........................................................................................................
3 1.
..............................................................................4
1.1.
..............................................................................4
1.2.
....................................................................................5
1.3.
.......................................................................7
2.
......................................................................9
2.1. ....................................................9 2.2.
..............................................................................9
2.2.1.
........................................................................10
2.2.2.
........................................................................12
2.2.3.
..................................................................13
2.2.4.
.......................................................................15
2.2.5.
............................................................................17
2.2.6.
...............................................................18
3. .........................................19 3.1.
OSI..................................................................19
3.1.1.
............................................................................20
3.1.2.
..................................................................21
3.1.3.
.............................................................................21
3.1.4.
.....................................................................22
3.1.5.
................................................................................22
3.1.6.
...................................................................22
3.1.7.
.......................................................................23
3.2.
TCP/IP.............................................................23
3.2.1.
.....................................................................23
3.2.2. T
.....................................................................24
3.2.3.
.......................................................................25
3.2.4. ...............................25 3.3.
......................25 4.
....................................................................27
4.1. .............................................27 4.1.1.
................................................................28
4.1.2. K ( ).........................29 4.1.3.
.......................................................30 4.2.
..........................................................................................30
2 4.2.1.
..................................................................32
4.2.2. ...............................................33 4.2.3.
...................................................................35
4.2.4. ................37 5.
..................................................................39
5.1. ........................39 5.2. .......40 5.2.1.
...................................................................40
5.2.2.
..............................................................42
5.3. .........................................43 5.3.1.
..................................................................................43
5.3.2.
................................................................................43
5.3.3.
................................................................................44
5.4. ................................................45 5.5.
..........................................................................46
5.6. ................................47 5.6.1.
.................................................................................47
5.6.2.
..............................................................................47
5.6.3.
.........................................................................47
6. A UTP ............48 6.1.
............................................................................48
................................................................................48
(Delay Skew) ............................................48
...............................................................................48
(NEXT = Near End Crosstalk)
...................................................................................................48
6.1.5. - PSNEXT
...................................................................................................49
6.1.6. FEXT.................................49 6.1.7. Attenuation
to Crosstalk Ratio
(ACR).............................................................49
6.1.8.
(Bandwidth)...................................................49
6.2. ............................................49 6.3.
...........................................................................52
6.4. .........................54 7.WIRELESS
.........................65 7.1.1.
Wi-Fi.............................................................................................66
..............................................................................................................
66 7.1.2.
Bluetooth.....................................................................................67
6.1.1. 6.1.2. 6.1.3. 6.1.4.
3 8.
....................................................................................79
........................................................................................81
600 MHz. , , , . RJ 45 , , ( LAN switch-). , , , . , . ( ). . ,
. , , , , , . : - , - , - , - , - e , - UTP , - wirelless . , UTP 5
( ) . , wireless , - , .
4
.
1. 1.1. , , . , , , , . , . . . , . , . , 15.000 , . . , . ,
(servers). , . , (clients), , , , . , 1.
1.
- (client-server model). . , ,
5
, . , World Wide Webu, , Web server , . . - , : , . . . , .
2.
2.
1.2. . : - , - , - , - . . World Wide Webu . , , , , , , , , , .
( ), . , , ACM (www.acm.org) IEEE Computer Society
(www.computer.org), . . , , , . . . . . (peer-to-peer), - . , (
3).
6
, .
3.
. , , , , . , , -, . . . . . (video on demand). . , . : , . , .
. , . , , , . t 2. . , . , 1990. 10 . , (SMS) . ,
7
. , . , , , .
1.3. (LDA), . , . , . . , -, Web - om, . , . , , . , . , , , -.
, -, (). , -, . , . , . . , . . , . . , , 1. ( fixed wireless)
(Mobile wireless). . , , . 1.
, ; LDA
8
, . , . , . . , , . , . , . , . . , , , , , . . , . Web , . , ,
. . . IBM Linuxom ( X11) -.
9
2. . .
2.1. : - () , - . () (broadcast networks) . , (packets), , . (
). , , , . . , . () (broadcasting). , (multicasting). . n-1 . . , .
( point-to-point networks) . , . , . , , , . ( ), (
unicasting).
2.2. . 2, . ( personal area networks), . , , , . LDA . . , . ,
(. internetwork).
10
2.
. .
2.2.1. (Local Area Networks, LAN) 5 km. . : - , - , - . , . , .
. , . 10 Mb/s 100 Mb/s, ( ), . 10 Gb/s. () , 4. (bus), . , . . . .
, IEEE 802.3, Ethernet. 4.
11
4. () , (b)
Ethernet LAN-. 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps. Ethernet Ethernet 2.0 IEEE
802.3. , , () . MAC (media access control) , . . . Ethernet
CSMA/CD, ( Ether) . (idle condition) idle . , . . jamming . . . ()
, . . . ( ring). . . , . , , . IBM- IEEE 802.5 4 16 Mb/s. FDDI
.
12
, : - , - . . , ( ). . . . , .
2.2.2. (Metropolitan Area Network, MAN), , . , . . , , . ad hoc
, . , . : , , , ., . , . , . , MAN 5. (head end), . .
13
5.
2.2.3. (Wide Area Network, WAN) , . (). (hosts) (Communication
subnet) , (subnet). ( ), , . , . () () . , : . (Transmission lines)
. , -. (switching elements) . , . , (routers). , . , 6, , . ( )
.
14
6.
? , . , . , , . , , , . ( store-and-forward) (packet-switched).
( ) . , (. cells). , , . , . . 7.
7.
7, ACE, ABDE ACDE. , , . , ACE , . . , B C.
15
( ). . . . , . , . .
2.2.4. . 1901. ( , o). , . , : - , - , - .
2.2.4.1. . , , . ( ), . , Bluetooth, . Bluetooth , , . , , , . ,
, 8(). : , . , , , .
2.2.4.2. - . , 8(b). , , . , Etherneta , ,
16
. IEEE 802.11, .
8: () Bluetooth, (b) LAN
2.2.4.3. . . . . , . , . , , . 50 Mb/s . 1 Mb/s, , . , . .
(local multipoint distribution service, LMDS). IEEE 802.16. , . , .
, 9() . . , , , 9(b). Ethernet . . , .
17
9: () , (b)
, . Etherneta, Bob Metcalfe, : . , -. . IBM- T.J. Watsona, 1945.
, : IBM ? : 2000. .
2.2.5. . . , . ( ), , . . ( ) : - ( PC , PC , LDA, ); - (TV,
DVD, VCR, , , -, MP3); - (, , , ); - ( , , , , -, ); - ( , , , , ).
. . , , - . . : , , , , . , .
18
, . - . - . , . , , , .
2.2.6. , . . , , (gateways), . (internetwork internet). . LAN
WAN LAN-, . , , . , , , , , .
19
3. , . , EIA/TIA 568, , , . . : (Campus backbone), . . TIA/EIA
568 , UTP STP , (), . , , . UTP, STP . OSI TCP/IP. OSI , , ( 3.3.
). TCP/IP OSI, .
3.1. OSI OSI (International Standards Organization Open System
Interconnection) . OSI ( 10). : - ; - ; - ; - ;
20
- , .
10. OSI
, . OSI . (ISO) , . .
3.1.1. (physical layer) . 1, 1, 0. , 0, , , , . , , , .
21
3.1.2. (data link layer) () . (data frames), , . ,
(acknowleedgement frame). Je , , . . . : . (medium access control
sublayer, MAC).
3.1.3. (network layer) . . . , , ( ). , , . , , . . (, , .). , ,
, . . . , . . , .
22
3.1.4. (transport lajyer) , , , . , . , . , , , . . : . , . , ,
. 1 3, , 4 7, 10.
3.1.5. (session layer) (session). , (dialog control) , (token
management), . (synchronization), .
3.1.6. , , (presentation) . , , , . .
23
3.1.7. (application layer) , . (Hypertext Transfer Protocol),
World Wide Weba. Web , HTTP. . , , .
3.2. TCP/IP TCP/IP (TCP/IP Reference Model) , . Cerf i Kahn, a
Leinir. .
3.2.1. (internet layer) . . , , . . . . , . , . ( Internet
protocol, IP). IP . . TCP/IP OSI 11. 11. .
24
11. TCP/IP
3.2.2. T TCP/IP (transport layer). , OSI . . , (Transmission
Control Protocol, TCP), , , , . . TCP . TCP . , (User Datagram
Protocol, UDP), , , TCP, . , . IP, TCP UDP 12. , IP .
12. TCP/IP
25
3.2.3. TCP/IP , . , . OSI : . (aplication layer). . (TELNET),
(SMTP), 12. . . , (SMTP). , : (DNS) () , USENET- (NNTP), World Wide
Weba (HTTP) .
3.2.4. . TCP/IP , IP . . TCP/IP .
3.3. , , . : - ANSI, -EIA -TIA. , ANSI/EIA/TIA-568-1991.
Commercial Building Telecommunications Cabling Standard ( ).
ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-A, 2002. 568 . . -ISO ISO 11801. 1995. EIA/TIA ,
ISO/IEC 90 m.
26
: - ISO/IEC , - ISO/IEC 874-14 SC , - ISO/IEC 874-10 ST , -
ISO/IEC 1180-17 D 100 MHz 100 Mbps, - EN 5028/IEC 61156-17 UTP 5.
UTP 5, - EN 50174/IEC 14763-18 RJ 45 5, ISO/IEC 8877-18, - EIA/TIA
568A, 568B-21 RJ 45 5, - ISO/IEC 11801-17, - EIA/TIA 569-22 .
27
4. (bus type), Ethernet (Thick/Thin Ethernet). , , . , : . , ,
(), , . , (star type). , (Hub, switch...). , . UTP (Unshilded
Twisted Pair) , , , STP .
4.1. LAN . LAN , , , . . , , . , . . . , . , , , , , .
28
. . R , 90 m , , , . . , . , , , , . : - ( ); - ( ); - ( ). , (
) ( ).
4.1.1. . , , 5, 5 6 . . 1500 m. 2 km. 2 km, . . , 6 10 . . , , ,
. ( ) . , , , .
29
( F/0) .
4.1.2. K ( )Ka ( ) . . 13.
13.
. , , (, 5), , . 500 m. , , . fiber . . , , . , , F/O . , ,
.
30
4.1.3. ( ). ( 5, 5, 6) . , RJ 45 , ST . 90 m. . , , . . . , . .
. , , , . , . . . , .
4.2. 90 m, . . UTP (UTP - Unshielded Twisted Pair ), FTP (FTP -
Foiled Twisted Pair - ) STP (STP - Shielded Twisted Pair - ). FTP .
(, , .), . .
31
, . , , ACR (ACR - Attenuation to Crosstalk Ratio), ( ACR ). , ,
( ). FTP . 15 FTP 100 150 . FTP . , , . , , , , . (UTP) . , 30 Hz,
. 100 Hz, 88 108 Hz, . FTP STP . FTP 25 . , 600 MHz. STP , . , .
FTP /. , FTTD (Fiber To The Desk - ). ( 1 GHz).
32
. . 50/125 62,5/125 mm, , (, 50 62,5 mm). . ST , , FC/PC SMA. ,
( ) . , . . , . , 2 km. 2 km, . 6 10 mm. . , , , . , .
4.2.1. , : , , . , , , () , , ( 14). , . . , , ( ), .
33
14.
() . , . , . . .
4.2.2. (twisted pair cable) () . . , . 15 , (Unshielded
Twisted-Pair, UTP) (Shielded Twisted-Pair, STP) . 16 UTP STP .
15. (UTP) (STP)
34
16. UTP STP
. , , . , , , , . , (IBM, ) . , - . : FTP, S-FTP STP. FTP . , ,
5 MHz . / FTP , . (. ) . RJ (Registered Jack) , , ( 17).
17. RJ 45
35
RJ : - RJ11 - , - RJ14 - , - RJ12 RJ25 - , - RJ45 Ethernet .
RJ-45 . , . . RJ45 RJ11 . R 568 568B. (RJ45 ). 568 568 . 568 568B
.
4.2.3. , . , . LAN , . . , . , ( LED ), ( ). LED , - . , 18.
36
18.
( 19) . , . , / .
19.
37
: (singlemode) , (multimode) ( 20). , , . . , , . , . , , . ()
.
20. (singlemode) (multimode)
4.2.4. 5. 5 100 Hz, ACR 100 Hz. , , 5 (level 5), 5 (Cat 5) . 5 ,
.
38
6 7 F. , . , 1999. 6 7. . 6 200 MHz, 7 600 MHz, 90 m. . , , . ,
, . , , , ., . , , , , .
39
5. 5.1. , , , . , . , (Building Distributor BD, LAN Campus
Distributor - CD, LAN ). , , (Floor Distributor FD). 19 , . 450 mm,
466 mm, 482 mm (19). , , () . , , U ( E), 44,45 mm. , . , . CD-BD (
). , , , , - . RJ45 5, . , . . . .
40
, 220V/50 Hz . , . , 220 V, , . , . (stand- alone). . REK
21.
21. REK-a
5.2. ISO/IEC 11801, (building backbone cabling subsystem) , .
(backbone). 90 m, . , FD , CD-BD . , . FD CD-BD , UTP (tvister pair
- TP) .
5.2.1. , ISO/IEC 11801. 850 nm
41
3,5 dB/km. (fiber optic patch cord). , . 2 km, . , . (pigtails).
, , . , . . . , , ( ). . , . Loose-Tube Gel-Filed (LTGF) , . , , .
, , . , . , . , ISO/IEC 11801 9 dB. 22.
42
22.
5.2.2. SC ( 23) ISO/IEC 874-14, BFOC/2,5 (. ST ) ISO/IEC 874-10.
, .
23.
: - , ST - , , SC (duplex SC). (, ) (patch panel), . 0.5 dB.
43
5.3. (horizontal cabling subsystem) , , . D 100 MHz, 100 Mbps (
ATM 155 Mbps). ISO/IEC 11801.
5.3.1. UTP : - UTP 5e (Wall Unshielded Twisted Pairs, Category
5e), . ( ) , EN 50288 / IEC 61156. RJ45 5 , (Fixed Cable); - UTP 5
(Fly Unshielded Twisted Pairs, Category 5e), . ( ), EN 50288 / IEC
61156. 45 5 , IP (Flexible Cable, Patch Cord); - FTP - . . 120 - .
STP - , , . , .
5.3.2. RJ45, 5 , EN 50174 / IEC 14763. IDC (Insulation
Displacement Contact) UTP . UTP , FD . ( ).
44
UTP , , (Patch Panels). . , . , , . UTP , , (TO -
Telecommunication Outlet). , . . , . , . , (, .), . , . RJ 45
24.
24. RJ 45
5.3.3. RJ 45, 5, ISO/IEC 8877, EIA/TIA 568A 568B, AT&T 258A
258B, UTP . - , . RJ 45 25.
45
25. RJ 45
5.4. 5 , . , ISO/IEC 11801, EIA/TIA - 569. (Telecommuncaton
Outlet - TO). , , , . , , . . , . ISO/IEC 11801 (FD) () , 90 m. 10
m 100 m ( D 100 MHz, 100 Mbps), (Patch Cord), . EIA/TIA - 569 . ,
480 V ()
46
2 kVA 12,7 cm (5 ), 2 kVA o 5 kVA 15,2 cm (6 ), 30,5 cm (12 ). ,
D, 100 Mbps. , . (patch cord). , . , . ISO/IEC 11801 100 m, , , 1,5
. 1, 2 3 m.
5.5. , , . , , . , , . , , , (). ( , , , .) ( ). , , , . , . (,
, .) . , . , .
47
5.6. (Work Area Cablng) . , UTP RJ 45 .
5.6.1. , UTP 5 (Fly Unshelded Twsted Pars, Category 5e), . ,
(Flexble Cable).
5.6.2. , RJ 45, 5, IEC 60603. UTP , .
5.6.3. , , IP . ISO/IEC 11801, 100 m, 1,5 . , 6 m . . , , . ,
.
48
6. A UTP 6.1. 6.1.1. . . 5 UTP 5,7 ns/m. 1 s 100 m .
6.1.2. (Delay Skew) UTP . UTP kablova. Skew (Gigabit Ethernet),
. . 100 m 50 ns, a 35 ns .
6.1.3. , LAN . . dB. . .
6.1.4. (NEXT = Near End Crosstalk) NEXT. LAN . NEXT . ( ) . (
NEXT) , 45dB. . , , 2dB), , . 5 13 mm .
49
. .
6.1.5. - PSNEXT - PSNEXT je . PSNEXT . PSNEXT .
6.1.6. FEXT (FEXT) , , . . , . . (Equal Level FEXT ELFEXT).
ELFEXT , ( ). , (PSNEXT), (ELFEXT), tj. PSELFEXT. Poeljno je da
vrednost ELFEXT PSELFEXT budu to vee.
6.1.7. Attenuation to Crosstalk Ratio (ACR) , . . '''' . ACR .
ACR . ACR , . PSNEXT , ACR (PSACR = Power Sum ACR).
6.1.8. (Bandwidth) .
6.2. OMNI Scanner . 7, 6, 5E (E = Enhanced = , ), 5 ISO F, E, D
C
50
300 MHz. OMNI Scanner - 26.
26. OMNI Scanner
OMNI Scanner OMNI Remote . OMNI Scanner OMNI Remote ( 27).
51
27. Omni Remote
OMNI Scanner- : , (Delay), (Delay Skew), (ACR = Attennuaton to
Crosstalk Rato), (NEXT = Near End Crosstalk), (ELFEXT = Equal Level
Far End Crosstalk), (. ) (Return Loss), (PSNEXT = Power Sum NEXT),
ACR (PSACR = Power Sum ACR), (PSELFEXT = Power Sum ELFEXT), , , ,
(Bandwdth) (Attenuaton). OMNI Scanner- TIA ISO . 850, 1300, 1310
1500 nm. OMNI Scanner OMNI Remote 28.
52
28. OMNI Scanner OMNI Remote
6.3. , OMNI Scanner OMNI Remote, RJ 45 . , . 2 RJ 45 () 2 RJ 45
(). RJ 45 () RJ 45 (). ( ) , . , RJ 45 , . , - patch cord ( PC ,
patch panel switch, ). RJ 45 () ( patch panel-, ). 2 m ( ).
53
. :
, , OMNI Scanner : - TIA ( - , 95 % ), - UTP 5 ( , 95 % ). , ,
Project Cable ( ) ENTER, . , , AUTOTEST na OMNI Scanner . , OMNI
Remote LED STATUS. (. AUTOTEST), LED STATUS , , OMNI Remote . , LED
PASS FAIL. , PASS, , FAIL. LED FAIL, OMNI Scanner WIREMAP , ENTER,
( ) 2 . OMNI Remote , LED PASS FAIL, . , , , WIREMAP OMNI Scanneru
. , OMNI Scanner OMNI Remote , LED PASS FAIL a Omn Remote-, . ,
OMNI Scanner : - , ! - , X - . , , SAVE ( , , ). CIRCUIT ID ( )
ENTER, ( )
54
. , . ENTER , , ESC. : EXIT WITHOUT SAVING AUTO TEST RESULTS (
). , NO, , YES. , SCANLINK CD- . 9- RS232C , OMNI Scanner, .
SCANLINK .
6.4. UTP 5 ET , , ,, 30 39. UTP 29.
29. UTP
55
30. - 01 ( - 82.3 m) ( )
56
31. - 01 ( )
57
32. - 01 ( - 46.6 m) ( )
58
33. - 01 ( )
59
34. - 02 ( - 34.8 m) ( )
60
35. - 03 ( -7.3 m) ( )
61
36. - 04 ( - 8.2 m) ( )
62
37. - 05 ( - 5.1 m) ( )
63
38. - 06 ( - 4.2 m) ( )
64
39. - 08 ( - 33.5 m) ( )
65
7.WIRELESS 7.1. Wireless Wireless . : - WPAN, - WLAN, - WMAN. .
Bluetooth. . acces point . , , . , etherneta , , . IEEE 802.11, . .
. . . , . , . 50 Mb/s . 1Mb/s, , . wireless 40.
40. wireless antene
66
7.1.1. Wi-FiWi-Fi, Wireless-Fidelity (IEEE802.11) (RF) . LAN
(WLAN), WAN - . Wi-Fi Wi-Fi Wi-Fi . Wi-Fi je 1991. NCR /AT&T
Nieuwegeinu, . WaveLAN 1 2 Mbit/s. WiFi-a Vic Hayes WiFi IEEE
802.11b, 802.11a 802.11g. Access point 41.
41. Access point
Wi-Fi , . , RF , . WiFi . WiFi 2.4 GHz (802.11b 802.11g ) 5 GHz
(802.11a), OFDM (orthogonal frequency-dvson multplexng) CCK
(Complementary Code Keyng) . . WIFi ( ), . , . . hotspot, . WiFi
,
67
. , . 2.4 GHz , Bluetooth . WiFi 42.
42. WiFi
7.1.2. BluetoothBluetooth . Bluetootha je , , , , . Bluetooth ,
, . 2,45 GHz, Bluetooth 79 ( 1 MHz ) 1600 . 1.1 1.2 Bluetootha
723,1 bit/s, 2.0 Bluetooth Enached Data Rate (EDR) 2,1 Mbit/s.
Bluetooth . Bluetooth ( Harold Bluetooth), , . , WPAN . bluetooth
43.
68
43. bluetooth
7.2. Wireless - , , . Wireless, . UIC-, . .
7.2.1. 7.2.1.1. GSM-RGSM-R (Glabol Sistem for Mobile
communications-Railway) , ERTMS (European railway traffic manage
system). CS (European Train Control System) GSM-R, a GSM 2 (GSM 2G
+), 1992. . GSM-R (UIC) , UIC-. GSM-R ( X). GSM-R , 2010. , . GSM-R
:
69
-
-
-
, , , , ; ; , ; (95% ) (95% ); , , () ; .
GSM-R , GSM ( EIRNE), , UIC-a. . GSM-R : - , , , ; - , ; - ; - ,
; - , . SIM ; - ; - ( ). 44 GSM-R . GSM-R . GSM-R, , , : - RD ; - ,
; - ;
70
-
.
GSM-R .
44. GSM-R
7.2.1.2. - (RRU) - , . , : - ; - ; - , ; - LAN, WAN . , . - , ,
. - . 1+0 1+1 ( ). RRU STM-1 . , .
71
ADD/DROP. : - 1,2 Mb/s G 703, , 21 ; - 3,34 Mb/s G 703, , 1 ; -
Ethernet 10 Mb/s, 10 Base-T,1 ; - Ethernet 100 Mb/s, 100 Base-T,1 .
E1 E3 Ethernet STM-1 . : - STM-1 ; - 1 ; - ITU-T G.813. o . ( ) . ,
F1 SMT-1 . , GSM . PC , . - 7 8 GHz . 80 km , , . - 13 15 GHz ( 40
km ). - 18 23 GHz ( 30 km ). - 18 23 GHz. 7 GHz. RRU ,
72
. RR . , , SDH .
7.2.1.3. : - , . , ( , LZB, ). APOLO ( ) , , ; - ; - , , . , .
() , . , , . , . : - , ; - GPS (GALILEO) , INMARSAT ; - . GPS
(GALILEO) . 20 m (, , ). INMARSAT
73
. , . INMARSAT . . PC . . .: - ; - ; - , , . PC , . , , PC TOSS.
, TOSS . .
7.2.2. UKT . UKT , UHF (- ), 300 3000 MHz. UKT , - . .
7.2.2.1. T UKT UKT - : - ; - , - ; - . UKT (UHF) 45 ( ). ( , ,
MHz, , , ).
74
45. UHF
(, , ) ,
75
. 444.450 - 445.625 MHz 454.450 - 455.625 MHz , , - , . 444.450
- 445.625 MHz 454.450 - 455.625 MHz, . , . , , . . . . . : -, -, -,
-. . 147.775148.300MHz 152.275 152.800 MHz. , . : - -, , ; - -, , ,
, . UKT - . : 68 MHz 87,5 MHz ( 4 m); 146 MHz 174 MHz ( 2 m); 440
MHz 470 MHz ( 0,7 m). je 25 KHz. :
76
-
-
-
-
, ; , ; , , ; , , , ; , . , . ; , . ; , , ; , . .
- : - , . , ; - , , . . . : , , ; - , . : , , ; - , . , , .
77
UKT , . , . , , , , .
7.2.2.2. - (RDS)A - ( 46) 80- UIC 751-3, , . 460 MH, . VCO RC ,
. . . . RD RD . (RD , ). 46- .
78
46. - (RDS)
79
8. , , . , . , UTP , , , , , , UTP WIRELESS . , . - ( , , , , ).
. OSI TCP/IP, . , . ( , , ). , . : , ( , ), (, , ) , , (, , ). UTP
: , , , ( ) . UTP , 30 39.
80
WIRELESS Wi-Fi , . , Bluetooth. , : , , , , . (UIC), : (GSM-R),
- (RRU) . , , UKT - (RRU) , , , (UIC), a . , , , . ( ), , , , . , ,
. . , . , .
81
1. : , , , 2003. 2. : , , , 2003. 3. : , , , 2010. 4. : , , , ,
, 2011. 5. Stephen J. Bigelow: , , , 2004.
6. William A. Shay: , , , , 2004. 7. Andrew S. Tanenbaum: , , ,
2005. 8. James F. Kurose: , , , 2005. 9. : UTP . 10. : , UTP 11.
www.wikipedia.com 12. www.informatika.com 13. www.elektrosoft.com
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