is the process of classifying data into homogeneous groups.

• Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put

in the form of the tables.

Analysis can be categorized as :

• Descriptive analysis and Inferential analysis

Descriptive analysis: is largely the study of distributions of one variable. This

study provide us with profiles of companies, work groups ,and other subject on

any a multiple of characteristics such as size , preferences.

Inferential analysis : is often known as statistical analysis

• Correlation analysis and causal analysis

Correlation analysis : studies the joint variation of two or more variables for

determining the amount of correlation between two or more variables.

Causal analysis: is concerned with the study of how one or more variables affect

change in another variable.

• Linguistic analysis and statistical analysis

Linguistic analysis: is an analytical technique used by the research to study

different subjects, areas and topics of a language. According to the name one can

guess that the analysis can base on the language aspects as phoneme, morpheme,

words ….. and may the analysis aims to study the phenomenon of the language .

In linguistic analysis there are many methods which can deal with different

aspects of a language. These methods are Error analysis , Discourse analysis, and

Performance analysis.




Statistical analysis:

It is the science of analyzing and classifying data numerically for the purpose

of reaching numerical conclusions through which phenomena under investigation can

be interpreted and decision can be made.

Statistics requires quantitative data collected through tests, questionnaires,

interviews and observations. When these data are collected , they should be arranged,

classified and turned into numerical data using certain coding procedures. When the

raw data is coded each number is called value. There are two methods for

coding raw data:

1- Scoring scheme is usually used with data collected through tests. Each question

has a mark and the score of each subject ( person) is summed up and matched

against the highest score viz. how many items are there? How many subjects? And

what is the highest score? Then make a table present that data.

2- Calculation is used with data collected through observation, Interviews and

questionnaires . It may involve the basic mathematic process .

The scoring and calculating processes result in numerical values which

determine the type of quantitative data. These values determine the type of statistical

analysis would be used. The values collected from the samples are called statistics and

the values collected from the whole population parameter.

Two types of statistical application :

1. Descriptive statistical analysis.

2. Inferential statistical analysis.

1.Descriptive analysis :

Descriptive statistical analysis limits generalization to the particular group

of individual observed. It is applied to make these values meaningful for the

purpose of the simplifying the concept , these values are presented in the simplest

form of statistical presentation . one of the technique that can be used to categorize

obtained values is :

a. Measures of central tendency or average ( Mean, Median, Mode)

b. Measures of spread of dispersion (Range, Variance, Standard deviation)

c. Measures of relative position (Standard score, Percentile rank, Percentile score)

d. Measures of relationship ( Coefficient of correlation)

2.Inferential analysis :

It is used to analyze the data collected from the sample or samples in order

to draw conclusion from such data to be generalized to the population from which the

sample is taken. Unlike descriptive analysis, inferential statistics requires random




sampling ( except with chi square), intervals and hypotheses testing of the means. The

means can be tested through one of the following tests: 1- T-test

2- Chi square test

3- Analysis of variance

Measures of central tendency:

These measures point to the average value in a set of value. They include the

mode, the median and the mean. The three central tendency can be compared to see

the tendency of the subjects' performance in attest or questionnaire. If they are the

same , subjects follows the normal distribution .i.e the majority of the subjects

obtained average scores. If the means is greater than the mode and the median, the

majority of subjects obtained scores below average score and vice versa.

1. The Mean ( x)

The mean is the simplest measurement of central tendency and is widely used

measure. It can be computed by dividing the sum of all the scores by the number of

scores.

The mean =𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 / 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 X =Σ𝑥 / 𝑛

Where X mean

Σ sum of

𝑥 scores in a distribution

𝑛 number of scores In case of a frequency distribution, the mean can compute by :

X = Σ fi 𝑥i / Σ fi

2. The Median (Md)

The median is the middle score in a set of scores below. It is the

midpoint. If we arrange the scores from low to high or vice versa so the middle

score is the median.

3. The Mode (Mo)

The mode refers to the number which occurs more frequently.

Measures of dispersion

Measures of dispersion ( variability) are used to measure how the scores are

spread out. The variation here to how far the scores are from each other and how far they

are from the mean. The common measure of dispersion are :

1. Range:

The range is the easiest form to measure the spread of the sores or values to find

out how far they are from each other. It can be obtained by subtracting the lowest scores

from the highest one.

Range = Highest value of an item in series - Lowest value of an item in series




2. Mean Deviation:

The mean deviation is the average of difference of the value items from some

average of the series . such difference is technically described as deviation.

Mean deviation from mean: Md=( X )= Σ │xi - X │/ n

Mean deviation from median: Md=( m)= Σ │xi - M │/ n

Mean deviation from mode: Md=( z )= Σ │xi - Z│/ n

Where symbol fro mean deviation

xi : ith values of variable x , n : number of items

X : mean , M : median , Z : mode

3. Standard Deviation:

It is most widely used measure of dispersion of a series and is commonly

denoted by the symbol „ ‟ (pronounced as sigma). Standard deviation is defined as

the square-root of the average of squares of deviations, when such deviations for the

values of individual items in a series are obtained from the arithmetic average. It is

worked out as under:

T-test:

T-test is based on t-distribution to compare between two means to find out

whether there is any difference between them. It is considered to be appropriate for

judging the significance of the sample mean and the significance of the difference

between the means of the two samples in the case of small samples when population

variance is unknown.

Where:

M1= mean of sample 1

M2= mean of sample 2

SD1= standard deviation of sample 1

SD2= standard deviation of sample 2

N1= number in sample 1

N2= number in sample 2

Chi-square

Chi-square is a measure for how far the observed figure differ from the expected

figure .it is used to judge the significance of population variance i.e. we can use the test

to judge if a random sample has been drawn from a normal population with mean and

with specified variance.




Where:

Expected = the mean

Observed = the mark

Hypothesis Testing :

Hypothesis testing determines the validity of the assumption (technically

described as null hypothesis) with a view to choose between two conflicting

hypotheses about the value of a population parameter. Hypothesis testing helps to

decide on the basis of a sample data, whether a hypothesis about the population is

likely to be true or false.

Statisticians have developed several tests of hypotheses (also known as the tests

of significance) for the purpose of testing of hypotheses which can be classified as:

(a) Parametric tests or standard tests of hypotheses; and

(b) Non-parametric tests or distribution-free test of hypotheses.

Flow diagram of testing of hypothesis




(a) Parametric tests:

Parametric tests usually assume certain properties of the parent

population from which we draw samples. Assumptions like observations come

from a normal population, sample size is large, assumptions about the population

parameters like mean, variance, etc., must hold good before parametric tests can

be used. parametric tests require measurement equivalent to at least an interval

scale.

important parametric tests:

The important parametric tests are: (1) z-test; (2) t-test; (3) 2-test, and

(4) F-test. All these tests are based on the assumption of normality i.e., the source

of data is considered to be normally distributed.

1. z-test: is based on the normal probability distribution and is used for judging the

significance of several statistical measures, particularly the mean.

2. t-test : is based on t-distribution and is considered an appropriate test for judging

the significance of a sample mean or for judging the significance of difference

between the means of two samples in case of small sample(s) when population

variance is not known (in which case we use variance of the sample as an estimate

of the population variance).

3. 2 –test: is based on chi-square distribution and as a parametric test is used for

comparing a sample variance to a theoretical population variance.

4. F-test: is based on F-distribution and is used to compare the variance of the

twoindependent samples. This test is also used in the context of analysis of variance

(ANOVA) for judging the significance of more than two sample means at one and

the same time.

(b)Non-Parametric tests:

Non-parametric tests do not make an assumption about the parameters of the

population and thus do not make use of the parameters of the distribution. In other words,

under non-parametric or distribution-free tests we do not assume that a particular

distribution is applicable, or that a certain value is attached to a parameter of the

population. most non-parametric tests assume only nominal or ordinal data.

Non-parametric tests are :

1. Sign Tests:

The sign test is one of the easiest parametric tests. Its name comes from the fact that

it is based on the direction of the plus or minus signs of observations in a sample and not

on their numerical magnitudes. The sign test may be one of the following two types: (a)

One sample sign test; (b) Two sample sign test. 2. Fisher-Irwin Test:




Fisher-Irwin test is a distribution-free test used in testing a hypothesis concerning

no difference among two sets of data. It is employed to determine whether one can

reasonably assume.

3. McNemer Test

McNemer test is one of the important nonparametric tests often used when the

data happen to be nominal and relate to two related samples. As such this test is specially

useful with before-after measurement of the same subjects.

4. Wilcoxon Matched-pairs Test (or Signed Rank Test)

In various research situations in the context of two-related samples (i.e., case of

matched paires such as a study where husband and wife are matched or when we compare

the output of two similar machines or where some subjects are studied in determine both

direction and magnitude of difference between matched values, we can use an important

non-parametric test viz., Wilcoxon matched-paires test.

5. Rank Sum Tests

Rank sum tests are a whole family of test, but we shall describe only two such tests

commonly used viz., the U test and the H test. U test is popularly known as

WilcoxonMann-Whitney test, whereas H test is also known as Kruskal-Wallis test.

6. One Sample Runs Test

One sample runs test is a test used to judge the randomness of a sample on the basis of

the order in which the observations are taken.

7. Spearman‟s Rank Correlation

When the data are not available to use in numerical form for doing correlation analysis

but when the information is sufficient to rank the data as first, second, third, and so forth,

we quite often use the rank correlation method and work out the coefficient of rank

correlation. It was developed by famous statistician Charles Spearman in the early

1900s and as such it is also known as Spearman‟s rank correlation coefficient.

8. Kendall‟s Coefficient of Concordance

Kendall‟s coefficient of concordance, represented by the symbol W, is an important non-

parametric measure of relationship. It is used for determining the degree of association

among several (k) sets of ranking of N objects or individuals.

Parametric tests Non-parametric tests




They are applied using a model( A table

to consult).

More powerful tests in that they are

more likely to reject the null hypothesis

when it is false.

Assume that the variable measured is

normally distributed in the population.

Variance of the comparison groups is

equal.

The researcher is less likely to commit

a type II error.

Used when the data are represented in

an interval or a ratio scale.

They are applied without a model

Less powerful tests in that they are less

likely to reject the null hypothesis when it is

false

Requires more observations to achieve type

I and type II errors

Do not make assumption about the

distribution of variables in the population

The researcher is more likely to commit a

type II errors

Used when the data are presented in a nominal or ordinal scale

Displaying Data

Having analyzed the data , the next task is to present findings effectively to readers. The

main purpose of using data-display techniques is to make the finding clear and easily

understood . there are many ways of presenting information. Two main data presentation

are: tables and graphs(charts)

1. Tables:

Tables are the most common method of presenting analyzed data. Tables offer a

useful means of presenting large amounts of detailed information in a small space.

Structure of table:

A table has five parts:

1. Title: it indicates the table's number and describes the type of data it contains

.

2. Stub: the subcategories of variable , listed along the y-axis . it is a vertical

listing of categories or individual about which information is given in the

columns of the table.

3. Column heading: listed along the x-axis, it displays information about a

variable.

4. Body: the cells housing the analyzed data.

5. Supplementary notes of footnotes: there are four type: source note, general

note, notes on specific parts of the table , and notes on the level of probability

if the data are taken from another sources , you have an obligation to

acknowledge this.




Type of tables:

Depending upon the number of variables about which information is displayed , tables

can be categorized as :

1. Univariate: containing information about one variable , also called frequency tables

2. Bivariate: containing information about two variables, also called crosstabulations

3. Polyvariate/Multivariate: containing information about more than two variables .

2. Graph(charts):

The main objective of a graph is to present data in a way that is easy to understand

and interpret , and interesting to look at . graphs can be constructed for every type

of data (quantitative and qualitative) and for any type of variable (measured on

nominal , ordinal, interval , or ratio scale).

When constructing a graph of any type it is important to be acquainted with the

following points:

1. A graphic presentation is constructed in relation to two axes: horizontal (

abscissa or x-axis) , and the vertical (ordinate or y-axis)

2. A graph like a table, should have a title that describes its contents. The axes

should be labeled also.

3. A graph should be drawn to an appropriate scale.

4. The type of graph depends on the type of data , and the number of variables that

will be displayed.

Type of graph




1. Histogram graph: it consists of a series of rectangles drawn next to other without

any space between them ,each representing the frequency of a category or

subcategory. It can drawn for both categorical and continuous variables.

2. Bar graph: it used for displaying categorical data . it is identical to histogram ,

except in a bar chart the rectangle representing the various frequencies are spaced

.it is used for

variables

measured on

nominal or

ordinal scales.

3. Pie graph: it is called also circle graph , it is divided in to sections in accordance

with the magnitude of each sub-category .it can be drawn for both qualitative data

and variables measured on a continuous scale but grouped into categories.

4. Line graph : a set

of data measured

on a continuous

interval or a ratio

scale can

displayed

using line graph.

Line diagram is a

useful wau of visually conveying the change of when long-term trends in a




situation need to be studied , or change in the subcategory of a variable is measured

.

5. Scattergram graph : when you want to show visually how one variable change in

relation to change in the other variable , a scattergram is effective. For scattergram

,both variable must be measured either on interval or ratio scale and data on both

variables need to be available in absolute value for each observation.

Validity and delimitations of research findings

Validity is described as the degree to which a research study measures , it intends to

measure.

The traditional criteria for validity fing their roots in a positivist traditional and to an

extent , positivism has been defined by a systemic theory of validity .

There are two forms of validity :

1. Internal validity : it refers to the validity of the measurement and test itself. It has

to done with factors , which may directly affect outcomes.

2. External validity: it refers to the ability to generalize the finding to the target

population

Internal validity External validity




1.Size of population 1.Population characteristics

2.Time to collection data 2.Data collection methods

3.History 3.Research environment

4.Instruments 4.Independent variable

5.Others 5.The affect of time

There are three types of validity :

1. Content validity: it is the extent to which a measuring instruments provide

adequate coverage of topic under the study

2. Criterion-related validity: it relates to cure ability to predict some outcome of

estimate the existence of some current condition.

3. Construct validity : it is the design to which scores on a test can be accounted

for by explanatory construct of sound theory

Delimitations

Delimitations describe what this particular study does not cover. The delimitation of

study are those characteristics that define the scope , define the boundaries of the

inquiry as determined by the conscious exclusionary.

Decision that were made throughout the development of the proposal among these ,are

the choice of objectives and questions , variable of interest , alternative theoretical

perspectives that could have been adopted.

Unit 6 Report writing and evaluations

Report writing is a basic task of the researcher, since no research can be

completed without its report. In fact research without report considered as a house without

roof.

Research Report: is study culminates in the writing of a report, which is a too for

communicating the various aspects of the study, viz., the problem or topic investigated

,the method employed to investigate, the objective, scope and limitation. However, prior

to writing the report, its proper planning is essential.

Types of report:

On basis of approach:

1. Business report and memorandum.

2. Project report.




3. Dissertation.

4. Commission.

5. Commission‟s enquiry report.

6. Thesis.

On the basis of presentation:

1. Inductive reports.

2. Deductive reports.

3. Step by step reports.

4. Time – sequence reports.

Principles for writing report

1. The language should be simple, clear and unambiguous. Short sentences should be

used as far as possible.

2. The phraseology should be adapted to suit the occasion. No technical terms or

business phraseology should be used which are not likely to understood by the

person (s) for whom the report is intended.

3. In writing reports, negative statements should be avoided as far as possible.

4. Reports written by an individual should be written in the first person (I), but reports

submitted by a committee or sub-committee must be written in an impersonal

manner, i.e., in the third person.

5. The report should preferably be written in the narrative form setting out the facts,

findings and recommendations in such a logical way that they present a coherent

picture.

6. The data presented in support of the recommendations should be accurate, reliable

and complete. These should be properly classified, tabulated and analyzed so that

they can give a realistic and concrete reading of any problem under consideration.

7. The conclusions and recommendations should be based on factual data (not

impressions) and unbiased so that they can be depended upon by the recipient (s)

for deciding on a course of action.

8. The report should be as brief as possible in keeping with the purpose for which it

is needed. But clearness should not be sacrificed for the sake of conciseness. The

report should be to the point, using the minimum number of words and avoiding

all repetitions and exaggerations. It the writer sticks to these qualities, the report

will automatically remain concise.

Style and format of report writing:

Preliminary section:




- Title page ( name of problem, author, degree, and institute, date of study) -

Approval sheet.

- Acknowledgements (if any). - Preface or forward. - Table of contents - List

of tables (if any).

- List of figures (if any).

Main body of the report(provide complete outline of the research repot with all detail)

Introduction

-Significance of the problem.

- Statements of the problem.

- Purpose of the study.

- Assumptions and delimitations.

- Definition of the important terms.

- Statements of hypothesis.

- Assumptions under lying the hypotheses

Review of related literature or analysis of previous research. Design of the study -

Procedures used.

- Methods of gathering data.

- Description of data gathering instruments.

Presentation and analysis of data -

Text.

- Tables.

- Figures.

Summary and conclusions

- Brief restatement of problem and procedures.

- Description of procedures used.

- Principal findings and conclusions.

- Recommendations for future research.

References section:

- Bibliography.

- Appendix.

- Index, if any.

Steps of Writing Report

Writing report comes after slow, brains- taking and accurate inductive work. The writing

of report follows some steps.

1- Logical analysis of the subject matter.

It is the first step in which the researcher has to develop the subject of the

research. There are two ways of developing a subject:

• The Logical development which is based on the mental connection and

association between one thing and another. It may develop from simple to complex.

• The chronological development which is based on the connection or

sequence in time and occurrence.




2- Preparation of the final outline.

It is the next step in writing a research report. Outline is the framework of

research in which long research is constructed.

3- Preparation of the rough draft follows the second step.

In this step, the researcher contextualize his study. He writes down the

procedures and techniques which he followed to collect data along with various

limitation he faced, the technique of analysis he adopted. He has to mentions

findings , generalization and recommendation and suggestion regarding the

problem concerned.

4- Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft

It is more difficult than preparation of the rough draft because the researcher

has to revise his report from different point of views such as clearance and

ambiguity , cohesion and unity and consistent as well as he has to check the

mechanics of writing – grammar, spelling and usage.

5- Preparation of the final bibliography

It comes next in order . in this step the researcher prepares the references that

he consulted in his search . it can be divided into two parts; the first part included

the books and pamphlets and the second part is devoted to the journals and

magazines.

6- Writing the final draft

It should be in concise and objective style . The researcher should use simple

language and avoid vague expression. He has to avoid abstract terminology and

technical jargons. If there are some illustrations and examples from common

experience, they should be incorporated. But the report should not be dull, it should

enthuse and maintain others.

Evaluation of research report

Evaluation is a process of ascertaining the decision areas of concern , selecting

appropriate information , and collecting and analyzing information in order to report

summary data useful to decision makers in selecting among alternative.




Evaluation of report is based on two different parameters.

In Internal evaluate parameter, we have to evaluate the research on the basis of its parts

and the consistency of its content. Fifty percent of the evaluation is given to data

analysis for this part is the main part of the research. We study its content, language,

and the relationship between its parts.

In external evaluate parameter, we have to evaluate the cover page, size of the page,

margins, fonts and other technical works. ( structure ).

Through a critical analysis the student may gain some insight into the nature of a

research problem , the methods by which it may attacked , the difficulties inherent in

research , the ways in which data are analyzed and conclusions drawn, and the style of

the report.

The following questions suggest a possible structure for the analysis:

1. The title and abstract.

a. Are they clear and concise?

b. Do they promise no more than the study can provide?

2. The problem and hypotheses(introductory section)

a. Is the problem clearly stated?

b. Is the problem properly delimited?

c. Is the significance of the problem recognized?

d. Are hypotheses clearly stated and testable?

e. Are assumptions, limitations , and delimitations stated?

f. Are important terms defined?

3. Review of related literature (introductory section)

a. Is it adequately covered?

b. Are important findings noted?

Evaluation research is a

process An intervention or pr o gram

Make informed decisions

Of reviewing In

order to

That is about for

- Thorough - Reliable - V ali d - Systematic

- Efficiency - effectiveness - appropriateness

- Selecting between different interventions or programs

- Incorporating changes, and fine - tuning for greater effectiveness and efficiency

- Te rminating the program or intervention for better use of resources.




c. Is it well organized?

d. Is an effective summary provided?

e. Is the cited literature directly relevant to the problem and hypotheses?

4. Method section

a. Is the research design described in detail?

b. Is it adequate?

c. Are the samples described in detail?

d. Are relevant variables recognized?

e. Are appropriate controls provided to establish experimental validity?

f. Are data-gathering instruments appropriate?

g. Are validity and reliability of the instruments established?

h. Can the sample and procedure be replicated based on the information and

references given?

5. Results section

a. Is the statistical treatment appropriate?

b. Is appropriate use made of tables and figures?

c. Is the analysis of data relationships logical, perceptive , and objective

6. Discussion section

Thank you so much


Technology

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