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University of Petra Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of English/ Translation (MA in Translation) Arabic Translation of the Second Chapter of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry: Lexical and Syntactic Problems ا ا ايین ا ا رد أوآ و: یت ا ا واMA Dissertation Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for MA In Translation at the University of Petra April 2014 By Eman Adnan Eibayat Supervisor: Dr. Nafez Shammas

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Page 1: Arabic Translation of the Second Chapter of Oxford ... Adnan...Name Signature 1. ----- 2 ... Nihal Ameira, the Head of the ... Arabic Translation of a Chapter of the 4th Edition of

University of Petra Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of English/ Translation (MA in Translation)

Arabic Translation of the Second Chapter of

Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry:

Lexical and Syntactic Problems

ا����� �� �� � ا����ن ا���ی�يا������ ا������ ��: و��% أوآ��!رد �

وا���,��� ا��+*(ت ا��'!ی�

MA Dissertation

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for

MA In Translation at the University of Petra

April 2014

By

Eman Adnan Eibayat

Supervisor: Dr. Nafez Shammas

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Arabic Translation of the Second Chapter

of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry:

Lexical and Syntactic Problems

Submitted by Eman Adnan Saleh Eibayat

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in English Language/

Translation

The thesis is approved by

Committee Chair …………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Examining committee

Name Signature

1. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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ii

Dedication

To my Father, Mother, Husband & the soft part of my heart, Eileen

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iii

Acknowledgments

All thanks are due to Allah, Who has always been my guidance in everything;

thanks to Him for giving me patience to finish this work as it is considered the first

step of fulfilling my dreams.

I would like to express my appreciation and gratitude to “my Supervisor, Dr.

Nafez Shammas”, for his efforts, support, and encouragement, not only in the course

of the present study but also during the entire period of my MA study.

Thanks and appreciation are due to the committee members; Dr. Nafez shammas

Prof. Abdullah Shunnaq , Prof. Ahmad Kotob and Prof. Soleiman Ahmad.

Special thanks go to my father, mother, sisters and brother for their prayers and

support all the time. To my loving husband, who is more myself than I am, to my

precious daughter Eileen who has taught me how to be a Mom and a student; to my

sister: Dr. Nour for helping me in medical issues, to my cousin Dr. Linda Al-Khawaja

for her assistance in this work; to my dearest friend Fatin, for helping me translate the

medical text. Finally, all my teachers in the Department of English, particularly Dr.

Nihal Ameira, the Head of the Department, who instilled confidence and challenge for

producing better work into me.

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iv

Abstract

This study tackles the main lexical and syntactic problems encountered by translators

of medical texts from English into Arabic, in order to identify the problems faced by

translators and resolve them. Fifteen pages of Oxford Handbook of Clinical

Dentistry, written by, Laura Mitchell and David A. Mitchell, have been translated into

Arabic.

Medical terms, terminological inconsistency and medical abbreviations in addition to

syntactic problems such as word-order, voice: passive/ active and adjective clauses

cause obstacles to translators who translate medical texts.

Several strategies were adopted to end up with an effective Arabic translation and find

solutions for the lexical and syntactic problems mentioned above. Permutations and

additions were used to solve the problem of 'differences' of word-order between both

languages English and Arabic. Finally, it was concluded that, the lack of

standardization of the Arabicization of medical terms pose a thorny, problematic and

unpleasant issue, and to end up with an effective medical translation, the translator

should have background of the jargon with which he is dealing, this can be achieved

by asking specialists, consulting dictionaries, databases, encyclopedias and other

sources of knowledge. It was also found that, borrowing and its different forms are a

way to translate medical texts and abbreviations that have no equivalents in Arabic.

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v

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Table of Contents

Page

Dedication ii

Acknowledgments iii

Abstract in English iv

Abstract In Arabic v

Table of Contents vi

Chapter one: Introductory Materials 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 The Role of Translation 1

1.3 Scientific and Technical Translation 2

1.4 Features of Technical Writing 3

1.5 Aim of Technical Writing and Scientific Translation 5

1.6 Technical Medical Translators’ Role 5

1.7 Equivalence 6

1.8 Technical Translation and Equivalence 7

1.9 Technical Dictionaries Role in Technical Translation 8

1.10 Synonymy 8

1.11 Types of Synonymy 9

1.12 Translation and Terminology 10

1.13 The Origin of Terminology 12

1.14 Statement of the Problem 13

1.15 Purpose of the Study 14

1.16 Research Question 14

1.17 A Glimpse of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry 15

1.18 Methodology 15

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Chapter two: Literature Review 19

Chapter three: Arabic Translation of a Chapter of the 4th Edition of Oxford

Handbook of Clinical Dentistry 24

Chapter Four: Analysis, Discussion and Findings 55

4.1 Introduction 55

4.2 Lexical Problems 55

4.3 Terminological Inconsistency 56

4.4 Medical Terms 58

4.5 Syntactic Problems 62

4.5.1Using Long Sentences 62

4.5.2 Using Adjective Clauses 63

4.2.3 Word-Order of Arabic and English Sentences 63

4.5.4 Voice: Passive / Active 65

Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendations 67

5.1 Summary 67

5.2 Conclusion 68

5.3 Recommendation 69

Bibliography 70

Appendix: The 2nd Chapter of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry 75

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Chapter one: Theoretical Background

1.1 Introduction

Language is a communicative bridge that connects people. It plays a significant role in

transferring thoughts, information and knowledge. It is important for science and technology

development. However, because of language, too many problems and difficulties may encounter

translators in general, and translators of, scientific and technical texts, in particular. This study

concentrates on medical translation and its lexical and syntactic problems.

1.2 The Role of Translation

The role of translation was discussed a lot, Miremadi (1991:21) says: “Without

translation, our world would narrow mercilessly” thus, translation plays a vital role in life; it is a

gateway to understand others and communicate with them.

On this regard Catford (1965,vii) states that “translation is an activity of enormous

importance in the modern world and it is a subject of interest not only to linguists, professionals,

amateur translators and language teachers, but also to electric engineers and mathematicians.”

To him, translation is finding an equivalent for the source text in the target text syntactically and

lexically.

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On the same topic House (2009:3) defines translation as the replacement of an original

text by another text. Not too differently, Catford (1965: 20) says that Translation is the

replacement of textual material in source language by equivalent textual material in the target

language.

Robinson (1997:49) points out; translation is an intelligent activity that involves

complicated processes of conscious and unconscious learning.

In short, translation is rendering a text into another language; it is the use of two

languages to render the same text, i.e. the essential meaning of the source language text. In other

words, translation is finding an equivalence of the source text (ST) in the target text (TT).

1.3 Scientific and Technical Translation

On one hand; Byrne (2006:1) says that “Technical translation has long been regarded as

the ugly duckling of translation, especially in academic circles.” On the other hand; it is the

bridge which people need to know and transmit Knowledge and information.

The present dissertation attempts to approach the problems of medical translation which

is an important part of technical and scientific translation. The researcher believes that many

obstacles are normally encountered by translators; one of them is that equivalence is not always

achievable in medical translation. Therefore, strategies to solve problems in translating medical

texts were explored to find out the best solutions.

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Medical translation is a sensitive field; it needs medical backgrounds (not enough alone)

in addition to knowledge of the theories which can be applied in translating scientific and

technical texts.

Newmark (1988:151) says that technical and scientific language differs from non-

technical one; technical translation is connotations and metaphor free.

To Montalt (2011: 82-83) medical translation refers to a specific type of scientific and

technical translation which focuses on medicine and fields concerning health and disease like

nursing, public health, , psychiatry, psychology, molecular, genetics.

1.4 Features of Technical Writing

Technical writing aims at documentation, efficiency and accuracy. Below are the features

of technical writing as mentioned by Soles, et al., (2010:22):

• Accuracy: technical writing must be accurate and error free; the information must be correct,

accurate, true and validated.

• Thoroughness: that means that technical writing depends on the quantity of information i.e. the

information should be complete noting that technical writers can use their experience to deliver

the whole information.

• Relevance: the content must be related to the topic and not distracting the reader from the

intended message.

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• Good organization: the information must be well organized; it must be ordered and arranged

correctly and logically to avoid making gaps between ideas and leading to confusion among

readers.

• Brevity: it means delivering full information using as few words as much as possible. Technical

writing should be to the point.

• Correctness: technical writing must be correct in terms of spelling, punctuations, grammar and

syntax.

Thus, it could be mentioned that if a person wants to write a technical text he has to do

several things, such as choosing a specific technical topic like Law, Science, Healthcare,

Medicine, Astronomy, …etc. He also should have a specific aim for his writing. He should be

aware of the characteristics of technical writing i.e. a technical text conveys a technical scientific

information related to the field of writing, it is emotions free, it must be concise to attract the

readers not to distract them, it must be formal and written for a specific category such as

scientists, professionals and specialists. In this regard; Wells, et al., (2008:5) say: “To convey

information effectively, technical communication must be accurate, clear, and concise. If the

audience cannot understand or use the information presented, the writer has failed in his or her

purpose.”

McMorrow (1998:19) states that technical writing is defined by its content which should be

related to scientific and technological matters. Lexis is another characteristic of technical writing

since the content introduces specific words and terms that suit the technical nature of the text,

and focuses on the content rather than focusing on writer’s feelings or emotions.

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1.5 Aim of Technical and Scientific Translation

Technical and scientific translation aims at transmitting technical and scientific

information to the target language audience. In this respect Pinchuk (1977:18) states that

technical translation aims at transmitting technical information in addition to all relevant

information to the reader so he can use the information simply and conveniently.

1.6 Technical Medical Translators’ Role

Chabner (2010:3) asserts that: “Studying medical terminology is very similar to learning

a new language. At first the words sound strange and complicated, although they may stand for

commonly known disorders and terms.”

In short, medical language is like a new language. It is difficult, complicated at the

beginning, and it needs to be studied so that the translator could be familiar with medical terms.

The translator has to maintain the features of technical texts; he should convey the information of

the source text and transmit the information correctly, clearly, briefly and in a way which serves

the reader.

Wells et al. (2008:7) maintains that an effective translator must take into consideration

three things so he could maintain the source text first, to determine the purpose of the technical

text (which is designed to be useful and practical). In other words, what it is being used for; if the

translator knows the purpose of the source text he can easily determine the needed style and

format. Next, the technical translator needs to know the readers’ type this will help the

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communicator to meet the readers’ needs. Last but not least, the technical communicator must

determine context to know the appropriate formats. If he fails to determine the context this will

lead to misconception and the message will not be understood correctly.

Medical translation is a very sensitive activity; any mistakes in medical translation could

be a hazard to human life. Sofer (2006:107) states, “While physicians are notorious for their poor

hand writing and hard-to-decipher transmission of medical information, the task of the translator

is to render medically related data in a clear and concise fashion, with the highest degree of

accuracy.”

1.7 Equivalence

Equivalence plays a vital role in the translation process. In this regard, Newmark (1988:

47) points out that “it has sometimes been said that the overriding purpose of any translation

should be to achieve 'equivalent effect', i.e. to produce the same effect 'or one as close as possible

on the readership of the translation as has obtained on the readership of the original. This is also

called the 'equivalent response' principle.”

On the same topic, Popovič, according to Bassnett (1988: 32), distinguishes four types of

equivalence:

(1) Linguistic equivalence: word for word translation.

(2) Paradigmatic equivalence, where there is a paradigmatic equivalence he considers it as

being a higher category than lexical equivalence.

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(3) Stylistic –translational- equivalence, the existence of ‘functional equivalence of elements in

both ST and translation aims at maintaining the identical meaning.

(4) Textual (syntagmatic) equivalence it is the existence of form and shape equivalence.

On the other hand; Farghal and Shunnaq (2009:5) mention two types of equivalence:

formal equivalence which aims at keeping the form of the SL expression, it seeks transferring the

function of the SL expressions independently of the form; and ideational equivalence which aims

at conveying the sense of the ST independently of the form, they also argue that the equivalence

is affected by three factors which are: author, text and audience; For example, in medical

translation, it is appropriate to focus on formal (functional) equivalence in authoritative texts.

1.8 Technical Translation and Equivalence

Byrne (2006: 29-30) says that “since technical translation is a communicative service

aimed at providing information to a new audience, the concentration on the source text and not

on those involved in the communication means that a crucial part of the translation situation is

simply not considered. If we do not consider the purpose of the communication, it will be

difficult, if not impossible, to tell whether it was successful.”

Translators encounter many problems when it comes to implementing the equivalence

typologies; in other words, it should be known that the equivalence in technical texts is not

always attainable on all levels.

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1.9 Technical Dictionaries Role in Technical Translation

Specialized technical dictionaries are useful for technical translators, since they provide

translators with a precious source of terms, abbreviations and synonyms. Translators depend on technical

dictionaries a lot. But good translators have to expand their knowledge by reading, asking specialists,

using encyclopedias, etc. On this topic Hann (2004:8) says that technical translators use all the available

resources that may help in their work.

1.10 Synonyms

Synonyms are words that have similar meanings, these words are found in many different

fields but it should be mentioned that sometimes and to some translators choosing the right

synonym could be difficult or problematic.

Hurford et al. (2007:106) define synonymy as “the relationship between two predicates

that have the same (partial) sense”

On this topic Riemer (2010:66) points out that synonymy is being used to define words

either in the same language or in a different one, whereas Talasiewicz (2009: 72) defines it as

“logical or analytic equivalence: two names are synonymous when their equivalence is not

accidentally empirically true, but it is an inevitable result of so-called meaning postulates of the

language.”

Quine (1961:22), defines synonyms as, “the primary business of the theory of meaning”.

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To Maienborn et al. (2011: 461), “Synonymy between two words involves sameness of

sense and two words may be defined as synonyms if they are mutually hyponymous”.

Cruse (1986: 62) clarifies that synonyms are those “lexical items whose senses are

identical in respect of central semantic traits, but differ, if at all, only in respect of what we may

provisionally describe as minor or peripheral traits”.

1.11 Types of Synonymy

Some types of synonyms are mentioned briefly below:

1. Lexical synonymy

Ullmann (1957:72- 160) argues that complete synonyms only exist in technical

terminology, i.e. infrequent technical terms are totally interchangeable.

Cruse (1986:265) states, “some pairs of synonyms are more ‘synonymous’ than others.”

2. Referential synonyms:

In this regard, Newmark (1988:103) points out: “The problems of translating referential

synonyms are sufficiently well known. They may be used (a) to avoid repetition, (b) to secure

cohesion, (c) because (as above) the author writes badly, (d) in the interest of redundancy, to

expand the text.”

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3. Grammatical Synonymy:

Newmark (1968: 103) argues that the translator is usually allowed to move towards better

naturalness.

4. Speaker synonymy:

Meyer (2007: 67) maintains that speaker synonymy occurs when words are not synonyms

in dictionaries but in the speakers’ intends.

5. Absolute synonymy:

Cruse (1986:268) explains that absolute synonymy, if it at all exists, is between words

that have the same meaning in any contexts; they have identical meanings because of their

“contextual relations”.

1.12 Translation and Terminology

Translation and terminology have communicative basis, this activity is used to transfer

specialized thoughts and information, from one language to another, so as to translate technical

and scientific texts; it is favourable to talk about the essential concepts of terminology.

Darwish(1988: 30) defines terminology as, “the process, methodologies and activities

which produce or standardize terms and the actual outcome of these activities-that is the terms

themselves.”

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Zanón (2011:7) explains terminology as the study of terms and the way they are being used;

he assures that the word “terminology” has three different meanings:

1. A group of terms that belongs to a specific specialized field.

2. An activity that is performed by terminologists.

3. A “theoretical discipline”.

General translation needs reproduction of the source text in the target text being aware of

transferring not only the content but also the style; that is achieved by reading the source text and

understanding it very well; then, translators can start doing their job by transferring the message

from the source language to that of the target text.

Zanón (2011:14) argues, when it comes to specialized translation; translators face many

problems originated from none general text.

He also mentions that in order to translate ‘for example’ a medical text; the translator should:

1. Understand the source text.

2. Specify the medical linguistic terms which are related to the jargon with which he is dealing.

3. Being able to start translating; but this level needs figuring out the style, content, equivalent

and having a vast knowledge and information about the field with which the translator is dealing,

and all can be accomplished by: searching, reading, asking specialists, using encyclopedias,

glossaries, databases, etc. It must be taken into account that using monolingual and bilingual

dictionaries is not enough.

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1.13 The Origin of Terminology

When all doors are knocked, all available resources are consulted; if the equivalent is still

unavailable, then following the steps mentioned below will be acceptable:

Paraphrasing; creating new terms using the rules of word formation such as derivation.

Borrowing and loanwords; this point has been discussed by many linguists; it is the process in

which people borrow words and terms when the equivalent is not found in the target language.

Zanón (2011: 25) defines borrowing as “words coming from other languages”.

In this regard, Hock (1991: 382) says that lexical borrowing is “the adoption of individual

words or even of large sets of vocabulary items from another language or dialect.” He (ibid)

gives an example: “if a woman is said to put on rouge”. In this sentence rouge is an example of

borrowing from the French language.

Bloomfield (1933:444) defines linguistic borrowing as: “the adaptation of features which

differ from those of the main tradition”.

Loanwords; in other words ‘Arabicization’. Al-Abd Al-Haq (1998:55) defines

Arabicization as “literally rendering something Arabic or to Arab”.

Benabdi (1980: iii), states that Arabicization is “the deliberate effort to spread the use of

classical Arabic.”

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El-Mouloudi (1986: 121), argues that “ Arabization . . . in its most general senses refers

to the cultivation and extensive use of Arabic as the language. It covers broad issues such as

language and nationalism language as medium of instruction, scientific research administrative

and social Activities . . . In its most restrictive sense, Arabization refers to the assimilation and

integration of foreign scientific and technical terminology by means of borrowing or translation.”

In his point of view, Al-Abd Al-Haq (1998: 57) says that “Arabicization planning refers

to conscious efforts to influence the behaviors of others with regards to: the status, corpus and

acquisition of Arabic.”

Furthermore, successful Arabicization should proceed from status to corpus and to

acquisition, i.e. in a sequential order.

1.14 Statement of the Problem

Technical translators face different problems while translating medical texts from English

into Arabic. This dissertation attempts to shed light on the main lexical and syntactic problems

encountered by technical and scientific translators in general, and translators of medical texts, in

particular.

In this study a medical text was translated from English into Arabic, the lexical and

syntactic problems in medical translation were spotted and discussed, and different strategies that

the translators can use for technical and scientific translation were discussed.

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The researcher strongly believes that this study is one of the first studies that follow this

method of research, which deals with translation problems on both theoretical and practical

levels, since it is supported by a translated medical text.

1.15 Purpose of the Study

This study deals with lexical and syntactic problems encountered by translators of

medical texts from English into Arabic. Moreover, it concentrates on the applicable strategies

and theories that translators can apply and use in translating medical texts.

1.16 Research Question

This study attempts to at answer the following questions:

1. What are the main syntactic and lexical problems encountered by Arab translators in the case

of translating English medical texts into Arabic?

2. How can translators avoid such problems?

3. What methods should translators adopt to produce appropriate medical translation?

4. What are the best applicable strategies and theories that can help translators with medical

texts?

Hypothesis: Clinical Dentistry texts are a special case of language, which requires a special care

on both practical and theoretical levels in translating from English into Arabic.

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1.17 A glimpse of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry (Fourth Edition)

Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry contains useful facts and practical guidelines

experienced by dental students who are introduced to real patients at early level of their

undergraduate course in order to fulfill the requirements of the training course.

This book does not deal only with all the aspects of dentistry; it is also useful in everyday

medical practice. The first edition was published in 1991. Following the first edition, five more

editions were published, one of which translated in this dissertation; is the fourth edition,

published in 2005.

It consists of eighteen chapters covering: oral medicine, maxillofacial surgery, syndromes

of head and neck, analgesia, anesthesia and sedation. The handbook was written by Laura

Mitchell who is (a Member of the Board of the Faculty of Dental Surgery of the Royal College

of Surgeons of England) and David A. Mitchell who is (An elected council member of the

British Association of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgeons).

1.18 Method

About fifteen pages of the medical book Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry, written

by Laura Mitchell and David A. Mitchell, were translated into Arabic to support the issues

discussed in the present study. The translated pages talk about dental caries; this book was

chosen because of its richness in terminology, acronyms, and because it contains dental jargon.

Moreover, it includes an important type of knowledge and scientific facts. Some main difficulties

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encountered by Arab translators in dealing with medical texts were also faced while translating

the English texts into Arabic as presented in this study.

Lexical and syntactic problems are discussed. One of the lexical problems was medical

synonymy. Synonyms are words that have the same sense or meaning. In medical translation

this problem confuses the translator since he cannot choose or know the best equivalent.

For example, the expression of ‘dental caries’ can possibly have more than one translation; for

example, it can be translated as س ا�س��ن��� or ا�س��ن .ن�

But professional translators are those who choose the best one contextually. It is known

that problems of technical and scientific translation depend on the translators’ knowledge of the

translated subject. Another example that is worthy of attention is the term ‘Fluoride’ , which

does not have an equivalent in Arabic so it is translated as ‘ ’ا����ر�� . It must also be mentioned

that the equivalent of the source language term is a phrase or a definition in the target language;

one example is ‘IgA ’ which is translated as ‘ا����د إي ���’ا� .

Another problem in the technical and medical jargon is related to abbreviations, there is

not a ready equivalent for abbreviations in the target language, i.e. Arabic; so paraphrasing or

transliteration can be used to render abbreviations such as ADJ meaning ‘�� .’ا���#" ا�!�ج� ا�����

Syntactic features of English medical texts lead to problems when translating into Arabic.

English medical language has long, complicated sentences; so, translators encounter problems

while translating medical English texts into Arabic. For example, the sentence ‘Rate of

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progression of caries: Although it has been suggested that the main time that lesions remain

confined radio-graphically to the enamel is 3-4 years, there is a great individual variation and

lesions may even regress.’. It was translated as:

�"م!�ل ن�� ا��3�س: 8�4 ا� �7 م6 ا�2345د 01ن ا/$�ت �)" م,+�رة آ�� �)' #�ر ا�&!% $

� K!1 ا�ح��ن ، وإ5 أن هGا DEF��5 8�4 آ�$% ا�,�5ت ،س��ات 4-3م,�? م���ء ا��6 ���ة �3 اوح م�1�6 $

".هLG ا/$% ��,�

Some translators deal with ‘the problems of long-sentences’ by segmenting the long

sentence into shorter parts, while others maintain the same style as they are convinced that

conveying information is more important than the style.

Both methods are accepted, and in the present study; segmenting long sentences is used

when needed and accepted). Another problem is different word order in both languages Arabic

and English. One of the ways that can be used to solve this problem is addition or replacement.

For instance; changing word-order was used while translating the following sentence׃

“Acid is produced as a by-product of the metabolism of dietary carbohydrate by plaque bacteria,

which results in a drop in ph at tooth surface.”

� آ�� ����ي" 1�ه��رات ا�GQا��% 1�اسF% ا�PE اسO23ب�!���% ����ن ا�Pا��ا� �� �3 %EE�

� R�م�% وا�3� ان���ض درج% ا�,��ض% 8�4 سUF ا��6." ا�S�8دي ���ح% ا�

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Another syntactic problem is related to ‘passive’ sentences that are commonly used in

medical texts; one of the methods to be used for solving this problem when rendering such

structures into Arabic is using "nominal sentences’.

For example; “Although it has been suggested that the main time that lesions remain confined

radiographically to the enamel is 3-4 years, there is a great individual variation and lesions may

even regress.” translated as:

ا/$�ت �)" م,+�رة آ�� �)' #�ر ا�&!% $� م,�? م���ء ا��6 ا�����د ��ن"8�4 ا� �7 م6

� K!1 ا�ح��ن ،إ5 أن هGا DEF��5 8�4 آ�$% ا�,�5ت ،س��ات 4-���3ة �3 اوح م�1�6 �$ �,�� LGه

"ا/$%.

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Chapter Two: Problems of Technical Translation

II.1 Nature of Technical Translation

Al-Bataineh (2012: 11) deals with the major problems in medical translation; she has

translated about 30 pages of a medical book from English into Arabic and discussed the major

problems she encountered during the translation of this medical text. For her, paraphrasing is one

of the ways that can be used to render abbreviations in medical texts from the source text

(English) into the target text (Arabic).

Medical translation depends on the translators’ knowledge in the jargon they are dealing

with; Hann (2004: 8) states that the translator should use any available resources that may help in

the work. He argues that the translator should read about the topic he is translating, use bilingual

and monolingual dictionaries, use encyclopedias, etc.

Hann (1992:7) also says that technical translation differs from any other type of

translation; for example, there is a big difference between literary translation, which is more

concerned with style while technical translation is more concerned with transmitting the correct,

accurate, and brief information to the reader in a way that it can be useful to him. Hann (ibid: 10)

believes that effective and successful technical translators have to either study the specialized

field or personally attempt in another way to get the right knowledge in the relevant scientific

field of their translation.

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Nassar (2002) studies the inconstancy in translating medical texts between both

languages, English and Arabic. He (ibid: 91-93) talks about two main problems in medical

translation: the lexical loss of meaning and non-lexical loss of meaning. The different features of

both languages, English and Arabic, lead to meaning loss at different levels of language. One

example is related to abbreviations, which are used abundantly in English medical texts, and

their equivalents cannot always be attained in Arabic.

II.2 Terminology

Al-Abd Al-Haq (1998: 66) points out that, terminology planning is “a process which

refers to activities and deliberate efforts to plan for corpus, status and acquisition of terms.”

Al-Bataineh (2012: 11) argues that, terminology is related to the “methods of collecting

terms and putting them into specialized dictionaries. It also refers to the theory that explains the

relationships between concepts and terms. Finally, terminology could be used to refer to the

words used in a special subject domain and have special meanings in their contexts in which they

are used.” In other words, terminology is the way of making a specialized dictionary, in which

terms are gathered; these terms are words that can be used specialized in a jargon.

In her study, Haddad (1997: 12) shows that many problems and obstacles are encountered

by translators of medical texts when translating from English into Arabic because Arabic

equivalents of English terms are not always attainable and are not always available. Her study

shows that the translation of medical terms should be standardized.

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II.3 Borrowing and Arabicization

Borrowing is one of the translation methods. It is being used when there is no equivalent

in the target language. Bynon (1977: 217) says that lexical borrowing is “the transfer of lexical

material across language boundaries.”

Haspelmath and Tadmor (2009: 39) say “Loanwords are the most important type of

material borrowing, and loan translations (or claques) are an important type of structural

borrowing. A claque (or loan translation) is a complex lexical unit (either a single word or a

fixed phrasal expression) that was created by an item-by-item translation of complex source

unit.” In other words; loanwords are a kind of borrowing, while loan translation or claque is an

important kind of structural borrowing.

Riemer (2010: 505) says that, borrowing the words from other languages is a very

important resource of new words, which is called loanwords. It is done when one language adds

a word or morpheme from another language to its own.

Obeng and Hartford (2002:155) state that Arabicization addresses two objectives which

are; “standardization” and “development”.

Obeng and Hartford (2002: 156) claim that “Acquisition of Arabicisation refers to the

teaching-learning process, Arabic language spread, and adoption of Arabicization”.

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Halloush (2000: 54) encountered the problems of Arabicization of medical terms in a

medical book; she concentrates on the standard of acceptability of Arabicized terms.

Suleiman (1985: 78) defines borrowing as transferring words from one language to

another. He summarizes the causes of borrowing: The need to designate new things; linguistic

factors such as low frequency of words; and the inclination to accept synonyms from other

languages such as borrowing when words or terms cannot be explained.

II.4 The Difficulty of Synonymy

Al- Bataineh (2012:11) states that “one considers two or more words synonymous if they

have similar meanings.”

Synonymy is a semantic relationship that exists between two or more words which are

differently spelled and have, more or less, the same meaning; examples:

Fast = Quick = Rapid

Big = Large

Dental caries = Tooth decay

Curative = Healing

Therapeutic = Curative

Iatric = Therapeutic

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Lyons (1981: 446) points out that synonymy is “a relation which holds between lexical

items that share more or less the same meaning”.

Investigating the various types and degrees of synonymous terms, Storjohann (2010: 70)

suggests several definitions and classifications of such terms that refer to the degree of semantic

and pragmatic similarity between lexemes. Some of these classes are complete synonymy, and

partial synonymy. Storjohann maintains that synonymy is problematic because in some contexts,

it is difficult to determine the exact degree of inequality.

Cruse (1986: 88) states that “ ‘X’ is a cognitive synonym of ‘Y’ if ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are

syntactically identical, and any declarative grammatical sentence S containing ‘X’ has equivalent

truth-conditions to another sentence S (1), which is identical to S except that ‘X’ is replaced by

‘Y’.” he also gives the following examples:

Get = Receive

Start = Begin

Rababah (1995) investigates the problem of synonymy in translating English medical

terms from English into Arabic. He says that there are different factors that lead to this problem,

such as the absence of collaboration between Arab countries in unifying medical terms. He

mentions another factor; which is the lack of several adequate English-Arabic medical

dictionaries.

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Chapter Three: The Translation from Arabic into

English

This chapter is a translation of the second chapter under the title of ‘Preventive and

community dentistry’ (pages 27-41) of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry.

Concentrating on the major lexical and syntactic problems encountered during the

translation process was taken into consideration.

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ا$س�ن ت��س�ت ��ج

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• .%��Eح8 ا�� �� %�� �5�#8 �1س��3ام ا�2EF% ا�!�ز�% ا��\�

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4��3" ا��!�x. نGآ 8�4 سE�" ا���Yل: ا��6 7� م�3P" ا��Eوغ / ا�

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.%�EFا�,�5ت ا� LGه "Yوح�وث م Pك ا��O'3اس

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، و إم�Pن�% �ن�3!ا�P3�ي 8�4 ا��,� � &P" ا���,�8 1!�د م6 ا�!�ام" �`�": ن�ع ا�]!�% ا�3R03� .

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54

0

1

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0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

pH

pH

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55

Chapter four

Analysis, Discussion and Findings

4.1 Introduction

The main lexical and syntactic problem, encountered while translating about fifteen pages

of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry, were spotted. These, in fact, include problematic

words and sentences; I also attempt to explain the reasons of opting for the translation presented.

Adopting specific strategies is also discussed.

4.2 Lexical Problems

The present study discusses three lexical problems with their explanatory examples. The

lexical problems are related terminology, abbreviation, and inconsistency.

Since the present study deals with written medical text where the main purpose is

conveying facts and knowledge then both the language and the style must be formal. The

translator has to be conscious of the audience; i.e. whether they are specialists, students, or

laymen, and so on.

For instance; the medical term ‘Glass Ionomer’ if translated to students of dentistry then it is:

‘ا5س���3ت ا����%’

While if it is translated to laymen then it is rendered as:

‘ن�ع م6 أن�اع ا�,`�ات’

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Another strategy that can be adopted is providing an explanation in a footnote. Below,

the main problems that translators of medical texts face are discussed when translating medical

texts from English into Arabic, in addition to the strategies adopted to dealing with them.

4.3 Terminological Inconsistency

Yaseen (2013:2) defines inconsistency as the lack of consistency in terms or assigning

different translations to the same terms of the source language through a text or across related

texts.

Translating medical synonyms needs special, accuracy and awareness of every single

word in the medical texts, since the same word has more than one designation, for example in the

medical text translated in this study the word dental calculus is translated as ‘ ا�س��ن � ج ’ or

‘U�23ا�’ .

Another example is translated in the present translated text is the word clinical which can

be translated as ‘ي � ’س or ‘�E[’ .

Renditions have to be accurate, and distinguished from each other in order to transmit

the information to the reader correctly, effectively and precisely, on the other hand to avoid any

misconception and to create a clear, ‘ambiguity free’ medical translated texts.

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One should be aware that there are several things that lead to the production of synonyms

such as the translation of abbreviations; the translator has the choice either to translate the

abbreviation (what it stands for) or to transliterate the abbreviation itself, for example the

acronym. For instance, NICE, stands for the National Institute of Clinical Excellence; it could be

rendered as ‘vن��’ or the translator could translate it as

‘���3�� � ’ا�� آ� ا��]�

On this spirit; Rbabah (1995, 126) maintains that Arabic different accents lead to the

creation of synonymy. He gives an example; the medical term catheterization; according to

different dialects it is rendered as ‘ ةF�\’ or ‘ة FY\’.

On the other hand, Macklovitch (1995:1) argues that each terminological unit should

receive the same translation throughout the final text, so the readers are not unduly confused”.

Saraireh (2001: 49) points out that, standardizing is one of the ways to achieve a proper

communication among users of target language texts. He also says that consistency in

translation is a main reason for maintaining such standardization.

Standardization is the process of assigning only one term for each scientific concept so that

translators can avoid synonymy and any other factors that cause misconception, confusion and

ambiguity.

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4.4 Medical Terms

One of the main lexical problems encountered by translators of medical texts is medical

terms. This problem arises from the difficulty and complexity of medical terms and the lack of

ready equivalents in the target language.

In this study; many terms with no Arabic equivalents were faced while translating the

medical text, yet there are several strategies deal this problem and open doors for the translators

enabling them to discover and find the equivalent for similar terms.

As mentioned earlier, many techniques can be used to enable the translator find the

suitable equivalent of the medical term in the target language some of them are mentioned

below:

1. Loanwords

Al-Qasmi (1985-130) defines loanwords as “transferring the foreign word together with

its meaning as it is without making any change or with some modification to make its

pronunciation consistent with the morphological and phonological systems of Arabic

language..”, for instance; the word ‘Durphat’ translated as ‘در$�ت’.

On the other hand Catford (1965: 66) says “In transliteration SL graghological units are

replaced by TL graphological units”. This strategy has been applied while translating the medical

text of Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry, and below are some examples:

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59

‘Fluoride’ translated as ‘ ��$��ر ’ ; ‘Duraphat’ as ‘در$�ت’ ; ‘Sodium fluoride’ as ‘ �� $��ر

’ا�+�د��م ; ‘Lysozyme’ as ‘ ’����ز�� ; ‘Lactoferritin’ as ‘6�3� ’5آ3�$� and ‘lactoperoxidase’

translated as ‘vوآ����� ’5آ1�3�

In other words, it is transferring the word from the source language to the target language,

without making any changes, using the SL alphabets in the TL.

2. Loan blends

It is the way in which one part is a loanword and the other is a native one.

For example ‘Antibodies’ which was translated as ‘ ’ا�ج��م ا����دة

3. Calque or Loan-translation

Danesi and Rocci (2009: 4) say that “the calquing process results from the fact that A is

aware of only one meaning of the word affair”

In this regard, Richards and Schmidt (2013: 346) define calque as “a type of borrowing, in

which each morpheme or word is translated into the equivalent morpheme or word in another

language.”

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4. Compounding

It is when a group of words in target language used to represent a concept mentioned in

the source language. For instance the term ‘Mouthrinses’ are translated as

‘ ’�7�ل ا���

5. Abbreviations

Many problems were encountered in translating English medical abbreviations used in

Oxford Handbook into Arabic of Clinical Dentistry. For instance, the abbreviation (GI ) stands

for Glass Ionomer which has no abbreviated equivalent in Arabic. Therefore, transliteration can

be used. On the other hand it can be rendered as ‘%�س���3ت ا���mا’, that is, it can be translated by

rendering the words for which the abbreviation stands into Arabic.

Using this strategy depends on who the readers are, if the readers are specialists;

transliteration can be used, but if the readers are not specialists (laymen) then the abbreviation is

translated by explaining its meaning.

Another example is (ADJ) which stands for ‘amelo-dentinal junction’. (ADJ) is

transliterated as ‘ �‘ and translated as ’ا�� دي ج���’ا���#" ا�!�ج� ا�����

Below, a group of medical abbreviations with their transliteration and translation

(mentioned after consulting many different references):

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Medical Abbreviation and their Transliteration and Translation

Abbreviation

Stands for

Transliteration

Translation

OH

Oral Hygiene

gأو ات

MDا� ) ص

IO

Intra-oral

hي أو

MDداخ= ا�

RX

Treatment

iر إآh

ا�F1ج

GI

Glass Ionomer

ج� hي

)�� ا� :�ات اZس

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4.5 Syntactic Problems

Syntactic problem in medical translation, is considered one of the major problems that

face translator of medical texts from English into Arabic. This study concentrates on the

following syntactic problems:

4.5.1 Using Long Sentences

The sentences of English medical texts are long and complicated. Therefore, these

sentences could be problematic to translators of medical texts. As a result translators tend to

segment long sentences into short ones so the reader is being able to gain benefits and get

information from the translated text, not distracted. For instance; ‘Rate of progression of caries:

Although it has been suggested that the main time that lesions remain confined radiographically

to the enamel is 3-4 years, there is a great individual variation and lesions may even regress.’

" �م!�ل ن�� ا��3�س: 8�4 ا� �7 م6 ا�2345د 01ن ا/$�ت �)" م,+�رة آ�� �)' #�ر ا�&!% $

هGا DEF��5 8�4 آ�$% ا�,�5ت؛ $�� K!1 ا�ح��ن إ5 أن ،س��ات 4-3م,�? م���ء ا��6 ���ة �3 اوح م�1�6

".هLG ا/$% ��,�

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4.5.2 Using Adjective Clauses

To translate adjective clauses different ways can be followed:

• Translating an adjective clause into the target language using an equivalent relative

pronoun for instance:

‘A higher fluoride is bound to protein in plaque. A drop in pH results in release of free ionic

fluoride, which augments these actions.’

و��6 م!�ل ا�,��ض%، � �E? ا����ر��4 ار���ع ’E��1 ��<اج�� R�م�% ا����,%$� ا�� رإ�8 مSد��. ا�,�

‘هLG ا���3�h. ��1وره �!�ز ��وا��� ذات ا���ن�ت ا�, ة ����را

• Translating an adjective clause into a noun phrase, for example;

‘For children considered to be at high risk of caries and who live on areas with water supplies

containing less than 0.3 ppm’.

4 ض% ���3�س ن’ Yون أآ E3!� 6�Gأ ��1]��ل ا��Ejkوأو� D[م�� ��,3�ي $�'� ا����L 8�4 ا��F2� 6�G�ن $

‘.ج�ء م6 ا�����ن ��0.3 �2" 64 ن�E% $��ر

4.5.3 Word-order of Arabic & English sentences

Both languages; (Arabic and English, differ in word order, this difference causes a

problem in translating from English into Arabic and vice versa. The both languages differ in

word-order (basic order), Arabic sentence basic word-order is Verb- Subject- Object. On the

other hand, it is Subject- Verb-Object in English. Even there is a difference between them

concerning the noun phrase since the adjective comes before the head noun in English, while it

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follows the head noun in Arabic, as a result; it has to be mentioned that the change of word order

when translating between the language must be achieved and attained.

To solve this problem many strategies can be applied to handle the difference in

syntactic structure such as deletion, substitution, deletion, permutation and insertion. In the

preset study permutation and insertion are discussed as they are needed in translating medical

texts.

4.5.3.1 Permutation

This strategy means changing the word order of a sentence of the source language

texts when translating them into target language. The following are examples on permutation

used while translating the English text of Oxford Handbook on Clinical Dentistry into Arabic:

‘A drop in pH results in release of free ionic fluoride’

‘ ا���ن�ت ا�, ة و!�ل درج% ا�,��ض% إ�8 ن` ا����ر�� ذ�Sدي ا5ن���ض $� م ’

4.5.3.2 Addition or Insertion

This strategy means adding one or more lexical items so the meaning is conveyed

better in the target language; below are some examples:

‘For children considered to be at high risk of caries and who live on areas with water supplies

containing less than 0.3 ppm’

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’’ 4 ض% ���3�س وأو��t ا��F2� 6�G�ن $� م��]B� D>أ Yون أآ E3!� 6�G8�4 ��1]��ل ا� L��'� ا���3�ي $,�

‘ج�ء م6 ا�����ن ��0.3 �2" 64 ن�E% $��ر

One can notice that adding the verb )أ�Eن ( in the translation has converted it from

Nominal into a Verbal sentence.

‘Children should brush twice daily using a fluoride toothpaste’

’O'� ن أس��ن �,3�ي 8�4 ا�]��ل�� ‘ا����را��. م�دة(�31�x أس��ن'� م ��6 ��م�� �1س��3ام م!

‘Fluoridation of water still remains the most cost-effective method’

’Z3!2% $��رة ر�� Fا� L��وا�\"ا�� �� ق. ����P% �2���1رن% م� 7� ه ا�نFم6 ا� ‘

4.5.4 Voice: Active – Passive

English prefers using passive in scientific and technical writing. Whereas using active

is preferred in Arabic. Therefore, different strategies were used to solve this problem while

translating English passive sentences into Arabic.

a. Translating passive sentences into Arabic using nominal sentences as in the following

example:

‘May be prescribed for children deemed to be at risk’.

ا$آ,+�+*(�j]��ل \� ��3 و#�� ’F���.‘

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66

b. Translating agentless passive sentences ( i.e. passive sentences without a ‘by-phrase’ and

without an explicit subject) using (�3��3/ ��/ س�) with the passive form of the verb, i.e. past

participle, or using verbal noun of the verb; for instance:

‘Germ-free rodents fed a cariogenic diet do not develop caries but following the introduction of

streptococcus mutants carries occur’

’ �� ح�6 ح�ث ا��3�س 1�3�1!% م��EE ���3�سG7اء إ.�1م�Q ت�4Mم ح�وث أي ���س ��ى ا�2�ارض ا�3$

�'3�GQ� 8�4 3�ي,� � ا�3#��!��1��Rا � ‘. ا�

‘Root caries has been associated with Strep.’

’ �\Lر� Mن�ت ت�P�1 ورG� اR�����س�ت ا�� اR��).ا�� ‘ ، وا��!�ب، وا��P�ن�ت ا�`!¢�% (ج�v م6 ا�

In the previous examples, the (voice: active – passive) problem, was solved by using a

nominal sentence and adding (��) to the verbal noun of the verb.

As a result, adopting easy and simple translation strategies, such as: (transliteration,

paraphrasing, loanwords, using nominal sentences, etc.) in translating medical texts; help the

translator to avoid problems.

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Chapter five

Summery, Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Summary

Many obstacles are normally encountered by translators of medical texts from English

into Arabic. However, there are several strategies that translators can use and apply to solve the

problems of translating medical texts. In this study, three lexical problems, which are medical

terms, abbreviations and inconsistency were discussed. Strategies such as borrowing (with its

several forms and techniques) and Arabicization were used to translate this medical text taken

from Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry into Arabic.

Medical abbreviations that have no equivalents in Arabic could be translated either by

paraphrasing or transliterating. In addition, this study attempted to solve the syntactic problems

encountered while translating the medical text, especially long sentences of English medical

texts (solved by segmenting the long sentences into shorter ones), voice: active/ passive (solved

by using nominalization), adjective clauses (avoided by using relative pronouns) and word-order

of Arabic and English sentences. Finally, the problem of differences between Arabic and English

structures, was solved using permutation and addition.

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5.2 Conclusion

The study concludes that:

1. Ready equivalent for some medical terms hardly exist.

2. Transliteration is an easy way of translating medical abbreviations, though not always the best

option.

3. Most of the Arabicized medical terms are not used since they are not accepted by the target

language receivers, as mentioned previously the word (catheterization), is now being translated

into (ة F�\) instead of (ة FY\).

4. Borrowing, in addition to its forms and techniques, is a good solution for medical terms that

do not have obvious and ready-made equivalents.

5. Arabicization of medical terms that have no adequate equivalents is problematic and yields an

unpleasant outcome because (of): the rapid development in technical scientific and medical

fields; any Arabicized terms have not been favored and accepted by language receivers and lack

of unification of the Arabic equivalents of medical terms in different dictionaries.

6. In medical, technical and scientific translation, the translator should be aware of transforming

the information as the aim of this translation in conveying information.

7. One of the problems encountered by translators, is choosing the correct medical equivalent

synonym.

8. The main source of medical Arabic synonymy is the lack of unification.

9. To be an effective medical translator, one should be a specialist or have a vast background

about the subject being translated.

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5.3 Recommendations

On the basis of the findings of this study, these recommendations can be presented:

1. Arab universities should include courses in technical and medical translation in departments of

translation.

2. Documentation of Arabicized medical terms.

3. Unifying the Arabicized medical terminology.

4. Mutual collaboration between Arabicization institutions in Arab countries.

5. Other studies have to be conducted concerning other lexical and syntactic problems

encountered by translators of medical texts translation.

6. Principles of translating medical terminology should be taught to medical translators in advance.

7. More research in this area has to be done.

==========================================

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)� ا�+اجe ا�1+�

ا�ردن: دار ا���زوري ا�!���%. . د��" ا��+�F,�ت ا�EF�%. ��4ن،)2007( ا��F�Z، ��4د و�خ ون

� ا���ح� .)2009( م,��ا����ط، EFا� �� ن�� -: ان�P��يا��!$- �1 وت: م�)�% ا�+,% ا�!����% 4�1 .

. 4وم��E� %E3Pن ن�& ون، ط

�ا��2س�) ��4 ،1985 %�,�F+ا���س�4% ا�� /U�F+��4 ا�� �، �Q1اد: دار 169). ا��+�F,�%: م�2م% $

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75

Appendix