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Presentation on

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

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Meaning:

Research in common parlance refers to a

search for knowledge

Definition:

According to Redman and Mory Research isSystematized effort to gain new knowledge.

According to Clifford woody Research comprises

defining and redefining problems, formulating

hypothesis, collecting, organizing and evaluating data,making deductions and reaching conclusions, and at last

carefully testing conclusions to determine whether they

fit the formulating hypothesis.

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Objectives of Research:

To gain familiarity with a particular Phenomenon

To reveal the character of individual, group or

situation or a thing

To determine the frequency with which

something access

To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship

between variables

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What is good Research:

Purpose clearly defined

The process described in sufficient details

The design carefully planned to yield results

Careful consideration must be given and maintainhigh ethical standards

Limitations properly revealed

Adequate analysis of the data and appropriate tools

used Presentation of data should be comprehensive

Conclusion should based on the data obtained andjustified.

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RESEARCH PROCESSDefine

researchproblem

Review concept theories

Review preview research

finding

Formulate

hypothesis

Design research

(including sample

design)

Collect data(execution)

Analyze data

(test hypothesis if

any)

Interpret and report

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Determination of

Research

Methodology

Development of

Appropriate

ResearchDesign

Execute the

Research

Design

Communication

of Results

Research Process

Phase I Phase II Phase III Phase - IV

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Phase 1: Determination of ResearchProblem

Step 1: Determining Management information needs

Step 2: Redefining the decision problem as research

problem

Step 3: Establishing Research Objectives

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Phase 2: Development of Research Design

Step 4: Determining to evaluate research design

Step 5: Determining the data source

Step 6: Determining the sample plan and sample size

Step 7: Determining the measurement scales

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Phase 3: Execution of the research Design

Step 8: Data collection and processing

data

Step 9: Analyzing the data

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Phase 4: Communication of the results

Step 10: Preparing and presenting the

final report to management

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Importance of Research:

It inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotesthe development of logical thinking

It provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our

economic system Diagnosing and assessing problems and opportunities.

Social scientists in studying social relationships and in seekinganswers to various social problems business and industry.

To professionals it is Source of livelihood

To philosophers and thinkers the outlet for new ideas andinsights

To literary men and women the development of new stylesand creative work

To analysts and intellectuals generalizations of new theories

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ResearchProblem

It refers to some difficulty which a researcher

experiences in the context of either a

theoretical or practical situation and wants to

obtain a solution for the same.

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Conditions:

There must be an individual (group or an organization)

I or N

At least two courses of action C1 and C 2

At least two possible outcomes O1 and O2

The course of action available must provides some

chance of obtaining the objective, but they cannot

provide the same chance

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Points to remember while selecting a research

problem:

Controversial subject should be become thechoice

Subject which is overdone should not bechosen

Too narrow or too vague problems shouldbe avoided

Subject selected for research should befamiliar

The selection of problem must be precededby a preliminary study.

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Technique involved in defining a problem:

Statement of the problem in general way

Understanding the nature of the problem

Surveying the available literature

Developing the ideas through discussions

Rephrasing the research problem

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Types of researchproblem:

Problems which relate to States of

nature

Problems Which relate to relationships

between variables.

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Research Design:

It is the plan structure, and strategy of

investigation conceived so as to obtainanswers to research questions and to

control variance.

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Types of Research Design

Explorative

Categories : Experience survey

Secondary data analysis

Case Studies

Pilot survey Focus group interview,

Projective techniques,

Depth interview

Descriptive :

Categories: Secondary Data analysis, Primary Data analysis, Case studies

Casual:

Categories : The one-shot case study, Before-after without control group,after-only with control group, Before after with one control group, Fourgroup, six-study design, time series design , completely randomized design ,factorial design

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Difficulties in carrying out research in

India: The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research

There is insufficient interaction

Lack confidence in providing material

Overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of

adequate information Does not exist a code of conduct for researchers

Library management and functioning is not satisfactory

Difficulty of timely availability of published data

Difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance

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Sources of Data:

Primary : Interview, Use of telephone, Observation,

Questionnaire Secondary

Sample:

A sample is a smaller representation of a large unit or

value.

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How sampling helps Researcher:

Its saves time and money

It also helps the researcher to obtain the accurate results

Sampling is only way when the population is very large in size

It enables to estimate the sampling error

Universe/Population: The group of individuals under study is known as the

population or universe.

Sampling:

A finite subset selected from a population with the objective of investigating itsproperties is called a sample.

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Steps in the Sampling:

Defining the survey population or universe

Specifying the sample frame

Specifying the sampling method

Determine the sample size

Sampling plan

Select the sample

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Sampling Techniques

Probability sampling or representative

sampling

Non probability sampling or Judgmental

sampling

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Types of Probability Sampling:

Simple random sampling

Stratified random sampling

Systematic sampling

Cluster sampling

Multistage sample

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Non Probability

Quota sampling

Purposive sampling

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Methods of random sample

Lottery method

Tippets numbers

Selecting from sequential list

Grid system

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Precautions in drawing a random sampling

The population to be sampled should be clearlydefined and a list of all the units for the purposeof selection should be ready

Different units should be approximately of equalsize

Units should be independent of each other andthe selection of anyone may not make it binding

to select any other unit Every unit should be accessible

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Advantages

Free from bias

More representative

Very simple

Assessment of sampling error can be made

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Disadvantages

Very difficult to have completely catalogued

Cases selected may be too widely dispersed

Units are not of different size and the universeconsists of may heterogeneous groups of

different size

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Kinds of stratified sampling

Proportional stratified sample

Disproportional stratified sample

Stratified weighted sampling

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Features of sampling

Economy

Reliability

Detailed study

Scientific base

Greater suitability in most situations

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Essentials of ideal sample

Representativeness

Independence

Adequacy

Homogeneity

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Factors affecting the size of the sample

Homogeneity or heterogeneity of universe

Number of classes Proposed

Nature of study

Practical considerations

Standard of accuracy

Size of the questionnaire or schedule

Nature of cased to be contacted

Type of sampling used

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Pilot study: It is a preliminary study conducted on alimited scale before the original studies are carriedout to gain some primary information.

Sample Size: The most important problem whichconfronts a researcher at the outset is the size ofthe sample. If a larger sample than what is requiredis chosen, it involves both more cost and time. If asmall sample is chosen the results obtained will be

relatively less accurate.

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Factors considered to select sample size

The nature of population

Complexity of tabulation

Problems relating to collection of data

Type of sampling

The mathematics of sample size

Margin of error

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Mildred Parten has given the following formula for calculatingsample size:

Sample size =(SZ/T)2

S Preliminary standard deviation of the universe

Z Number of standard error units

T Margin or error to be obtained

Sample error: The errors which arise in the sample surveys areknown as the sampling error. There are 2 types pf samplingerrors.

Biased errors

Unbiased errors

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Non sampling error: It occurs both in census and samplesurveys. It includes the biases, prejudices and other relatedmistakes which arise in conducting the survey.

Questionnaire: It refers to a device for securing answers toquestions by using a form which the respondent fills inhimself.

Schedule:It is the name usually applied to a set of questions which are asked and filled in by the interviewer

in a face to face situation with another person.

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Types of schedule or questionnaire

Observation

Evaluation

Document

Interviews

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Classification

Structured or standardizes

Unstructured p non standardized

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Contents of questionnaire

Identifying information or introductory part

Social background and factual information

Subject matter

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Designing the questionnaire of schedule

Physical form of questionnaire:

Size

Length

Use one side of paper

Margin and spacing

Use of pictures

Quality and colour of the paper

Arrangement of grouping of items.

Choice or type of questions:

Specific information questions

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Data Processing

The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysedin accordance with the outline laid down for the purpose atthe time of developing the research plan.

Technically speaking, processing implies editing,coding, classification and tabulation of collecteddata so that they are amenable to analyses.

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Processing Operations-Editing

Editing

Editing of data is a process of examining thecollected raw data (specially in survey) to detecterrors and omissions and to correct these whenpossible.

Editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completedquestionnaires and schedules.

It is done to assure that data are accurate, consistentwith other facts gathered, uniformly entered, ascompleted as possible and has been well arranged tofacilitate coding and tabulation.

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Points or stages of editing

1. Field Editing consists in the review of the

reporting forms by the investigator at the

time of recording the respondentsresponses.

This type of editing is necessary in view ofthe fact that individual writing styles

often can be difficult for others to

decipher. (Abbreviations or illegible

forms)

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Points or stages of editing

2. Central Editing should take place when all forms orschedules have been completed and returned to theoffice. This type of editing is done by a single editor ina small study and by a team of editors in case of a

large inquiry.

Editor(s) may correct the obvious errors such as anentry in wrong place.

The editor can determine the proper answer byreviewing the other information in the schedule if theanswer is left without the response.

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Processing Operations-Classification

3. Classification

Most research studies result in a large volume of rawdata which must be reduced into homogeneousgroups if to get meaningful relationships. This isnecessary in process of arranging data in groups orclasses on the basis of common characteristics.

Data having a common characteristic are placed onone and in this way the entire data get divided into anumber of groups or classes.

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Processing Operations-Tabulation

4. Tabulation: tabulation is the process of summarising raw data anddisplaying the same in compact form for further analysis.

It is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows.

Tabulation is essential for the following reasons:

1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptivestatement to a minimum

2. It facilitates the process of comparison.

3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors

and omissions.

4. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.