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University of Petra Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of English/ Translation (MA in Translation)
Arabic Translation of the Second Chapter of
Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry:
Lexical and Syntactic Problems
ا����� �� �� � ا����ن ا���ی�يا������ ا������ ��: و��% أوآ��!رد �
وا���,��� ا��+*(ت ا��'!ی�
MA Dissertation
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
MA In Translation at the University of Petra
April 2014
By
Eman Adnan Eibayat
Supervisor: Dr. Nafez Shammas
Arabic Translation of the Second Chapter
of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry:
Lexical and Syntactic Problems
Submitted by Eman Adnan Saleh Eibayat
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in English Language/
Translation
The thesis is approved by
Committee Chair …………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Examining committee
Name Signature
1. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii
Dedication
To my Father, Mother, Husband & the soft part of my heart, Eileen
iii
Acknowledgments
All thanks are due to Allah, Who has always been my guidance in everything;
thanks to Him for giving me patience to finish this work as it is considered the first
step of fulfilling my dreams.
I would like to express my appreciation and gratitude to “my Supervisor, Dr.
Nafez Shammas”, for his efforts, support, and encouragement, not only in the course
of the present study but also during the entire period of my MA study.
Thanks and appreciation are due to the committee members; Dr. Nafez shammas
Prof. Abdullah Shunnaq , Prof. Ahmad Kotob and Prof. Soleiman Ahmad.
Special thanks go to my father, mother, sisters and brother for their prayers and
support all the time. To my loving husband, who is more myself than I am, to my
precious daughter Eileen who has taught me how to be a Mom and a student; to my
sister: Dr. Nour for helping me in medical issues, to my cousin Dr. Linda Al-Khawaja
for her assistance in this work; to my dearest friend Fatin, for helping me translate the
medical text. Finally, all my teachers in the Department of English, particularly Dr.
Nihal Ameira, the Head of the Department, who instilled confidence and challenge for
producing better work into me.
iv
Abstract
This study tackles the main lexical and syntactic problems encountered by translators
of medical texts from English into Arabic, in order to identify the problems faced by
translators and resolve them. Fifteen pages of Oxford Handbook of Clinical
Dentistry, written by, Laura Mitchell and David A. Mitchell, have been translated into
Arabic.
Medical terms, terminological inconsistency and medical abbreviations in addition to
syntactic problems such as word-order, voice: passive/ active and adjective clauses
cause obstacles to translators who translate medical texts.
Several strategies were adopted to end up with an effective Arabic translation and find
solutions for the lexical and syntactic problems mentioned above. Permutations and
additions were used to solve the problem of 'differences' of word-order between both
languages English and Arabic. Finally, it was concluded that, the lack of
standardization of the Arabicization of medical terms pose a thorny, problematic and
unpleasant issue, and to end up with an effective medical translation, the translator
should have background of the jargon with which he is dealing, this can be achieved
by asking specialists, consulting dictionaries, databases, encyclopedias and other
sources of knowledge. It was also found that, borrowing and its different forms are a
way to translate medical texts and abbreviations that have no equivalents in Arabic.
v
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vi
Table of Contents
Page
Dedication ii
Acknowledgments iii
Abstract in English iv
Abstract In Arabic v
Table of Contents vi
Chapter one: Introductory Materials 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Role of Translation 1
1.3 Scientific and Technical Translation 2
1.4 Features of Technical Writing 3
1.5 Aim of Technical Writing and Scientific Translation 5
1.6 Technical Medical Translators’ Role 5
1.7 Equivalence 6
1.8 Technical Translation and Equivalence 7
1.9 Technical Dictionaries Role in Technical Translation 8
1.10 Synonymy 8
1.11 Types of Synonymy 9
1.12 Translation and Terminology 10
1.13 The Origin of Terminology 12
1.14 Statement of the Problem 13
1.15 Purpose of the Study 14
1.16 Research Question 14
1.17 A Glimpse of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry 15
1.18 Methodology 15
vii
Chapter two: Literature Review 19
Chapter three: Arabic Translation of a Chapter of the 4th Edition of Oxford
Handbook of Clinical Dentistry 24
Chapter Four: Analysis, Discussion and Findings 55
4.1 Introduction 55
4.2 Lexical Problems 55
4.3 Terminological Inconsistency 56
4.4 Medical Terms 58
4.5 Syntactic Problems 62
4.5.1Using Long Sentences 62
4.5.2 Using Adjective Clauses 63
4.2.3 Word-Order of Arabic and English Sentences 63
4.5.4 Voice: Passive / Active 65
Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendations 67
5.1 Summary 67
5.2 Conclusion 68
5.3 Recommendation 69
Bibliography 70
Appendix: The 2nd Chapter of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry 75
1
Chapter one: Theoretical Background
1.1 Introduction
Language is a communicative bridge that connects people. It plays a significant role in
transferring thoughts, information and knowledge. It is important for science and technology
development. However, because of language, too many problems and difficulties may encounter
translators in general, and translators of, scientific and technical texts, in particular. This study
concentrates on medical translation and its lexical and syntactic problems.
1.2 The Role of Translation
The role of translation was discussed a lot, Miremadi (1991:21) says: “Without
translation, our world would narrow mercilessly” thus, translation plays a vital role in life; it is a
gateway to understand others and communicate with them.
On this regard Catford (1965,vii) states that “translation is an activity of enormous
importance in the modern world and it is a subject of interest not only to linguists, professionals,
amateur translators and language teachers, but also to electric engineers and mathematicians.”
To him, translation is finding an equivalent for the source text in the target text syntactically and
lexically.
2
On the same topic House (2009:3) defines translation as the replacement of an original
text by another text. Not too differently, Catford (1965: 20) says that Translation is the
replacement of textual material in source language by equivalent textual material in the target
language.
Robinson (1997:49) points out; translation is an intelligent activity that involves
complicated processes of conscious and unconscious learning.
In short, translation is rendering a text into another language; it is the use of two
languages to render the same text, i.e. the essential meaning of the source language text. In other
words, translation is finding an equivalence of the source text (ST) in the target text (TT).
1.3 Scientific and Technical Translation
On one hand; Byrne (2006:1) says that “Technical translation has long been regarded as
the ugly duckling of translation, especially in academic circles.” On the other hand; it is the
bridge which people need to know and transmit Knowledge and information.
The present dissertation attempts to approach the problems of medical translation which
is an important part of technical and scientific translation. The researcher believes that many
obstacles are normally encountered by translators; one of them is that equivalence is not always
achievable in medical translation. Therefore, strategies to solve problems in translating medical
texts were explored to find out the best solutions.
3
Medical translation is a sensitive field; it needs medical backgrounds (not enough alone)
in addition to knowledge of the theories which can be applied in translating scientific and
technical texts.
Newmark (1988:151) says that technical and scientific language differs from non-
technical one; technical translation is connotations and metaphor free.
To Montalt (2011: 82-83) medical translation refers to a specific type of scientific and
technical translation which focuses on medicine and fields concerning health and disease like
nursing, public health, , psychiatry, psychology, molecular, genetics.
1.4 Features of Technical Writing
Technical writing aims at documentation, efficiency and accuracy. Below are the features
of technical writing as mentioned by Soles, et al., (2010:22):
• Accuracy: technical writing must be accurate and error free; the information must be correct,
accurate, true and validated.
• Thoroughness: that means that technical writing depends on the quantity of information i.e. the
information should be complete noting that technical writers can use their experience to deliver
the whole information.
• Relevance: the content must be related to the topic and not distracting the reader from the
intended message.
4
• Good organization: the information must be well organized; it must be ordered and arranged
correctly and logically to avoid making gaps between ideas and leading to confusion among
readers.
• Brevity: it means delivering full information using as few words as much as possible. Technical
writing should be to the point.
• Correctness: technical writing must be correct in terms of spelling, punctuations, grammar and
syntax.
Thus, it could be mentioned that if a person wants to write a technical text he has to do
several things, such as choosing a specific technical topic like Law, Science, Healthcare,
Medicine, Astronomy, …etc. He also should have a specific aim for his writing. He should be
aware of the characteristics of technical writing i.e. a technical text conveys a technical scientific
information related to the field of writing, it is emotions free, it must be concise to attract the
readers not to distract them, it must be formal and written for a specific category such as
scientists, professionals and specialists. In this regard; Wells, et al., (2008:5) say: “To convey
information effectively, technical communication must be accurate, clear, and concise. If the
audience cannot understand or use the information presented, the writer has failed in his or her
purpose.”
McMorrow (1998:19) states that technical writing is defined by its content which should be
related to scientific and technological matters. Lexis is another characteristic of technical writing
since the content introduces specific words and terms that suit the technical nature of the text,
and focuses on the content rather than focusing on writer’s feelings or emotions.
5
1.5 Aim of Technical and Scientific Translation
Technical and scientific translation aims at transmitting technical and scientific
information to the target language audience. In this respect Pinchuk (1977:18) states that
technical translation aims at transmitting technical information in addition to all relevant
information to the reader so he can use the information simply and conveniently.
1.6 Technical Medical Translators’ Role
Chabner (2010:3) asserts that: “Studying medical terminology is very similar to learning
a new language. At first the words sound strange and complicated, although they may stand for
commonly known disorders and terms.”
In short, medical language is like a new language. It is difficult, complicated at the
beginning, and it needs to be studied so that the translator could be familiar with medical terms.
The translator has to maintain the features of technical texts; he should convey the information of
the source text and transmit the information correctly, clearly, briefly and in a way which serves
the reader.
Wells et al. (2008:7) maintains that an effective translator must take into consideration
three things so he could maintain the source text first, to determine the purpose of the technical
text (which is designed to be useful and practical). In other words, what it is being used for; if the
translator knows the purpose of the source text he can easily determine the needed style and
format. Next, the technical translator needs to know the readers’ type this will help the
6
communicator to meet the readers’ needs. Last but not least, the technical communicator must
determine context to know the appropriate formats. If he fails to determine the context this will
lead to misconception and the message will not be understood correctly.
Medical translation is a very sensitive activity; any mistakes in medical translation could
be a hazard to human life. Sofer (2006:107) states, “While physicians are notorious for their poor
hand writing and hard-to-decipher transmission of medical information, the task of the translator
is to render medically related data in a clear and concise fashion, with the highest degree of
accuracy.”
1.7 Equivalence
Equivalence plays a vital role in the translation process. In this regard, Newmark (1988:
47) points out that “it has sometimes been said that the overriding purpose of any translation
should be to achieve 'equivalent effect', i.e. to produce the same effect 'or one as close as possible
on the readership of the translation as has obtained on the readership of the original. This is also
called the 'equivalent response' principle.”
On the same topic, Popovič, according to Bassnett (1988: 32), distinguishes four types of
equivalence:
(1) Linguistic equivalence: word for word translation.
(2) Paradigmatic equivalence, where there is a paradigmatic equivalence he considers it as
being a higher category than lexical equivalence.
7
(3) Stylistic –translational- equivalence, the existence of ‘functional equivalence of elements in
both ST and translation aims at maintaining the identical meaning.
(4) Textual (syntagmatic) equivalence it is the existence of form and shape equivalence.
On the other hand; Farghal and Shunnaq (2009:5) mention two types of equivalence:
formal equivalence which aims at keeping the form of the SL expression, it seeks transferring the
function of the SL expressions independently of the form; and ideational equivalence which aims
at conveying the sense of the ST independently of the form, they also argue that the equivalence
is affected by three factors which are: author, text and audience; For example, in medical
translation, it is appropriate to focus on formal (functional) equivalence in authoritative texts.
1.8 Technical Translation and Equivalence
Byrne (2006: 29-30) says that “since technical translation is a communicative service
aimed at providing information to a new audience, the concentration on the source text and not
on those involved in the communication means that a crucial part of the translation situation is
simply not considered. If we do not consider the purpose of the communication, it will be
difficult, if not impossible, to tell whether it was successful.”
Translators encounter many problems when it comes to implementing the equivalence
typologies; in other words, it should be known that the equivalence in technical texts is not
always attainable on all levels.
8
1.9 Technical Dictionaries Role in Technical Translation
Specialized technical dictionaries are useful for technical translators, since they provide
translators with a precious source of terms, abbreviations and synonyms. Translators depend on technical
dictionaries a lot. But good translators have to expand their knowledge by reading, asking specialists,
using encyclopedias, etc. On this topic Hann (2004:8) says that technical translators use all the available
resources that may help in their work.
1.10 Synonyms
Synonyms are words that have similar meanings, these words are found in many different
fields but it should be mentioned that sometimes and to some translators choosing the right
synonym could be difficult or problematic.
Hurford et al. (2007:106) define synonymy as “the relationship between two predicates
that have the same (partial) sense”
On this topic Riemer (2010:66) points out that synonymy is being used to define words
either in the same language or in a different one, whereas Talasiewicz (2009: 72) defines it as
“logical or analytic equivalence: two names are synonymous when their equivalence is not
accidentally empirically true, but it is an inevitable result of so-called meaning postulates of the
language.”
Quine (1961:22), defines synonyms as, “the primary business of the theory of meaning”.
9
To Maienborn et al. (2011: 461), “Synonymy between two words involves sameness of
sense and two words may be defined as synonyms if they are mutually hyponymous”.
Cruse (1986: 62) clarifies that synonyms are those “lexical items whose senses are
identical in respect of central semantic traits, but differ, if at all, only in respect of what we may
provisionally describe as minor or peripheral traits”.
1.11 Types of Synonymy
Some types of synonyms are mentioned briefly below:
1. Lexical synonymy
Ullmann (1957:72- 160) argues that complete synonyms only exist in technical
terminology, i.e. infrequent technical terms are totally interchangeable.
Cruse (1986:265) states, “some pairs of synonyms are more ‘synonymous’ than others.”
2. Referential synonyms:
In this regard, Newmark (1988:103) points out: “The problems of translating referential
synonyms are sufficiently well known. They may be used (a) to avoid repetition, (b) to secure
cohesion, (c) because (as above) the author writes badly, (d) in the interest of redundancy, to
expand the text.”
10
3. Grammatical Synonymy:
Newmark (1968: 103) argues that the translator is usually allowed to move towards better
naturalness.
4. Speaker synonymy:
Meyer (2007: 67) maintains that speaker synonymy occurs when words are not synonyms
in dictionaries but in the speakers’ intends.
5. Absolute synonymy:
Cruse (1986:268) explains that absolute synonymy, if it at all exists, is between words
that have the same meaning in any contexts; they have identical meanings because of their
“contextual relations”.
1.12 Translation and Terminology
Translation and terminology have communicative basis, this activity is used to transfer
specialized thoughts and information, from one language to another, so as to translate technical
and scientific texts; it is favourable to talk about the essential concepts of terminology.
Darwish(1988: 30) defines terminology as, “the process, methodologies and activities
which produce or standardize terms and the actual outcome of these activities-that is the terms
themselves.”
11
Zanón (2011:7) explains terminology as the study of terms and the way they are being used;
he assures that the word “terminology” has three different meanings:
1. A group of terms that belongs to a specific specialized field.
2. An activity that is performed by terminologists.
3. A “theoretical discipline”.
General translation needs reproduction of the source text in the target text being aware of
transferring not only the content but also the style; that is achieved by reading the source text and
understanding it very well; then, translators can start doing their job by transferring the message
from the source language to that of the target text.
Zanón (2011:14) argues, when it comes to specialized translation; translators face many
problems originated from none general text.
He also mentions that in order to translate ‘for example’ a medical text; the translator should:
1. Understand the source text.
2. Specify the medical linguistic terms which are related to the jargon with which he is dealing.
3. Being able to start translating; but this level needs figuring out the style, content, equivalent
and having a vast knowledge and information about the field with which the translator is dealing,
and all can be accomplished by: searching, reading, asking specialists, using encyclopedias,
glossaries, databases, etc. It must be taken into account that using monolingual and bilingual
dictionaries is not enough.
12
1.13 The Origin of Terminology
When all doors are knocked, all available resources are consulted; if the equivalent is still
unavailable, then following the steps mentioned below will be acceptable:
Paraphrasing; creating new terms using the rules of word formation such as derivation.
Borrowing and loanwords; this point has been discussed by many linguists; it is the process in
which people borrow words and terms when the equivalent is not found in the target language.
Zanón (2011: 25) defines borrowing as “words coming from other languages”.
In this regard, Hock (1991: 382) says that lexical borrowing is “the adoption of individual
words or even of large sets of vocabulary items from another language or dialect.” He (ibid)
gives an example: “if a woman is said to put on rouge”. In this sentence rouge is an example of
borrowing from the French language.
Bloomfield (1933:444) defines linguistic borrowing as: “the adaptation of features which
differ from those of the main tradition”.
Loanwords; in other words ‘Arabicization’. Al-Abd Al-Haq (1998:55) defines
Arabicization as “literally rendering something Arabic or to Arab”.
Benabdi (1980: iii), states that Arabicization is “the deliberate effort to spread the use of
classical Arabic.”
13
El-Mouloudi (1986: 121), argues that “ Arabization . . . in its most general senses refers
to the cultivation and extensive use of Arabic as the language. It covers broad issues such as
language and nationalism language as medium of instruction, scientific research administrative
and social Activities . . . In its most restrictive sense, Arabization refers to the assimilation and
integration of foreign scientific and technical terminology by means of borrowing or translation.”
In his point of view, Al-Abd Al-Haq (1998: 57) says that “Arabicization planning refers
to conscious efforts to influence the behaviors of others with regards to: the status, corpus and
acquisition of Arabic.”
Furthermore, successful Arabicization should proceed from status to corpus and to
acquisition, i.e. in a sequential order.
1.14 Statement of the Problem
Technical translators face different problems while translating medical texts from English
into Arabic. This dissertation attempts to shed light on the main lexical and syntactic problems
encountered by technical and scientific translators in general, and translators of medical texts, in
particular.
In this study a medical text was translated from English into Arabic, the lexical and
syntactic problems in medical translation were spotted and discussed, and different strategies that
the translators can use for technical and scientific translation were discussed.
14
The researcher strongly believes that this study is one of the first studies that follow this
method of research, which deals with translation problems on both theoretical and practical
levels, since it is supported by a translated medical text.
1.15 Purpose of the Study
This study deals with lexical and syntactic problems encountered by translators of
medical texts from English into Arabic. Moreover, it concentrates on the applicable strategies
and theories that translators can apply and use in translating medical texts.
1.16 Research Question
This study attempts to at answer the following questions:
1. What are the main syntactic and lexical problems encountered by Arab translators in the case
of translating English medical texts into Arabic?
2. How can translators avoid such problems?
3. What methods should translators adopt to produce appropriate medical translation?
4. What are the best applicable strategies and theories that can help translators with medical
texts?
Hypothesis: Clinical Dentistry texts are a special case of language, which requires a special care
on both practical and theoretical levels in translating from English into Arabic.
15
1.17 A glimpse of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry (Fourth Edition)
Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry contains useful facts and practical guidelines
experienced by dental students who are introduced to real patients at early level of their
undergraduate course in order to fulfill the requirements of the training course.
This book does not deal only with all the aspects of dentistry; it is also useful in everyday
medical practice. The first edition was published in 1991. Following the first edition, five more
editions were published, one of which translated in this dissertation; is the fourth edition,
published in 2005.
It consists of eighteen chapters covering: oral medicine, maxillofacial surgery, syndromes
of head and neck, analgesia, anesthesia and sedation. The handbook was written by Laura
Mitchell who is (a Member of the Board of the Faculty of Dental Surgery of the Royal College
of Surgeons of England) and David A. Mitchell who is (An elected council member of the
British Association of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgeons).
1.18 Method
About fifteen pages of the medical book Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry, written
by Laura Mitchell and David A. Mitchell, were translated into Arabic to support the issues
discussed in the present study. The translated pages talk about dental caries; this book was
chosen because of its richness in terminology, acronyms, and because it contains dental jargon.
Moreover, it includes an important type of knowledge and scientific facts. Some main difficulties
16
encountered by Arab translators in dealing with medical texts were also faced while translating
the English texts into Arabic as presented in this study.
Lexical and syntactic problems are discussed. One of the lexical problems was medical
synonymy. Synonyms are words that have the same sense or meaning. In medical translation
this problem confuses the translator since he cannot choose or know the best equivalent.
For example, the expression of ‘dental caries’ can possibly have more than one translation; for
example, it can be translated as س ا�س��ن��� or ا�س��ن .ن�
But professional translators are those who choose the best one contextually. It is known
that problems of technical and scientific translation depend on the translators’ knowledge of the
translated subject. Another example that is worthy of attention is the term ‘Fluoride’ , which
does not have an equivalent in Arabic so it is translated as ‘ ’ا����ر�� . It must also be mentioned
that the equivalent of the source language term is a phrase or a definition in the target language;
one example is ‘IgA ’ which is translated as ‘ا����د إي ���’ا� .
Another problem in the technical and medical jargon is related to abbreviations, there is
not a ready equivalent for abbreviations in the target language, i.e. Arabic; so paraphrasing or
transliteration can be used to render abbreviations such as ADJ meaning ‘�� .’ا���#" ا�!�ج� ا�����
Syntactic features of English medical texts lead to problems when translating into Arabic.
English medical language has long, complicated sentences; so, translators encounter problems
while translating medical English texts into Arabic. For example, the sentence ‘Rate of
17
progression of caries: Although it has been suggested that the main time that lesions remain
confined radio-graphically to the enamel is 3-4 years, there is a great individual variation and
lesions may even regress.’. It was translated as:
�"م!�ل ن�� ا��3�س: 8�4 ا� �7 م6 ا�2345د 01ن ا/$�ت �)" م,+�رة آ�� �)' #�ر ا�&!% $
� K!1 ا�ح��ن ، وإ5 أن هGا DEF��5 8�4 آ�$% ا�,�5ت ،س��ات 4-3م,�? م���ء ا��6 ���ة �3 اوح م�1�6 $
".هLG ا/$% ��,�
Some translators deal with ‘the problems of long-sentences’ by segmenting the long
sentence into shorter parts, while others maintain the same style as they are convinced that
conveying information is more important than the style.
Both methods are accepted, and in the present study; segmenting long sentences is used
when needed and accepted). Another problem is different word order in both languages Arabic
and English. One of the ways that can be used to solve this problem is addition or replacement.
For instance; changing word-order was used while translating the following sentence׃
“Acid is produced as a by-product of the metabolism of dietary carbohydrate by plaque bacteria,
which results in a drop in ph at tooth surface.”
� آ�� ����ي" 1�ه��رات ا�GQا��% 1�اسF% ا�PE اسO23ب�!���% ����ن ا�Pا��ا� �� �3 %EE�
� R�م�% وا�3� ان���ض درج% ا�,��ض% 8�4 سUF ا��6." ا�S�8دي ���ح% ا�
18
Another syntactic problem is related to ‘passive’ sentences that are commonly used in
medical texts; one of the methods to be used for solving this problem when rendering such
structures into Arabic is using "nominal sentences’.
For example; “Although it has been suggested that the main time that lesions remain confined
radiographically to the enamel is 3-4 years, there is a great individual variation and lesions may
even regress.” translated as:
ا/$�ت �)" م,+�رة آ�� �)' #�ر ا�&!% $� م,�? م���ء ا��6 ا�����د ��ن"8�4 ا� �7 م6
� K!1 ا�ح��ن ،إ5 أن هGا DEF��5 8�4 آ�$% ا�,�5ت ،س��ات 4-���3ة �3 اوح م�1�6 �$ �,�� LGه
"ا/$%.
19
Chapter Two: Problems of Technical Translation
II.1 Nature of Technical Translation
Al-Bataineh (2012: 11) deals with the major problems in medical translation; she has
translated about 30 pages of a medical book from English into Arabic and discussed the major
problems she encountered during the translation of this medical text. For her, paraphrasing is one
of the ways that can be used to render abbreviations in medical texts from the source text
(English) into the target text (Arabic).
Medical translation depends on the translators’ knowledge in the jargon they are dealing
with; Hann (2004: 8) states that the translator should use any available resources that may help in
the work. He argues that the translator should read about the topic he is translating, use bilingual
and monolingual dictionaries, use encyclopedias, etc.
Hann (1992:7) also says that technical translation differs from any other type of
translation; for example, there is a big difference between literary translation, which is more
concerned with style while technical translation is more concerned with transmitting the correct,
accurate, and brief information to the reader in a way that it can be useful to him. Hann (ibid: 10)
believes that effective and successful technical translators have to either study the specialized
field or personally attempt in another way to get the right knowledge in the relevant scientific
field of their translation.
20
Nassar (2002) studies the inconstancy in translating medical texts between both
languages, English and Arabic. He (ibid: 91-93) talks about two main problems in medical
translation: the lexical loss of meaning and non-lexical loss of meaning. The different features of
both languages, English and Arabic, lead to meaning loss at different levels of language. One
example is related to abbreviations, which are used abundantly in English medical texts, and
their equivalents cannot always be attained in Arabic.
II.2 Terminology
Al-Abd Al-Haq (1998: 66) points out that, terminology planning is “a process which
refers to activities and deliberate efforts to plan for corpus, status and acquisition of terms.”
Al-Bataineh (2012: 11) argues that, terminology is related to the “methods of collecting
terms and putting them into specialized dictionaries. It also refers to the theory that explains the
relationships between concepts and terms. Finally, terminology could be used to refer to the
words used in a special subject domain and have special meanings in their contexts in which they
are used.” In other words, terminology is the way of making a specialized dictionary, in which
terms are gathered; these terms are words that can be used specialized in a jargon.
In her study, Haddad (1997: 12) shows that many problems and obstacles are encountered
by translators of medical texts when translating from English into Arabic because Arabic
equivalents of English terms are not always attainable and are not always available. Her study
shows that the translation of medical terms should be standardized.
21
II.3 Borrowing and Arabicization
Borrowing is one of the translation methods. It is being used when there is no equivalent
in the target language. Bynon (1977: 217) says that lexical borrowing is “the transfer of lexical
material across language boundaries.”
Haspelmath and Tadmor (2009: 39) say “Loanwords are the most important type of
material borrowing, and loan translations (or claques) are an important type of structural
borrowing. A claque (or loan translation) is a complex lexical unit (either a single word or a
fixed phrasal expression) that was created by an item-by-item translation of complex source
unit.” In other words; loanwords are a kind of borrowing, while loan translation or claque is an
important kind of structural borrowing.
Riemer (2010: 505) says that, borrowing the words from other languages is a very
important resource of new words, which is called loanwords. It is done when one language adds
a word or morpheme from another language to its own.
Obeng and Hartford (2002:155) state that Arabicization addresses two objectives which
are; “standardization” and “development”.
Obeng and Hartford (2002: 156) claim that “Acquisition of Arabicisation refers to the
teaching-learning process, Arabic language spread, and adoption of Arabicization”.
22
Halloush (2000: 54) encountered the problems of Arabicization of medical terms in a
medical book; she concentrates on the standard of acceptability of Arabicized terms.
Suleiman (1985: 78) defines borrowing as transferring words from one language to
another. He summarizes the causes of borrowing: The need to designate new things; linguistic
factors such as low frequency of words; and the inclination to accept synonyms from other
languages such as borrowing when words or terms cannot be explained.
II.4 The Difficulty of Synonymy
Al- Bataineh (2012:11) states that “one considers two or more words synonymous if they
have similar meanings.”
Synonymy is a semantic relationship that exists between two or more words which are
differently spelled and have, more or less, the same meaning; examples:
Fast = Quick = Rapid
Big = Large
Dental caries = Tooth decay
Curative = Healing
Therapeutic = Curative
Iatric = Therapeutic
23
Lyons (1981: 446) points out that synonymy is “a relation which holds between lexical
items that share more or less the same meaning”.
Investigating the various types and degrees of synonymous terms, Storjohann (2010: 70)
suggests several definitions and classifications of such terms that refer to the degree of semantic
and pragmatic similarity between lexemes. Some of these classes are complete synonymy, and
partial synonymy. Storjohann maintains that synonymy is problematic because in some contexts,
it is difficult to determine the exact degree of inequality.
Cruse (1986: 88) states that “ ‘X’ is a cognitive synonym of ‘Y’ if ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are
syntactically identical, and any declarative grammatical sentence S containing ‘X’ has equivalent
truth-conditions to another sentence S (1), which is identical to S except that ‘X’ is replaced by
‘Y’.” he also gives the following examples:
Get = Receive
Start = Begin
Rababah (1995) investigates the problem of synonymy in translating English medical
terms from English into Arabic. He says that there are different factors that lead to this problem,
such as the absence of collaboration between Arab countries in unifying medical terms. He
mentions another factor; which is the lack of several adequate English-Arabic medical
dictionaries.
24
Chapter Three: The Translation from Arabic into
English
This chapter is a translation of the second chapter under the title of ‘Preventive and
community dentistry’ (pages 27-41) of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry.
Concentrating on the major lexical and syntactic problems encountered during the
translation process was taken into consideration.
25
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31
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32
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�%ا��راس�ت -2� ا��P��� �و��رآ ���'E�$ %آ�راس.
R�م�%ح��ض% دراس�ت م!�ل -3� ، ان) إ�8 م�,�8 س3��6 $� ���ح% ا�E3ا��� �� ا���� ا�,� و$$ ،
ا�+�,% ا��%�1�2.
ذان 1�اسF% أنE�ب ا��!�ة م�� �� ��h3 ��4 ���س. -4� ا�3��رب 8�4 ا�,��ان�ت ح�r �� إ]!�م ا�
� وا���Sول 64 ح�وث ا��3�س��� ) ا��3'� ا���Eأو ا� Z+2ا� Pوز (س Pا�� E3!� "P`1 L ن) ا �3�$
��ت خ�رج P" إن�3ج ا���وز ا��2رة 8�4 ��' P���$ tذ� Zإ�8 ج�ن ، Pم6 أن�اع ا�� L م�2رن% م� 7��Eآ
� R�م�% ا���ح%ا����% $��5!�� ذ�t ان ا�ن�اع ا�خ ى 7� م�Sو�% 64 ح�وث ا��3�س�ت ا����%. ا� .
52
ا��+!� ���آ'% ا��,Oة �!� �4مO ر���� ���� ا��3�س�ت ��ى نGآ 8�4 سE�" ا���Yل أن ا5سO'3ك ا����3
ة. PEاح" م ا�]��ل $� م
ا��1ام= م+تB( م� ا$�)? �4T= ت��BB ;� ح>وث ا����س:
وز، ج��آ�ز، $ �3P�ز، م�3�ز (ا�!�"). .1Pس
ج�5آ3�ز، 5آ3�ز. .2
3. .(�[�FEوا� ،�Eا�رز ، وا�� � ا��`���ت ا��!�2ة (مY" ا��`� $
وا��3 ة م�1�6 إن ا�!�ام" Pار ���ول ا�� P� :8�4 ��3!� P64 ���ول ا�� hح�وث ا��3�س ا���� � ة $RSا��
�Q� 6P�� .م�!Fو��وج% ا� Pا�� ��آ � ،�� ا��P�% ا����3و�% ح�Z ا��)�م ا�GQاP% ا���ى، آ� آ" م ة وأخ
%�� م6 خOل #��4 G7اP3�ي 8�4 ا��,� �� ا��G7% ا�3$ K�,از ا� أخ ى $� ا��جE% ا�3� درج% إ$
���3و�'� ا�`�_ أو $� G7ا�� P`1" �4م. �� ع ا�]!�% ا�3� �,�� ��$D ا��!�ب م6 ��4�% اس3!�دة م!�ل
R�م�% ا���ح% ح��ض%� ، و ا���ل ا�Pم6 ا�� ����رج% ا�EF�!�%. �`�" هLG ا�]!�%: ا��6E، و ا���Eن ا����
.Uا���� � ا���دان
وا�+,%: $� �4م Pأن 1989ا�� %� `Eاض ا� ��ت ا�GQا��% وا�مP��� %�EFا� ، ذآ ت ���% ا��!���
.%��Eا�� ��ت ا���رج�% 7�Pك ا��O'3% اس�ار وآ� P� د�% م� [ %\O!1 ?E� ���س ا�س��ن �
"!� ح�وث ز��دة $� ���ول ا��! ات ا�, ار�% وا�3� �Sدي �1وره� إ�8 ا����% ا��� ]% و�Pا�� ��,� �\
1? م�1�6 آ��% ا�`�_ 4� &�E" م�ا���م�% إ5 أن� �5�ج� د� Z�2اض ا� أو أمPض ا�� ض% ��
.%�EFا�,�5ت ا� LGه "Yوح�وث م Pك ا��O'3اس
53
:)���+و��+�� ا���Bت�اج> ا� )B�� �Dا����س ��اس@( خ � ا����4( م
��ول وج�Eت خ���% م�1�6 ا��ج�Eت �0خG ا�ه�اف ا���3�% $� 4�6 ا�E345ر ا�!�دات ا���R�,3% ا���#% 1ـ (�
:(%�����Q1ـ (ا� t�Gف آ ����%) وا�Gي �! ا�
م6 ا��G7% ا����3رة •Pزا�% ا���1 �\
\� �1س�E3ا�� �1,���ت h3��5 �4'� ���س •
��31ول أخ ى �2" ��31و�'� ا��1�2�% �,�وث ا��3�س. •P3�ي 8�4 ا��,� � �G7��1% ا�3�7
أو �!��" �4د م,�ود م6 ا��ج�Eت ا�����% ��Rرا إ���1�% م�,�{%. \� ���t� x ا�!�" 2$? 8�4��Q�
ي Pاب س ��ضU ا� س� ا�E��ن� ���,�8 س3��6 ان���ض م!�ل درج% ا�,��ض% و ا�Gي ��h3 64 ���ول &
��Eأ إزا�% Yأآ yذا م� ان����(آ�� �)' ا��'�). �`� ا��? ا���F23 إ�8 درج% ا�,��ض% ا�, ج%، $
، و إم�Pن�% �ن�3!ا�P3�ي 8�4 ا��,� � &P" ا���,�8 1!�د م6 ا�!�ام" �`�": ن�ع ا�]!�% ا�3R03� .
��ت.P�3 ه��'� 1!� #!�1% ا�3!�م" م� ا��� � ����6 ا��!�ب، و ا�]!�% وا��` و�1ت ا�3
54
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
pH
pH
55
Chapter four
Analysis, Discussion and Findings
4.1 Introduction
The main lexical and syntactic problem, encountered while translating about fifteen pages
of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry, were spotted. These, in fact, include problematic
words and sentences; I also attempt to explain the reasons of opting for the translation presented.
Adopting specific strategies is also discussed.
4.2 Lexical Problems
The present study discusses three lexical problems with their explanatory examples. The
lexical problems are related terminology, abbreviation, and inconsistency.
Since the present study deals with written medical text where the main purpose is
conveying facts and knowledge then both the language and the style must be formal. The
translator has to be conscious of the audience; i.e. whether they are specialists, students, or
laymen, and so on.
For instance; the medical term ‘Glass Ionomer’ if translated to students of dentistry then it is:
‘ا5س���3ت ا����%’
While if it is translated to laymen then it is rendered as:
‘ن�ع م6 أن�اع ا�,`�ات’
56
Another strategy that can be adopted is providing an explanation in a footnote. Below,
the main problems that translators of medical texts face are discussed when translating medical
texts from English into Arabic, in addition to the strategies adopted to dealing with them.
4.3 Terminological Inconsistency
Yaseen (2013:2) defines inconsistency as the lack of consistency in terms or assigning
different translations to the same terms of the source language through a text or across related
texts.
Translating medical synonyms needs special, accuracy and awareness of every single
word in the medical texts, since the same word has more than one designation, for example in the
medical text translated in this study the word dental calculus is translated as ‘ ا�س��ن � ج ’ or
‘U�23ا�’ .
Another example is translated in the present translated text is the word clinical which can
be translated as ‘ي � ’س or ‘�E[’ .
Renditions have to be accurate, and distinguished from each other in order to transmit
the information to the reader correctly, effectively and precisely, on the other hand to avoid any
misconception and to create a clear, ‘ambiguity free’ medical translated texts.
57
One should be aware that there are several things that lead to the production of synonyms
such as the translation of abbreviations; the translator has the choice either to translate the
abbreviation (what it stands for) or to transliterate the abbreviation itself, for example the
acronym. For instance, NICE, stands for the National Institute of Clinical Excellence; it could be
rendered as ‘vن��’ or the translator could translate it as
‘���3�� � ’ا�� آ� ا��]�
On this spirit; Rbabah (1995, 126) maintains that Arabic different accents lead to the
creation of synonymy. He gives an example; the medical term catheterization; according to
different dialects it is rendered as ‘ ةF�\’ or ‘ة FY\’.
On the other hand, Macklovitch (1995:1) argues that each terminological unit should
receive the same translation throughout the final text, so the readers are not unduly confused”.
Saraireh (2001: 49) points out that, standardizing is one of the ways to achieve a proper
communication among users of target language texts. He also says that consistency in
translation is a main reason for maintaining such standardization.
Standardization is the process of assigning only one term for each scientific concept so that
translators can avoid synonymy and any other factors that cause misconception, confusion and
ambiguity.
58
4.4 Medical Terms
One of the main lexical problems encountered by translators of medical texts is medical
terms. This problem arises from the difficulty and complexity of medical terms and the lack of
ready equivalents in the target language.
In this study; many terms with no Arabic equivalents were faced while translating the
medical text, yet there are several strategies deal this problem and open doors for the translators
enabling them to discover and find the equivalent for similar terms.
As mentioned earlier, many techniques can be used to enable the translator find the
suitable equivalent of the medical term in the target language some of them are mentioned
below:
1. Loanwords
Al-Qasmi (1985-130) defines loanwords as “transferring the foreign word together with
its meaning as it is without making any change or with some modification to make its
pronunciation consistent with the morphological and phonological systems of Arabic
language..”, for instance; the word ‘Durphat’ translated as ‘در$�ت’.
On the other hand Catford (1965: 66) says “In transliteration SL graghological units are
replaced by TL graphological units”. This strategy has been applied while translating the medical
text of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry, and below are some examples:
59
‘Fluoride’ translated as ‘ ��$��ر ’ ; ‘Duraphat’ as ‘در$�ت’ ; ‘Sodium fluoride’ as ‘ �� $��ر
’ا�+�د��م ; ‘Lysozyme’ as ‘ ’����ز�� ; ‘Lactoferritin’ as ‘6�3� ’5آ3�$� and ‘lactoperoxidase’
translated as ‘vوآ����� ’5آ1�3�
In other words, it is transferring the word from the source language to the target language,
without making any changes, using the SL alphabets in the TL.
2. Loan blends
It is the way in which one part is a loanword and the other is a native one.
For example ‘Antibodies’ which was translated as ‘ ’ا�ج��م ا����دة
3. Calque or Loan-translation
Danesi and Rocci (2009: 4) say that “the calquing process results from the fact that A is
aware of only one meaning of the word affair”
In this regard, Richards and Schmidt (2013: 346) define calque as “a type of borrowing, in
which each morpheme or word is translated into the equivalent morpheme or word in another
language.”
60
4. Compounding
It is when a group of words in target language used to represent a concept mentioned in
the source language. For instance the term ‘Mouthrinses’ are translated as
‘ ’�7�ل ا���
5. Abbreviations
Many problems were encountered in translating English medical abbreviations used in
Oxford Handbook into Arabic of Clinical Dentistry. For instance, the abbreviation (GI ) stands
for Glass Ionomer which has no abbreviated equivalent in Arabic. Therefore, transliteration can
be used. On the other hand it can be rendered as ‘%�س���3ت ا���mا’, that is, it can be translated by
rendering the words for which the abbreviation stands into Arabic.
Using this strategy depends on who the readers are, if the readers are specialists;
transliteration can be used, but if the readers are not specialists (laymen) then the abbreviation is
translated by explaining its meaning.
Another example is (ADJ) which stands for ‘amelo-dentinal junction’. (ADJ) is
transliterated as ‘ �‘ and translated as ’ا�� دي ج���’ا���#" ا�!�ج� ا�����
Below, a group of medical abbreviations with their transliteration and translation
(mentioned after consulting many different references):
61
Medical Abbreviation and their Transliteration and Translation
Abbreviation
Stands for
Transliteration
Translation
OH
Oral Hygiene
gأو ات
MDا� ) ص
IO
Intra-oral
hي أو
MDداخ= ا�
RX
Treatment
iر إآh
ا�F1ج
GI
Glass Ionomer
ج� hي
)�� ا� :�ات اZس
62
4.5 Syntactic Problems
Syntactic problem in medical translation, is considered one of the major problems that
face translator of medical texts from English into Arabic. This study concentrates on the
following syntactic problems:
4.5.1 Using Long Sentences
The sentences of English medical texts are long and complicated. Therefore, these
sentences could be problematic to translators of medical texts. As a result translators tend to
segment long sentences into short ones so the reader is being able to gain benefits and get
information from the translated text, not distracted. For instance; ‘Rate of progression of caries:
Although it has been suggested that the main time that lesions remain confined radiographically
to the enamel is 3-4 years, there is a great individual variation and lesions may even regress.’
" �م!�ل ن�� ا��3�س: 8�4 ا� �7 م6 ا�2345د 01ن ا/$�ت �)" م,+�رة آ�� �)' #�ر ا�&!% $
هGا DEF��5 8�4 آ�$% ا�,�5ت؛ $�� K!1 ا�ح��ن إ5 أن ،س��ات 4-3م,�? م���ء ا��6 ���ة �3 اوح م�1�6
".هLG ا/$% ��,�
63
4.5.2 Using Adjective Clauses
To translate adjective clauses different ways can be followed:
• Translating an adjective clause into the target language using an equivalent relative
pronoun for instance:
‘A higher fluoride is bound to protein in plaque. A drop in pH results in release of free ionic
fluoride, which augments these actions.’
و��6 م!�ل ا�,��ض%، � �E? ا����ر��4 ار���ع ’E��1 ��<اج�� R�م�% ا����,%$� ا�� رإ�8 مSد��. ا�,�
‘هLG ا���3�h. ��1وره �!�ز ��وا��� ذات ا���ن�ت ا�, ة ����را
• Translating an adjective clause into a noun phrase, for example;
‘For children considered to be at high risk of caries and who live on areas with water supplies
containing less than 0.3 ppm’.
4 ض% ���3�س ن’ Yون أآ E3!� 6�Gأ ��1]��ل ا��Ejkوأو� D[م�� ��,3�ي $�'� ا����L 8�4 ا��F2� 6�G�ن $
‘.ج�ء م6 ا�����ن ��0.3 �2" 64 ن�E% $��ر
4.5.3 Word-order of Arabic & English sentences
Both languages; (Arabic and English, differ in word order, this difference causes a
problem in translating from English into Arabic and vice versa. The both languages differ in
word-order (basic order), Arabic sentence basic word-order is Verb- Subject- Object. On the
other hand, it is Subject- Verb-Object in English. Even there is a difference between them
concerning the noun phrase since the adjective comes before the head noun in English, while it
64
follows the head noun in Arabic, as a result; it has to be mentioned that the change of word order
when translating between the language must be achieved and attained.
To solve this problem many strategies can be applied to handle the difference in
syntactic structure such as deletion, substitution, deletion, permutation and insertion. In the
preset study permutation and insertion are discussed as they are needed in translating medical
texts.
4.5.3.1 Permutation
This strategy means changing the word order of a sentence of the source language
texts when translating them into target language. The following are examples on permutation
used while translating the English text of Oxford Handbook on Clinical Dentistry into Arabic:
‘A drop in pH results in release of free ionic fluoride’
‘ ا���ن�ت ا�, ة و!�ل درج% ا�,��ض% إ�8 ن` ا����ر�� ذ�Sدي ا5ن���ض $� م ’
4.5.3.2 Addition or Insertion
This strategy means adding one or more lexical items so the meaning is conveyed
better in the target language; below are some examples:
‘For children considered to be at high risk of caries and who live on areas with water supplies
containing less than 0.3 ppm’
65
’’ 4 ض% ���3�س وأو��t ا��F2� 6�G�ن $� م��]B� D>أ Yون أآ E3!� 6�G8�4 ��1]��ل ا� L��'� ا���3�ي $,�
‘ج�ء م6 ا�����ن ��0.3 �2" 64 ن�E% $��ر
One can notice that adding the verb )أ�Eن ( in the translation has converted it from
Nominal into a Verbal sentence.
‘Children should brush twice daily using a fluoride toothpaste’
’O'� ن أس��ن �,3�ي 8�4 ا�]��ل�� ‘ا����را��. م�دة(�31�x أس��ن'� م ��6 ��م�� �1س��3ام م!
‘Fluoridation of water still remains the most cost-effective method’
’Z3!2% $��رة ر�� Fا� L��وا�\"ا�� �� ق. ����P% �2���1رن% م� 7� ه ا�نFم6 ا� ‘
4.5.4 Voice: Active – Passive
English prefers using passive in scientific and technical writing. Whereas using active
is preferred in Arabic. Therefore, different strategies were used to solve this problem while
translating English passive sentences into Arabic.
a. Translating passive sentences into Arabic using nominal sentences as in the following
example:
‘May be prescribed for children deemed to be at risk’.
ا$آ,+�+*(�j]��ل \� ��3 و#�� ’F���.‘
66
b. Translating agentless passive sentences ( i.e. passive sentences without a ‘by-phrase’ and
without an explicit subject) using (�3��3/ ��/ س�) with the passive form of the verb, i.e. past
participle, or using verbal noun of the verb; for instance:
‘Germ-free rodents fed a cariogenic diet do not develop caries but following the introduction of
streptococcus mutants carries occur’
’ �� ح�6 ح�ث ا��3�س 1�3�1!% م��EE ���3�سG7اء إ.�1م�Q ت�4Mم ح�وث أي ���س ��ى ا�2�ارض ا�3$
�'3�GQ� 8�4 3�ي,� � ا�3#��!��1��Rا � ‘. ا�
‘Root caries has been associated with Strep.’
’ �\Lر� Mن�ت ت�P�1 ورG� اR�����س�ت ا�� اR��).ا�� ‘ ، وا��!�ب، وا��P�ن�ت ا�`!¢�% (ج�v م6 ا�
In the previous examples, the (voice: active – passive) problem, was solved by using a
nominal sentence and adding (��) to the verbal noun of the verb.
As a result, adopting easy and simple translation strategies, such as: (transliteration,
paraphrasing, loanwords, using nominal sentences, etc.) in translating medical texts; help the
translator to avoid problems.
67
Chapter five
Summery, Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Summary
Many obstacles are normally encountered by translators of medical texts from English
into Arabic. However, there are several strategies that translators can use and apply to solve the
problems of translating medical texts. In this study, three lexical problems, which are medical
terms, abbreviations and inconsistency were discussed. Strategies such as borrowing (with its
several forms and techniques) and Arabicization were used to translate this medical text taken
from Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry into Arabic.
Medical abbreviations that have no equivalents in Arabic could be translated either by
paraphrasing or transliterating. In addition, this study attempted to solve the syntactic problems
encountered while translating the medical text, especially long sentences of English medical
texts (solved by segmenting the long sentences into shorter ones), voice: active/ passive (solved
by using nominalization), adjective clauses (avoided by using relative pronouns) and word-order
of Arabic and English sentences. Finally, the problem of differences between Arabic and English
structures, was solved using permutation and addition.
68
5.2 Conclusion
The study concludes that:
1. Ready equivalent for some medical terms hardly exist.
2. Transliteration is an easy way of translating medical abbreviations, though not always the best
option.
3. Most of the Arabicized medical terms are not used since they are not accepted by the target
language receivers, as mentioned previously the word (catheterization), is now being translated
into (ة F�\) instead of (ة FY\).
4. Borrowing, in addition to its forms and techniques, is a good solution for medical terms that
do not have obvious and ready-made equivalents.
5. Arabicization of medical terms that have no adequate equivalents is problematic and yields an
unpleasant outcome because (of): the rapid development in technical scientific and medical
fields; any Arabicized terms have not been favored and accepted by language receivers and lack
of unification of the Arabic equivalents of medical terms in different dictionaries.
6. In medical, technical and scientific translation, the translator should be aware of transforming
the information as the aim of this translation in conveying information.
7. One of the problems encountered by translators, is choosing the correct medical equivalent
synonym.
8. The main source of medical Arabic synonymy is the lack of unification.
9. To be an effective medical translator, one should be a specialist or have a vast background
about the subject being translated.
69
5.3 Recommendations
On the basis of the findings of this study, these recommendations can be presented:
1. Arab universities should include courses in technical and medical translation in departments of
translation.
2. Documentation of Arabicized medical terms.
3. Unifying the Arabicized medical terminology.
4. Mutual collaboration between Arabicization institutions in Arab countries.
5. Other studies have to be conducted concerning other lexical and syntactic problems
encountered by translators of medical texts translation.
6. Principles of translating medical terminology should be taught to medical translators in advance.
7. More research in this area has to be done.
==========================================
70
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Electronic Sources
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75
Appendix