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$$$UMKD_LANG$RU$$$UMKD_NAME$Название ЭУМКД Профессиональный иностранный язык$$$UMKD_AVTORS$Автор(-ы) ЭУМКД Ильясова Жанат Ахатовна, Сатаева Алия Рифкатовна$$$UMKD_YEAR$2012@@@###000-001#

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИРЕСПУБЛИКИ КАЗАХСТАН

СЕМИПАЛАТИНСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТИМЕНИ ШАКАРИМА

ЭЛЕКТРОННЫЙ УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЙ КОМПЛЕКС ДИСЦИПЛИНЫ

«Профессиональный иностранный язык» наименование

для специальности «5В060800» – «Экология» шифр наименование

Составители:Сатаева А.Р., профессор кафедры экологии и ЗОС

Ф.И.О., должность

Ильясова Ж.А.-преподавательФ.И.О., должность

Семей 2013

&&&###000-002#Содержание1. Рабочая программа2. Глоссарий3. Практические занятия 4. Блок контроля знаний

&&&###000-003#Сведения об авторах ЭУМКД

Сведения об авторах ЭУМКД Ильясова Жанат Ахатовна

Должность: Преподаватель кафедры теории и практики перевода

Специализация: Профессиональный иностранный языкКонтактные данные:

Рабочий телефон: +7 (7222)35-60-29, 7 (7222)36-02-25(3)Электронная почта: [email protected]

Skype:Общие сведения:

Сатаева Алия РифкатовнаУченая степень: Доктор биологических наукУченое звание: ПрофессорДолжность: Заведующий кафедрой экологии и ЗОССпециализация: ЭкологияКонтактные данные:Рабочий телефон: +7 (7222)53-19-70Электронная почта: [email protected]: [email protected]

Общие сведения:В 2006,2010 году прошла стажировку в Немецком энтомологическом институте г. Мюнхеберг в Германии.В 2010 году прошла курсы повышения квалификации Казахстанско-Российского университета «Дистанционные образовательные технологии» объемом 72 часа.В 2013 году прошла научную стажировку Международной Академии Конкорд и Фиджип Евроталант (Франция, Люксембург, Брюссель, Швейцария)Имеет сертификат IELTS 4

&&&###002-000#2 Рабочая программа1. Область применения2. Нормативные ссылки3. Общие положения4. Литература и ресурсы5. Содержание дисциплины, модульное разбиение дисциплины6. Перечень тем и содержание СРС7. Методические рекомендации по изучению дисциплины8. Формат курса9. Политика курса

mailto:[email protected]

10. Политика выставления оценок11. Контроль знаний студентов12. Календарный график учебного процесса и дистанционных консультаций &&&

###002-001#2.1 Область примененияЭлектронный учебно-методический комплекс по дисциплине «Профессиональный иностранный

язык» предназначен для студентов специальности «5В060800» – «Экология», обучающихся по дистанционным образовательным технологиям (ДОТ). Он знакомит студентов с содержанием курса, его актуальностью и необходимостью, политикой курса, с теми навыками и умениями, которые студенты приобретут в процессе обучения. ЭУМКД является основным руководством при изучении дисциплины по ДОТ.

&&&###002-002#2.2 Нормативные ссылкиНастоящий электронный учебно-методический комплекс дисциплины (ЭУМКД)

«Профессиональный иностранный язык» разработан и устанавливает порядок организации учебного процесса по данной дисциплине с использованием ДОТ в соответствии с требованиями и рекомендациями следующих документов: Государственный общеобразовательный стандарт образования специальности 5В060800 – Экология ГОСО РК3.08.323 –2006.

Положение об электронном учебно-методическом комплексе дисциплины СГУ им. Шакарима.

&&&###002-003#2.3 Общие положения

Фамилия, имя, отчество преподавателя – Ильясова Жанат Ахатовна, ученая степень, звание; преподаватель Кафедра – «Теория и практика

перевода»______________________________________________; Контактная информация – тел: 36-02-25, учебный корпус №1,№8, кабинет № 903; e-

mail: [email protected] Место проведения контактных занятий – аудитория № 910; Название дисциплины – «Профессиональный иностранный язык»; Количество кредитов – 2;

Фамилия, имя, отчество преподавателя – Сатаева Алия Рифкатовна, доктор биологических наук, профессор

Кафедра «Экологии и защиты окружающей среды»; Контактная информация – раб.тел. 53-19-70, 36-02-23, учебный корпус № 8, кабинет

№ 319; Место проведения контактных занятий – корпус 8, аудитория № 302;

Выписка из рабочего учебного планаТаблица 1

Курс Семестр Кредиты Аудиторная работа СРС (час)

Всего (час)

Форма итогового контроляАЗ (час) ДК (час)

1 2 8 По графику 90 экзамен

2.3.1 Краткое описание содержания дисциплины. Курс английского языка в вузе является дисциплиной, удовлетворить потребность будущего специалиста в приобретении знаний и умений, которые позволят ему на практике овладеть английским языком.

2.3.2 Целью данного курса является получение студентами ….

Базовых знаний по английскому языку для осуществления коммуникационных компетенций в области экологии.Следовательно, целью курса является формирование практического владения английским языком как вторичным средством письменного и устного общения в сфере профессиональной деятельности.

2.3.3 Основная задача изучения дисциплины – ….- читать и понимать несложные аутентичные тексты по специальности с различной степенью проникновения в их содержания;-осуществлять речевое общение в стандартных ситуациях и рамках учебно-трудовой, бытовой и культурной сфер;-осуществлять письменную и устную коммуникативную деятельность на иностранном языке;-самостоятельно углублять знания и умения, приобретенные в вузе.Данный курс предусматривает обучение определенному объему знаний в рамках ограниченного количества часов. В результате усвоения соответствующего курса английского языка студент должен знать:- фонетическую, грамматическую и лексическую системы английского языка- наиболее употребительную повседневно-бытовую лексику и основную терминологию по изучаемой специальности;- наиболее употребительные речевые формулы для стандартных ситуаций общения;- методику поиска, анализа и обобщения содержащейся в тексте информации;- читать и понимать основное содержание литературы по специальности;- грамотно излагать на родном языке содержание читаемой литературы в письменной форме;- корректно и адекватно выражать свои мысли на изучаемом языке в ситуациях повседневного общения;- активно владеть лексикой по бытовой и специальной тематике, а также речевыми формулами для стандартных ситуаций общения- работать самостоятельно над совершенствованием своих умений и навыков чтения, восприятия английской речи на слух, говорения, реферирования и аннотирования;быть ознакомленным:- со сведениями о культуре стран изучаемого языка и их владе в мировую культуру;- с особенностями речевого поведения и этикета межличностного общения;- с методикой самостоятельной работы по совершенствованию своих умений и навыков чтения, восприятия английской речи на слух, реферирования и аннотирования.

2.3.4 В результате изучения дисциплины студент должен:- основные правила чтения и произнесения букв алфавита и буквосочетаний в речевом потоке;- написание букв и буквосочетаний, соответствующих определенным звуком, орфографические соответствия наиболее частотным лексико-грамматическим признакам базового языка;- словообразовательные модели, контекстуальные значения многозначных слов, термины.Должен уметь:- читать текст со словарем и без словаря, находить заданную информацию, напомнить содержание прочитанного:- составить резюме, написать небольшое письмо личного и делового характера;- переводить тексты с иностранного на родной с использованием словаря в соответствии с нормами языка перевода;- понимать высказывание на английском языке в объеме изученной тематики;- задавать вопросы и отвечать на них, поддерживать беседу в объеме изученной тематики той или иной сферы общения воспроизводить содержание на основе прочитанного, услышанного, увиденного.

2.3.5 Пререквизиты курсаЭкология и устойчивое развитие2.3.6 Постреквизиты курса:…

&&&###002-004#2.4 Литература и ресурсы2.4.1 Основная литература и ресурсы

2.4.1.1 С.В.Бобылева, Д.Н.Жаткин «Английский язык для экологов и биотехнологов», 2008г.2.4.1.2 Аракин В.Д. Практический курс английского языка. Учебник для 1 курса. – М.: ВЛАДОС, 1998.2.4.2 Дополнительная литература и ресурсы2.4.2.1 Ю.Голицынскиий. Грамматика (сборник упражнений), Санкт-Петербург, 2010г.2.4.2.2 Качалова, К.Н. Практическая грамматика англ. языка с упражнениями и ключами.-М., 1996.

&&&###002-005#2.5 Содержание дисциплины, модульное разбиение дисциплины

Содержание дисциплины по модулям Таблица 2

Наименование модуля Наименование темы Содержание Литература

1 2 3 8Модуль I 1. The Science of Ecology Grammar and lexical

exercises1. С.В.Бобылева, Д.Н.Жаткин «Английский язык для экологов и биотехнологов», 2008г.2.КаушанскаяВ.Л. English Grammar.М, 1975.3.Качалова К.Н., Израилевич Е.Е. Практическая грамматика английского языка. М, 2001.

2. Biosphere Grammar and lexical exercises

1. С.В.Бобылева, Д.Н.Жаткин «Английский язык для экологов и биотехнологов», 2008г.2.КаушанскаяВ.Л. English Grammar.М, 1975.3.Качалова К.Н., Израилевич Е.Е. Практическая грамматика английского языка. М, 2001.

3. Biodiversity Grammar and lexical exercises


4. Eceological Niche Grammar and lexical exercises


Модуль II 5. An Ecosystem Engineer Grammar and lexical exercises


6. The Ecosystem Concept Grammar and lexical exercises

1. С.В.Бобылева, Д.Н.Жаткин «Английский язык для экологов и

биотехнологов», 2008г.2.КаушанскаяВ.Л. English Grammar.М, 1975.3.Качалова К.Н., Израилевич Е.Е. Практическая грамматика английского языка. М, 2001.

7. Types of Ecosystems Grammar and lexical exercises


8.Modern Ecological Theory and Research

Grammar and lexical exercises


МодульIII 9. Divisions of Ecology: autecology, demecology, synecology, global ecology.


1. С.В.Бобылева, Д.Н.Жаткин «Английский язык для экологов и биотехнологов», 2008г.2.КаушанскаяВ.Л.

English Grammar.М, 1975.3.Качалова К.Н., Израилевич Е.Е. Практическая грамматика английского языка. М, 2001.

10. Organism and the environment



11. Environmental factors and their classification



12. Liebig's law of minimum. V. Shelford's law of tolerance


1. С.В.Бобылева, Д.Н.Жаткин «Английский язык для экологов и биотехнологов», 2008г.2.КаушанскаяВ.Л. English Grammar.М, 1975.3.Качалова К.Н.,

Израилевич Е.Е. Практическая грамматика английского языка. М, 2001.

МодульIV 13. Ecology of populations - demecology



14. Structure of populations Grammar and lexical exercises


15. The concept of monitoring and its elements


1. С.В.Бобылева, Д.Н.Жаткин «Английский язык для экологов и биотехнологов», 2008г.2.КаушанскаяВ.Л. English Grammar.М, 1975.3.Качалова К.Н., Израилевич Е.Е. Практическая грамматика

английского языка. М, 2001.

&&&###002-006#2.6 Перечень тем и содержание СРС

Перечень тем и содержание СРСТаблица 3

№ п/п

Тема СРС Содержание СРС Срок сдачи(неделя)

Назначаемые баллы

1 2 3 4 51 Read and

translate the text without a dictionary.

The term «ecology» was coined by the German zoologist, Ernst Haeckel, in 1866 to describe the «economies» of living forms. The theoretical practice of ecology consists of the construction of models of the interaction of living systems with their environment (including other living systems). These models are then tested in the laboratory and the field. (Field-work in ecology also consists of data collection that need not be inspired by any theory.)

Theory in ecology consists of principles used to construct models. Unlike evolutionary theory, ecology has no generally accepted

global principles. Contemporary ecology consists of a patchwork of sub-disciplines including population ecology, community ecology, conservation ecology, ecosystem ecology, meta population ecology, meta community ecology, spatial ecology, landscape ecology, physiological ecology, evolutionary ecology, functional ecology, and behavioral ecology. What is common to all these fields is the view that: (i) different biota interact in ways that can be described with sufficient precision and generality to permit their scientific study; and (ii) ecological interactions set the stage for evolution to occur primarily because they provide the external component of an entity's fitness. The latter aspect makes ecology a central part of biology. As van Valen once put it:« Evolution is the control of development by ecology*. However, the creation of a unified theoretical framework for

evolution and ecology remains the task for the future and will be of no further concern in this entry.

2 Read and translate the text without a dictionary.

Significance of biodiversityThe number of species that inhabit the Earth is very large, but estimates of this figure are very different, ranging from 5 to 80 million, but more or less distinct taxonomy keys is set only for 1.4 million species. From this established number of species about 750,000 - are insects, 41000 - vertebrates and 250000 - plants. Other species are a complex set of invertebrates, fungi, algae and other micro-organisms.

under the biodiversity we understand all types of plants, animals, micro-organisms, as well as ecosystems and ecological processes of which they are a part.

Four types of measures are developed which are aimed at the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.1. Protection of special habitats - creation of national parks, biosphere reserves and other protected areas.

2. Protection of individual species or groups of organisms from over-exploitation.3. Conservation of species in the form of the gene pool in botanical gardens or gene banks.4. Reduction of environmental pollution.

An important tool for conservation of biodiversity is the development of national and international programs and conventions, directed to implement these measures. It is admitted, however, that these measures are insufficient, and the loss of species continues globally.

Convention on Biological Diversity, adopted by 153 countries, reflects the urgency of the situation and is the result of hard efforts to harmonize the conflicting interests of different states.

&&&###002-007#2.7 Методические рекомендации по изучению дисциплины

{советы по планированию и организации времени, необходимого на изучение дисциплины; описание последовательности действий студента; рекомендации по использованию материалов ЭУМКД; рекомендации по работе с литературой; советы по подготовке к экзамену и др.}

&&&###002-008#2.8 Формат курсаПо дисциплине будут проводиться офф-лайн и он-лайн занятия. На офф-лайн занятии студенты

самостоятельно изучают материал, выполняют практические задания, контрольные задания по модулям, проходят рубежные тесты. На групповых он-лайн семинарах будут обсуждаться наиболее важные темы. Дата и время проведения, а также тема и задания каждого он-лайн семинара будет объявляться заранее. Необходимо принимать активное участие в таких семинарах. Кроме того, по дисциплине будут проводиться он-лайн консультации, график которых вы увидите внутри курса. Для получения офф-лайн консультаций можете написать сообщение преподавателю и получить ответ.

&&&###002-009#2.9 Политика курса

При изучении данного курса студент должен систематически заниматься самостоятельно, при необходимости обращаться за консультацией к преподавателю. Регулярно посещайте портал, внимательно читайте методические рекомендации преподавателя в рабочей программе и на практических занятиях. Не ограничивайтесь только лекционным материалом, пользуйтесь учебной литературой и электронными ресурсами, указанными внутри курса. Сначала изучите один модуль, выполните задание, затем только переходите к следующему модулю. Необходимо своевременно выполнять и отправлять на проверку контрольные задания, в срок проходить рубежные тесты. Контрольные сроки – конец 8-недели для заданий и тестов, размещенных на 1-8 неделях, и 15-неделя - для остальных.

&&&###002-010#2.10 Политика выставления оценокКаждый студент для получения положительного рейтинга по дисциплине должен набрать

определенное количество баллов. Максимальное количество баллов: по итогам 1-рейтинга с 1 по 8 недели включительно – 300 баллов, по итогам 2-рейтинга с 9 по 15 неделю включительно – 300 баллов.Итого за семестр по дисциплине максимальное количество баллов – 600.

Баллы выставляются за следующие виды работ:1. За выполнение заданий по модулям (за 1 и 3 модуль по максимум 150 баллов, за 2-модуль – максимум 120 баллов)2. За участие и активность на он-лайн семинаре ( за участие – 20 баллов, за активность максимум 100 баллов)3. За выполнение рубежных тестов (максимально по 30 баллов)Курсовая работа оценивается отдельно.Разбалловка по дисциплине представлена ниже в таблице 5.Контрольные сроки – конец 8-недели и конец 15-недели. Своевременно не сданные задания и тесты можно сдать на 15-неделе, но если студент не успевал по неуважительной причине, баллы будут выставляться со штрафными санкциями, 60% от выставленных преподавателем баллов.

&&&###002-011#2.11 Контроль знаний студентаКонтроль знаний студента по дисциплине осуществляется в форме:

текущего контроля (проводится окончании каждого модуля) рубежного контроля в виде тестирования (8 и 15 недели) итогового контроля – (проводится один раз в конце семестра (экзамен и защита курсовой

работы (проекта), в соответствии с ГОСО специальности).Студент, допускается к итоговому контролю по дисциплине, если за семестр его суммарный рейтинговый балл больше или равен 50%. Итоговый балл рассчитывается по результатам 1 и 2 рейтингов и экзамена. Удельный вес указанных форм контроля составляет сумму: 30% от результатов 1-рейтинга+30% от результатов 2-рейтинга студента+ 40% от результатов экзамена по дисциплине. Итоговая оценка по дисциплине определяется по шкале (Таблица 4).

Шкала оценок в буквенном эквиваленте, в баллах и процентахТаблица 4

Оценка по буквенной

системе

Цифройэквивалент баллов

Процентноесодержание

Оценка потрадиционной системе

А 4,0 95 – 100 ОтличноА– 3,67 90 – 94В+ 3,33 85 – 89

ХорошоВ 3,0 80 – 84В– 2,67 75 – 79С+ 2,33 70 – 74

УдовлетворительноС 2,0 65 – 69С– 1,67 60 – 64D+ 1.33 55 – 59D 1,0 50 – 54F 0 0 – 49 НеудовлетворительноI NA - НезаконченныйP - прошел Прошел дисциплину

&&&###002-012#2.12 Календарный график учебного процесса и дистанционных консультаций

Календарный график учебного процесса и дистанционных консультацийпо дисциплине «___________________________»

Таблица 5№ п/п Недели 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Итого

1-рейтинг

1 Вид контроля ЗМ1 ЗМ2 РК1 300 баллов2 Баллы 150 120 30

3 Консультации OF OL OL OF OF OL OF OF№ п/п Недели 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Итого

2-рейтинг

1 Вид контроля ОС ЗМ3 РК2 300баллов2 Баллы 120 150 30

3 Консультации OL

OL OF OF OL OF OF

Обозначения: ЗМ-задание по модулю; ОС-он-лайн семинар; РК-рубежный контроль; OL- он-лайн консультация; OF- офф-лайн консультация

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Не предусмотрено по учебному плану.

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The Science of Ecology

Ecology is the study of the «homes» of animals and plants. Ecologists are interested in where animals and plants live and how they interact with each other. They answer such questions as «What would happen to all the oak trees in a forest if the climate becomes drier?» and «Will there be more greenflies on a tree if the ladybirds are all destroyed by a disease?* Today many people are worried about «Global Warming*. They try to predict what will happen to the world, and its animals and plants, if the average temperature of the world goes up. The relationship between man and nature has become one of the major problems facing civilization today. Ecology, a vital philosophical issue, stands at the crossroads of politics, science and economics.The word «ecology» comes from the Greek words OIKI^ (oikos, «household») and Xo'yoC, (logos, «study»); therefore «ecology» means the «study of the household [of nature]*.

The word «ecology» is often used as a synonym for the natural environment or environmentalism. Likewise «ecologic» or «ecological» is often taken in the sense of environmentally friendly. The Greek philosopher Theophrastus was one of the first people to discuss the relationship between living things and their environments. German zoologist Ernst Haeckel coined the term oikologie, defined as the relationship of an animal to both its organic and inorganic environment, particularly those plants and animals with which it comes in contact.Until the early 20th Century, biologists concentrated on descriptive studies of plants and animals. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, for example, developed from his observations while recording the natural history of plants and animals. As human civilization subdued nature, people stopped perceiving it as the enemy. The near extinction of common species like the beaver led to the beginning of the conservation movement. By the 1930s, nature study became part of the curriculum of most schools, but organisms were still viewed in isolation rather than as communities.Human development degraded the environment because people did not understand their relationship with it; that we have as much impact on our surroundings as they do on us.No single individual did more to change this than Rachel Carson. Her book, "Silent Spring» (1962), warned how the abuse of chemicals was destroying wildlife while also harming the human environment. This raised massive public interest in nature. By the 1970s ecology, formerly an obscure science became a household word.The modern definition of ecology is:The scientific discipline, that is concerned with the relationship between organisms and their past, present and future environments, both living and non-living. Science, of course, represents a body of knowledge about the world and all its parts. It is also a method for finding new information.Thus Ecology, or ecological science, is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. The word environment refers to everything around us: the air, the water and the land as well as the plants, animals, and microorganisms that inhabit them. The environment of an organism includes both physical properties, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as solar insolation, climate and geology, as well as the other organisms that share its habitat.ScopeEcology is usually considered a branch of biology, the general science that studies living organisms. Organisms can be studied at many different levels, from proteins and nucleic acids (in biochemistry and molecular biology), to cells (in cellular biology), to individuals (in botany, zoology, and other similar disciplines), and finally at the level of populations, communities, and ecosystems, to the biosphere as a whole; these latter strata are the primary subjects of ecological inquiries. Ecology is a multi-disciplinary science. Because of its focus on the higher levels of the organization of life on earth and on the interrelations between organisms and their environment, ecology draws heavily on many other branches of science, especially geology and geography, meteorology, pedology, chemistry, and physics. Thus, ecology is considered by some to be a holistic science, one that over-arches older disciplines such as biology which in this view become sub-disciplines contributing to ecological knowledge.Agriculture, fisheries, forestry, medicine and urban development are among human activities that would fall within Krebs' explanation of his definition of ecology: «where organisms are found, how many occur t here, and why». As a scientific discipline, ecology does not dictate what is «right» or «wrong». However, ecological knowledge such as the quantification of biodiversity and population dynamics has provided a scientific basis for expressing the aims of environmentalism and evaluating its goals and policies. Additionally, a holistic view of nature is stressed in both ecology and environmentalism.Consider the ways an ecologist might approach studying the life of honeybees:• The behavioral relationship between individuals of a species is behavorial ecology — for example, the study of the queen bee, and how she relates to the worker bees and the drones.

• The organized activity of a species is community ecology; for example, the activity of bees assures the pollination of flowering plants. Bee hives additionally produce honey which is consumed by still other species, such as bears.• The relationship between the environment and a species is environmental ecology - for example, the consequences of environmental change on bee activity. Bees may die out due to environmental changes (pollinator decline). The environment simultaneously affects and is a consequence of this activity and is thus intertwined with the survival of the species.

…

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Answer these questions.1. What does the word ecology come from?2. Have people always understood the importance of their impact on the nature? Prove your opinion.3. What does the word environment refer to?4. Is ecology a science? Why?5. What does ecology study?6. Which branches of science is ecology connected with?

...&&&$$$003-001-002$3.3.1.2 Задания или тестовые вопросы для самоконтроля к занятию №1{Задания или тесты (при необходимости указать ключ для выбора варианта)}

Decide whether these statements are true or false (T/F).

1. The Greek philosopher Theophrastus coined the term oikologie defined as the relationship of an animal to both its organic and inorganic environment.2. By the 1930s nature science had been part of the curriculum of most schools, and organisms were studied in isolation rather than as communities.3. Ecology is a branch of biology.4. The environment of an organism constitutes only the other organisms that share its habitat.5. As a scientific discipline, ecology does not dictate what is «right» or «wrong».6. Ecology is the study of how living organisms and their nonliving environment function together.7. We have not so much impact on our surroundings as they do on us.

...&&&$$$003-002-000$3.3.2 Практическое занятие №2{Тема, план занятия}

BiosphereFor modern ecologists, ecology can be studied at several levels: population level (individuals of the same species), biocoenosis level (or community of species), ecosystem level, and biosphere level.The outer layer of the planet Earth can be divided into several compartments: the hydrosphere (or sphere of water ), the lithosphere (or sphere of soils and rocks), and the atmosphere (or sphere of the air). The biosphere (or sphere of life), sometimes described as «the fourth envelope*, is all living matter on the planet or that

portion of the planet occupied by life. It reaches well into the other three spheres, although there are no permanent inhabitants of the atmosphere. Relative to the volume of the Earth, the biosphere is only the very thin surface layer which extends from 11,000 meters below sea level to 15,000 meters above. It is thought that life first developed in the hydrosphere, at shallow depths, in the photic zone. Although recently a competing theory has emerged, that life originated around hydrothermal vents in the deeper ocean. Multicellular organisms then appeared and colonized benthic zones. Photosynthetic organisms gradually produced the chemically unstable oxygen-rich atmosphere that characterizes our planet. Terrestrial life developed later, after the ozone layer protecting living beings from UV rays had been formed. Diversification of terrestrial species is thought to be increased by the continents drifting apart, or alternately, colliding. Biodiversity is expressed at the ecological level(ecosystem), population level (intraspecific diversity), species level (specific diversity), and genetic level. Recently technology has allowed the discovery of the deep ocean vent communities. This remarkable ecological system is not dependent on sunlight but bacteria, utilizing the chemistry of the hot volcanic vents, are at the base of its food chain. BiosphereThe biosphere contains great quantities of elements such as carbon, nitrogen and oxygen. Other elements, such as phosphorus, calcium, and potassium, are also essential to life, yet are present in smaller amounts. At the ecosystem and biosphere levels, there is a continual recycling of all these elements, which alternate between the mineral and organic states.While there is a slight input of geothermal energy, the bulk of the functioning of the ecosystem is based on the input of solar energy. Plants and photosynthetic microorganisms convert light into chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis, which creates glucose (a simple sugar) and releases free oxygen. Glucose thus becomes the secondary energy source which drives the ecosystem. Some of this glucose is used directly by other organisms for energy. Other sugar molecules can be converted to other molecules such as amino acids. Plants use some of this sugar, concentrated in nectar to entice pollinators to aid them in reproduction. Cellular respiration is the process by which organisms (like mammals) break the glucose back down into its constituents, water and carbon dioxide, thus regainnig the stored energy the sun originally gave to the plants. The pro-pi )it ion of photosynthetic activity of plants and other photosynthesizers to the [aspiration of other organisms determines the specific composition of the Earth atmosphere, particularly its oxygen level. Global air currents mix the atmosphere and maintain nearly the same balance of elements in areas of intense biological activity and areas of slight biological activity.Water is also exchanged between the hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere in regular cycles. The oceans are large tanks, which store water, ensure thermal and climatic stability, as well as the transport of chemical elements thanks to large oceanic currents.For a better understanding of how the biosphere works, and various dysfunctions related to human activity, American scientists simulated the biosphere in a small-scale model, called Biosphere II.

...&&&$$$003-002-001$3.3.2.1 Методические указания к практическому занятию №2{Цель занятия, методические указания к выполнению практического задания, примеры расчетов и задач}

Decide whether these statements are true or false (T/F).1. The biosphere is sphere of soils and rocks.2. The ozone layer protects living beings from UV rays.3. The deep ocean vent communities need sunlight for utilizing the chemistry of the hot volcanic vents.4. At the ecosystem and biosphere levels, there is a continual recycling of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and other elements, such as phosphorus, calcium, and potassium.5. The process of photosynthesis releases carbon.

6. Glucose and other sugar molecules are concentrated in nectar and entice pollinators to aid plants in reproduction.7. Water and carbon dioxide are the two constituents which cause the process of cellular respiration.8. Water cycles between the hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.

...&&&$$$003-002-002$3.3.2.2 Задания или тестовые вопросы для самоконтроля к занятию №2{Задания или тесты (при необходимости указать ключ для выбора варианта)}

Give Russian equivalents of the following expressions:outer layer; living matter; permanent inhabitants; to extend; photic zone; shallow depths; benthic zone; terrestrial life; to drift apart; vent; amino acids; solar energy; to alternate; cellular respiration; to regain; global air currents; to maintain; mammal; intense biological activity; carbon dioxide; to release; secondary energy source; to entice; phosphoms; input; to reach well into.


BiodiversityBiodiversity is a word that describes the variety of living things. «Bio» (from a Greek word) refers to living and «diversity» refers to differences and variety. Living organisms express their diversity in hundreds of different ways - both external and visible and internal and invisible.There are 3 kinds of biodiversity♦ Variety of genesPoodles, beagles, and rottweilers are all dogs — but they're not the same because their genes are different. It's the difference in our genes that makes us all different.♦ Variety among speciesScientists group living things into distinct kinds of species. For example, dogs, dragonflies, and daisies are all different species.♦ Variety of ecosystemsCoral reefs, wetlands, and tropical rain forests are all ecosystems. Each one is different, with its own unique species living in it. Genes, species, and ecosystems working together make up our planet's biodiversity.There is genetic diversity within a species, which results in the differences between you and your brothers and sisters and cousins and grandparents even though we all members of the human race — the species Homo Sapiens. Genetic diversity means that an Ethiopian looks different from a Scandinavian or a Japanese person and that inherited diseases run in some families, but not in others. Genetic diversity is the reason why Siamese cats have different body shape and hair colouring from the black and white moggy next door. There is evolutionary diversity, which has given rise to all the different species of animals and plants on this Earth and is genetic diversity on a wider scale. This is also known as species diversity.Each species is adapted — and sometimes highly specialised — to survive in a particular environment or range of environments. Only the human species, through cultural and racial diversity and technology, seems to have adapted itself to survive in almost every environment on the Earth.Ecologists call the role a species plays in its environment a «niche» — like an actor playing the villain, the hero or the comic, in a play. The role may be that of a plant colonizing bare ground, a caterpillar consuming that plant or a wasp preying on the caterpillar. Because there are so many possible niches in all the vast inhabitable areas of the Earth, millions of species have evolved to fill them. Hence the wonderful ecosystem diversity of the planet.Adaptation by different species to widely separated, but similar types of environments and niches, has led to convergent evolution, where organisms have a similar life style and appearance but are not related. The diversity is there despite superficial similarities.

Lastly, there is cultural diversity, which people will argue is not part of biodiversity. But if you think of it as being the result of evolution and adaptation then it surely is. It applies mostly to us — Homo Sapiens — and is something learned from family, tribal and national groups. Cultural diversity helps the survival process by binding groups together and passing on traditions which help people live in their local environment.In 1992 the world's government leaders met at a convention in Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil — the country that holds the largest, but fast disappearing, rainforest. The purpose of the convention was to discuss the growing concern, amongst scientists of all nations, about the rapid extinction of the world's non-human fauna and flora, the depletion of the world's resources and the causes and effects of global warming. Various decisions were made, out of which arose the UK's Local Agenda 21 and the Biodiversity Action Plan.In July 1997, the World's leaders met again, to look at where they had got in terms of reducing the so-called Greenhouse Gases which cause global warming. Not very far, it seems.How can we study the biodiversity around us? One way is to keep a Nature Diary.Many of the world's different plants and animals are under severe threat of extinction. Many species are lost already.A species is said to be extinct when it has not been seen for over 50 years. Dinosaurs became extinct 65 million years ago but, in the last 50 years, more animals and plants have become extinct, because of hunting and loss of habitat. Globally, many hundreds of species will face extinction in a very few years without intensive conservation, education and environmental management and policy-making.Exotic species are animal and plant species that find themselves outside their native habitat. Scientists have recorded 1,75 million species on our planet and estimate another 5 to 100 million unrecorded species! The educated guess stands at 12.5 million.These species cause changes to the ecosystem and sometimes destroy other species native to that ecosystem. For example, zebra mussels came from Europe to the Great Lakes of North America in the ballast of ships. They spread like a plague in the waterways of the continent, attaching themselves to existing mussels and killing them. Breeding quickly, they clog up hydro-electricgenerators encrust the hulls of boats and erode pipes in water treatment plants.Living organisms are made up of cells. Scientists have found a way to copy, or clone, the information, or genes found in cells to make new plants and animals. But no one knows if it is totally safe to take genes from one species and add them another. Well-known examples of genetic manipulation include Dolly the sheep — the first cloned mammal, and adding the genes of a toad or a spider to vegetables.

…&&&$$$003-003-001$3.3.3.1 Методические указания к практическому занятию №3{Цель занятия, методические указания к выполнению практического задания, примеры расчетов и задач} Answer these questions.1. What language does the word «biodiversity» come from?2. How many types of diversity do you know? Explain the difference between them.3. Can each species adapt itself to survive in almost all environment on Earth? Prove your statement.4. What does the author compare an ecological niche with? Why?5. Is cultural diversity a part of biodiversity?6. What is being done to stop the rapid extinction of the world's non-human fauna and flora?7. How can you define an extinct species? Give examples.8. What method of making new plants and animals have you learned from the text?

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{Задания или тесты (при необходимости указать ключ для выбора варианта)}

Give Russian equivalents of the following expressions:genetic diversitycaterpillarbiodiversity variety rainforestinherited diseases hair colouring musselto consume to prey to reducerapid extinction to destroyplague to estimatecell toad


Eceological NicheThe concept of the ecological niche is an important one; it helps us to Understand how organisms in an ecosystem interact with each other. The concept is described by Odum as follows:The ecological niche of an organism depends not only on where it lives but ALSO ON what it does. By analogy, it may be said that the habitat is the organism's "address", and the niche is its «profession», biologically speaking.I lore are a few examples to help you understand what we mean when we (ecologist) use the term «ecologicaI niche»: Oak trees live in oak woodlands; that's common sense. The oak woodland is the habitat. So if Odum was writing a letter to an oak tree he would address the letter to: Sir Deciduous Oak Tree, The Oak Forest, England,U.K. What do oak trees do? If you can answer that question you know the oak trees «profession» or its ecological niche. Perhaps you think that oak trees just stand there looking pretty and not doing very much, but think about it.Oak trees:1) absorb sunlight by photosynthesis;2) absorb water and mineral salts from the soil;3) provide shelter for many animals and other plants;4) act as a support for creeping plants;5) serve as a source of food for animals;6) cover the ground with their dead leaves in the autumn.These six things are the «profession» or ecological niche of the oak tree; you can think of it as being a kind of job description. If the oak trees were cut down or destroyed by fire or storms they would no longer be doing their job and this would have a disastrous effect on all the other organisms living in the same habitat.Hedgehogs in the garden also have an ecological niche. They rummage about in the flowerbeds eating a variety of insects and other invertebrates which live underneath the dead leaves and twigs in the flowerbeds. That is their profession. They are covered in sharp spines which protect them from predators, so being caught and eaten is not a part of their job description.However, hedgehogs cannot groom themselves properly. All those spines on their backs make a superb environment or microhabitat for fleas and ticks.Hedgehogs put nitrogen back into the soil when they urinate! I don't know how much nitrogen they put into the soil but it probably helps the plants if they do. I think that they eat my slugs, so that reduces the effect which slugs have on the flowers.

So the idea of an ecological niche is very simple. You just need to know where the animal or plant lives and what it does.

...


Prove the importance of the concept of the ecological niche. Illustrate it in some examples:a) determine the oak trees' habitat and profession;b) define the ecological niche of hedgehogs.

...&&&$$$003-004-002$3.3.4.2 Задания или тестовые вопросы для контроля к занятию №4{Задания или тесты (при необходимости указать ключ для выбора варианта)}

Give Russian equivalents of the following expressions:woodlands oak hedgehogto absorb soil creeping plantdisastrous effect to rummage flowerbedtick invertebrate twigto groom sharp spine flea


An Ecosystem EngineerAn ecosystem engineer is an organism that creates, modifies and maintains habitats. Most organisms alter their physical environments in some way, so the term ecosystem engineer is applied only to certain key species that have a profound and wide-ranging influence, changing the distribution and diversity of flora and fauna in their locality. Scientists describe two types of ecosystem engineers.Autogenic engineers modify the environment using their own physical structures. Trees and corals are two important examples.Allogenic engineers transform living or non-living material from one form to another using mechanical or other means. The beaver is second only to humans in this capacity.The beaver engineers its environment in several ways, most obviously by cutting trees and building dams, but the building of lodges and canals is also important.It is the only species besides humans that is capable of cutting down mature trees. Beaver activity changes the forest structure and diversity of tree species. The animal will use a wide range of trees, but when given a choice will cut its preferred foods, particularly poplar and willow. Willows and maples send up shoots from the cut stumps, but poplars and some other tree species do not. Beavers often clear-cut the areas around their ponds. In other cases, mature trees may become replaced by a dense undergrowth of willow or other shoots. Other tree species become scarce and may be replaced by ones that the beaver does not favour, such as ash. Other timber along the watercourse may be killed by flooding.In one year a family of six can consume 0.4 hectares (1 acre) of poplar trees, and is estimated to fell one metric ton of wood. If the family exhausts its food source, it will move to anew location.

The tree-cutting alters forest succession. If the beaver creates forest opening sun-loving plants may take hold, converting a mature forest to an early succussional stand. Sometimes, however, the beaver hastens forest maturity by selecting willows and poplars, which are early succession trees, allowing the repid development of understory saplings such as fir and spruce.Dam-building changes the flow of water through the stream. Beaver require deep slow-moving water for storing food, constructing lodges and moving around safely. This is why they build dams. The still water in a beaver pondattracts species normally associated with lakes rather than streams, whilespecies dependent on fast water die out or move elsewhere.

...&&&$$$003-005-001$3.3.5.1 Методические указания к практическому занятию №5{Цель занятия, методические указания к выполнению практического задания, примеры расчетов и задач} Give Russian equivalents of the following expressions:to с reate to modify to maintainprofound wide-ranging influence autogenicallogenic most obviously corallod|ge poplar willow mature tree stump undergrowthtimber to hasten rapid development understory sapling sprucepond to store food stream

...&&&$$$003-005-002$3.3.5.2 Задания или тестовые вопросы для контроля к занятию №5{Задания или тесты (при необходимости указать ключ для выбора варианта)} Find synonyms of these expressions among the words and word combinations in the previous exercise.1) pool, lake;2) wood;3) base, remnant of a tree;4) to change, transform;5) brushwood, bushes, undergrowth;6) small house;7) to speed up, to rush, to hurry;8) extensive, comprehensive, all-embracing effect or impact;9) to make, produce, generate;10) deep, insightful;11) to stock up, amass, save;12) plantlet, sprout, seedling;13) fully grown tree;14) quick, fast progress;15) fur tree;16) to preserve, uphold, keep up.

...&&&$$$003-006-000$3.3.6 Практическое занятие №6

{Тема, план занятия}

The Ecosystem Concept The first principle of ecology is that each living organism has an ongoing and continual relationship with every other element that makes up its environment. An ecosystem can be defined as any situation where there isinteraction on between organisms and their environment. An ecosystem, a contraction of «ecological» and «system», refers to the collection of components and processes that comprise, and govern the behavior of some defined subset of the biosphere. The term is generally understood to refer to all biotic and abiotic components, and their interactions with each other, in some defined area, with no conceptual restrictions on how large or small that area can be.There are two main components of all ecosystems: abiotic and biotic. Abiotic, or nonliving, components of an ecosystem are its physical and chemical components, for example, rainfall, temperature, sunlight, and nutrient supplies. One of the problems with modern society is that it changes environmental conditions, making regions hotter or drier, for example. Such changes can make life more difficult, if not impossible, for other organisms.Biotic components of an ecosystem are its living things — fungi, plants, animals, and microorganisms. Organisms live in populations, groups of the same species occupying a given region. Populations never live alone in an ecosystem. They always share resources with others, forming a community (a group of organisms living in the given area). The ecosystem is composed of two entities, the entirety of life, the biocoenosis and the medium that life exists in, the biotope. Within the ecosystem, species are connected by food chains or food webs. Energy from the sun, captured by primary producers via photosynthesis, flows upward through the chain to primary consumers (herbivores), and then to secondary and tertiary consumers (carnivores), before ultimately being lost to the system as waste heat. In the process, matter is incorporated into living organisms, which return their nutrients to the system via decomposition, forming biogeochemical cycles such as the carbon and nitrogen cycles.The concept of an ecosystem can be applied to units of variable size, such as a pond, a field, or a piece of deadwood. A unit of smaller size is called a microecosystem. For example, an ecosystem can be a stone and all the life under it. A mesoecosystem could be a forest, and a macroecosystem a whole ecoregion, with its drainage basin.The main questions when studying an ecosystem are:• Whether the colonization of a barren area could be carried out.• Investigation of the ecosystem's dynamics and changes.• The methods of which an ecosystem interacts at local, regional and global scale.• Whether the current state is stable.• Investigating the value of an ecosystem and the ways and means that interaction of ecological systems provide benefit to humans, especially in the provision of healthy water.Ecosystems have become particularly important politically, since the Convention on Biological Diversity - ratified by more than 175 countries -defines «the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats and the maintenance of viable populations of species in natural surroundings* as one of the binding commitments of the ratifying countries. This has created the political necessity to spatially identify ecosystems and somehow distinguish among them. The CBD defines an «ecosystem» as a «dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit».For this purpose, ecosystems can be characterized and mapped as physiognomic ecological units, originally developed for vegetation classification. Each vegetation structure reflects ecological conditions. Each ecosystem thus defined, hosts assemblages of species with survival strategies that can survive under its conditions. This is not only true for plant species, but for all species, flora, fauna and fungi alike, as each species responds to the characteristic ecological conditions of each location. This principle allows us to map ecosystems using the UNESCO physiognomic ecological classification system, the Land Cover Classification

Systems (LCCS) developed by the FAO and the United States National Vegetation Classification system (USNVC). The size and scale of an ecosystem can vary widely. It may be a whole forest, a community of bacteria and algae in a drop of water, or even the geobiosphere itself. As most of these borders are not rigid, ecosystems tend to blend intoeach other. As a result, the whole earth can be seen as a single ecosystem, while a lake can be divided into several ecosystems, depending on the scale used. Early conceptions of this unit showed a structured functional unit in equilibrium of energy and matter flows between its constituent elements. Others considered this vision limited, and preferred to understand an ecosystem interms of cybernetics. From this point of view an ecological system isfunctional dynamic organization, or what was also called «steady*state». Study state is understood as the phase of an ecological system's evolution when the organisms are «balanced» with each other and their environment. This balance is achieved or «regulated» through various types of interactions, such as predation parasitism, mutualism, commensalism, competition, andamensalism. Introduction of new elements, whether abiotic or biotic, intoan ecosystem tend to have a disruptive effect. In some cases, this can leadto ecological collapse and the death of many native species. The branchof ecology that gave rise to this view has become known as systems ecology. Under this deterministic vision, the abstract notion of ecological health attempts to measure the robustness and recovery capacity for an ecosystem; that is, how far the ecosystem is away from steady state.Ecosystems are often classified by reference to the biotopes concerned. The following ecosystems may be defined:• As continental ecosystems, such as forest ecosystems, meadow ecosystems such as steppes or savannas), or agro-ecosystems• As ecosystems of inland waters, such as lentic ecosystems such as lakes of ponds; or lotic ecosystems such as rivers• As oceanic ecosystems.Another classification can be done by reference to its communities, such as in the case of a human ecosystem.

...&&&$$$003-006-001$3.3.6.1 Методические указания к практическому занятию №6{Цель занятия, методические указания к выполнению практического задания, примеры расчетов и задач}Give Russian equivalents of the following expressions:biotic; abiotic; rainfall; nutrient supplies; fungi; population; food chain; entity; primary consumer; steady state; predation; mutualism; ecological collapse; to share resources; to compose; pond; to apply; abstract notion; ecological health; to measure the robustness and recovery capacity; to attempt; meadow; steppe; lentic; lotic.

...&&&$$$003-006-002$3.3.6.2 Задания или тестовые вопросы для контроля к занятию №6{Задания или тесты (при необходимости указать ключ для выбора варианта)}Answer these questions.1. What are main components of all ecosystems?2. What size units can the concept of an ecosystem be applied to?3. How have ecosystems gained political importance?4. Can an ecological system be called a steady state? Why?


Types of EcosystemsAquatic EcosystemAn aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem located in a body of water. Communities of organisms that are dependent on each other and on their environment live in aquatic ecosystems. The two main types of aquatic ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems.Types of Aquatic Ecosystems Aquatic ecosystems can be divided into two general types: marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems.Marine EcosystemsMarine ecosystems cover approximately 71 % of the Earth's surface and contain approximately 97 % of the planet's water. They generate 32 % of the world's net primary production. They are distinguished from freshwater ecosystems by the presence of dissolved compounds, especially salts, in the water. Approximately 85 % of the dissolved materials in seawater are sodium and chlorine. Seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand (ppt) of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems.Marine ecosystems can be divided into the following zones: oceanic (the relatively shallow part of the ocean that lies over the continental shelf); profundal (bottom or deep water); benthic (bottom substrates); intertidal ( the area between high and low tides); estuaries; salt marshes; coral reefs; and hydro thermal vents (where chemosynthetic sulphur bacteria form the food base).Classes of organisms found in marine ecosystems include brown algae, dinoflagellates, corals, cephalopods, echinoderms, and sharks. Fish caught in marine ecosystems are the biggest source of commercial foods obtainedfrom wild populations. Environmental problems concerning marine ecosystems include unsustainable exploitation of marine resources (for example overfishing of certain species), water pollution, and building on coastal areas. Freshwater EcosystemsFreshwater ecosystems cover 0,8 % of the Earth's surface and contain 0,009 % of its total water. They generate nearly 3 % of its net primary production. Freshwater ecosystems contain 41 % of the world's known fish species. There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems:• Lentic: slow-moving water, including pools, ponds, and lakes.• Lotic: rapidly-moving water, for example streams and rivers.• Wetlands: areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time. Lake ecosystems can be divided into zones: pelagic (open offshore waters);profundal; littoral (nearshore shallow waters); and riparian (where the lake meets the sea). Two important subclasses of lakes are ponds, which typically are small lakes that intergrade with wetlands, and reservoirs. Many lakes, or bays within them, gradually become enriched by nutrients and fill in with organic sediments, a process called eutrophication. Eutrophication is accelerated by human activity within the catchment area of the lake. The major zones in river ecosystems are determined by the river bed's gradient or by the velocity of the current. Faster moving turbulent water typically contains greater concentrations of dissolved oxygen, which supports greater biodiversity than the slow moving water of pools. The food base of streams within riparian forests is mostly derived from the trees, but wider streams and those that lack a canopy derive the majority of their food base from algae. Anadromous fish arealso an important source of nutrients. Environmental threats to rivers include loss of water, dams, chemical pollution and introduced species.

Wetlands are dominated by vascular plants that have adapted to saturated soil. Wetlands are the most productive natural ecosystems because of the proximity of water and soil. Due to their productivity, wetlands are often converted into dry land with dikes and drains and used for agricultural purposes. Their closeness to lakes and rivers means that they are often developed for human settlement. Wetlands are the interface between dry or terrestrial habitats and aquatic environments including streams, lakes and seas. Around the Great Lakes they take four basic forms. Swamps are a cross between forest and aquatic ecosystems, inhabited by woody species: conifers, hardwoods or shrubs. Bogs are characterized by acidic, peaty soils with little water movement and feature flora such as blueberries, orchids and carnivorous plants. Fens are similar to bogs, but with more water movement their soils are less acidic. The dominant plants are sedges and low shrubs. Wetlands are important because they act as natural sponges, absorbing water so it moves more slowly through the system This prevents flooding and shoreline erosion. In the 19th Century people thought that anything obstructing rivers would increase flooding, so they frequently removed islands and wetlands to let water move more readily through urban areas. Such practices actually increased the problem More recently some cities have begun to let wetlands regenerate. Wetland construction is commonly a part of housing developments, though often at the expense of more complex pre-existing natural habitats.Wetlands are also well-designed to filter out pollution, particularly nitrogen and phosphorous. They are also useful for removing heavy metals. Industries are experimenting with constructing wetlands for this purpose.Meanwhile wetlands exceed other temperate habitats in that they produce as much oxygen, per area, as tropical rainforest.Besides, wetlands provide a natural nursery for many species of native plants and wildlife. More than 40 species of birds nest in Point Pelee's marsh and 66 species of dragonflies and damselflies breed there. These habitats also provide a major food source for humans and animals. They also offer recreation in the form of canoeing, birdwatching and fishing. Pond EcosystemThis is a specific type of freshwater ecosystem that is largely based on the autotrophic algae which provide the base trophic level for all life in the area. The largest predator in a pond ecosystem will normally be a fish and in-between range smaller insects and microorganisms. It may have ascale of organisms from small bacteria to big creatures like water snakes, beetles, water bugs, and turtles. Functions of Aquatic EcosystemsAquatic ecosystems perform many important environmental functions. For example, they recycle nutrients, purify water, attenuate floods, recharge ground water and provide habitats for wildlife. Aquatic ecosystems are also used for human recreation,and are very important to the tourism industry, especially in coastal regions.The health of an aquatic ecosystem is degraded when the ecosystem's ability to absorb a stress has been exceeded. A stress on an aquatic ecosystem can be a result physical, chemical of biological alterations of the environment. Physical alternations include changes in water temperature,water flow and light availability. Chemical alterations include changes in the loading rates of bio stimulatory nutrients, oxygen consuming materials, and toxins. Biological alterations include the introduction of exotic species. Human populations can impose excessive stresses on aquatic ecosystems.

...&&&$$$003-007-001$3.3.7.1 Методические указания к практическому занятию №7{Цель занятия, методические указания к выполнению практического задания, примеры расчетов и задач}

Answer these questions.1. What does the term «aquatic ecosystem" mean?

2. What types of aquatic ecosystems do you know? Characterize briefly each one, pointing the difference between them out.3. What percentage of the Earth's surface does each of the ecosystems cover?4. Name the zones of marine ecosystems and classes of organisms found there.5. Do marine ecosystems have any environmental problems? Prove youi statement.6. What types can freshwater ecosystems be divided into?

...&&&$$$003-007-002$3.3.7.2 Задания или тестовые вопросы для контроля к занятию №7{Задания или тесты (при необходимости указать ключ для выбора варианта)}Give Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:Freshwater primary production dissolved compoundsContinental shelf Salinity benthicMarsh saturated soil unsustainableExploitation pelagic wetlandLittoral riparian sedimentsVelocity canopy proximityVascular plants attenuate raw materials


Modern Ecological Theory and ResearchEcology's Influence in the Social Sciences and Humanities Human EcologyHuman ecology began in the 1920s, through the study of changes in vegetation succession in the city of Chicago. It became a distinct field of study in the 1970s. This marked the first recognition that humans, who had colonized all of the Earth's continents, were a major ecological factor. Humans greatly modify the environment through the development of the habitat (in particular urban planning), by intensive exploitation activities such as logging and fishing, and as side effects of agriculture, mining, and industry. Besides ecology and biology, this discipline involved many other natural and social sciences, such as anthropology and ethnology, economics, demography, architecture and urban planning, medicine and psychology, and many more. The development of human ecology led to the increasing role of ecological science in the design and management of cities.In recent years human ecology has been a topic that has interested organizational researchers. Hannan and Freeman argue that organizations do not only adapt to an environment. Instead it is also the environment that selects or rejects populations of organizations. In any given environment (in equilibrium) there will only be one form of organization (isomorphism). Organizational ecology has been a prominent theory in accounting for diversities of organizations and their changing composition over time.James Lovelock and the Gaia HypothesisThe Gaia theory, proposed by James Lovelock, in his work «Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth», advanced the view that the Earth should be regarded as a single living macro-organism. In particular, it argued that the ensemble of living organisms has jointly evolved an ability to control the global environment — by influencing major physical parameters as the composition of th atmosphere, the evaporation rate, the chemistry of soils and oceans — so as maintain conditions favorable to life.This vision was largely a sign of the times, in particular the growing perception after the Second World War that human activities such as nuclear energy, industrialization, pollution, and overexploitation of natural resources, fueled by exponential population growth, were threatening to create catastrophes on a planetary scale. Thus Lovelock's Gaia hypothesis, while controversial among scientists, was embraced by many

environmental movements as an inspiring view: their Earth-mother, Gaia, was «becoming sick from humans and their activities".Conservation and Environmental MovementsSince the 19th century, environmentalists and other conservationists have used ecology and other sciences (e.g., climatology) to support their advocacy positions. Environmentalist views are often controversial for political or economic reasons. As a result, some scientific work in ecology directly influences policy and political debate; these in turn often direct ecological research.Ecology and Global PolicyEcology became a central part of the World's politics as early as 1971, UNESCO launched a research program called Man and Biosphere, with the objective of increasing knowledge about the mutual relationship between humans and nature. A few years later it defined the concept of Biosphere Reserve.In 1972, the United Nations held the first international conference on the human environment in Stockholm, prepared by Rene Dubos and other experts. This conference was the origin of the phrase «Think Globally, Act Locally*. The next major events in ecology were the development of the concept of biosphere and the appearance of terms «biological diversity* — or now more commonly biodiversity — in the 1980s. These terms were developed during the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, where the concept of the biosphere was recognized by the major international organizations, and risks associated with reductions in biodiversity were publicly acknowledged.Then, in 1997, the dangers the biosphere was facing were recognized from an international point of view at the conference leading to the Kyoto Protocol. In particular, this conference highlighted the increasing dangers of the greenhouse effect — related to the increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to global changes in climate. In Kyoto, most of the world's nations recognized the importance of looking at ecology from a global point of view, on a worldwide scale, and to take into account the impact of humans on the Earth's environment.

...&&&$$$003-008-001$3.3.8.1 Методические указания к практическому занятию №8{Цель занятия, методические указания к выполнению практического задания, примеры расчетов и задач}Answer these questions.1. When was human impact on the environment first recognized?2. How do humans modify their environment?3. What was the result of the human ecology development?4. When did the term «biodiversity» appear and was recognized?5. What increasing dangers for the biosphere were acknowledged in 1997?

...

&&&$$$003-008-002$3.3.8.2 Задания или тестовые вопросы для контроля к занятию №8{Задания или тесты (при необходимости указать ключ для выбора варианта)}Find in the text English equivalents of the following words and expressions. Translate the sentences which contain them.1) вырубка леса; 2) побочный эффект: 3) утверждать, приводить аргументы; 4) отвергать; 5) баланс, равновесие; 6) группа, множество; 7) осознание, понимание; 8) противоречивый; 9) цель; 10) в мировом масштабе; 11) принимать во внимание, в расчет.

...&&&$$$003-009-000$3.3.9 Практическое занятие №9

{Тема, план занятия}Divisions of ecology: autecology, demecology, synecology, global ecology

In accordance with the above levels of organization of life, ecology is divided into autecology, demecology and synecology. If an individual organism is studied, its individual relations with the environment, vital functions and behavior, it is taken as if isolated from other components of the system and is considered to be out of the system (aut means out).Thus, autecology studies interaction of a particular organism with the environment. Sometimes autecology is given a somewhat broader view, including into its objectives the study of particular groups of organisms of the same species. An integrated study of 'groups of organisms that make up certain unity" is the subject of synecology, (from Greek. syn means together) and demecology is a population ecology.

In addition, ecology is classified by particular objects and environments of study. For example, there are human ecology and ecology of animals, plant ecology, microbial ecology, etc. (See Figure 1.).

Figure 1: Classification of branches of ecology In its turn, all these groups can be studied at the level of an individual or the population or can be

studied in water, soil, atmosphere, in outer space. Living organisms inhabit tropical, temperate and polar zones, they live in natural, altered or man-made communities, and in contaminated environments. Currently the environmental studies which relate to pollution of the environment are significantly evolving. Figure 2 shows another classification of branches of ecology. Currently, the following new branches of ecology have become widespread

Global Ecology - the study of interaction with the environment of the biosphere (complex of natural communities).

Human ecology - the study of interaction of the natural and social environment. In other words, human ecology is a complex discipline that studies general laws of interrelations of the biosphere and anthropogenic system (structural levels of humanity, its groups and individuals), the influence of the environment (in some cases the social environment as well) on individuals and groups of people.

Social ecology - the study of the interaction of human society with the natural environment.Urban ecology (Ecology of the city) - the study of the structure and functioning of urban ecosystems

and the interaction of humans and the urban environment.Engineering ecology - the study of the ways and means to overcome the destruction of the natural

environment by public production.All branches of ecology are based on general (classic) ecology. Ecology as a science is based on

different branches of biology (physiology, genetics, biophysics), is connected with non-biological sciences (physics, chemistry, geology, geography, mathematics, etc.), and which methods, concepts and terms serve as a basement for environmental studies. Therefore, in the recent years new ecological concepts have appeared such as "geographical ecology", "global ecology" (or ecology as applied to the biosphere of the Earth), "Chemical Ecology", "Mathematical Ecology", etc.

At present people have exploited not only the near Earth space, but also sufficiently far outer space. This fact raises a number of entirely new problems that are the subject of anthropology of space, closely related to medical ecology.

Humans and machines also have complex and diversified relations in the conditions of industrial plants, where peculiar modes of temperature, noise, light and other ecological factors take place. The science of interaction between a man and machines is called ergonomics, and it is a part of occupational safety.

It is obvious from the above definitions, that objectives of ecology as a science are diversified:

1. Study of patterns of organization of life, including their relation to anthropogenic impacts on natural ecosystems and biosphere as a whole;2. Establishing a scientific basis for the rational use of biological resources, forecasting environmental changes by human activities and management processes in the biosphere, and preservation of the human environment;3. Regulation of populations;4. Development of measures to ensure a minimum use of chemical control agents against harmful species;5. Environmental indication in determining the properties of landscape components and elements, including the indication of environmental pollution;6. Restoration of damaged natural systems, including reclamation of obsolete agricultural lands, restoration of grasslands, fertility of depleted soils, productivity of water reservoirs, etc.;7. Transition from hunting to farming;8. Preservation (conservation) of standard natural zones of the biosphere.

In recent years a new concept of the environmental security has been formed that combines ecological security of the society and environmental security of a person in the presence of environmental pollution that affects health and gene pool of both society and an individual.

It should be emphasized that ecology as a whole including biological (classical), global, social, and human ecology, is a worldview, synthetic field of study that integrates natural sciences and the humanities knowledge, human behavior in relation to nature and their health is largely determined by economic and religious considerations and interests. Thus, ecology is a science that studies the laws of behavior of organic life (in all its forms, at all levels of integration) in their natural habitat subject to any changes made to the environment by human activities.

&&&$$$003-009-001$3.3.9.1 Методические указания к практическому занятию №9{Цель занятия, методические указания к выполнению практического задания, примеры расчетов и задач}questions for self-control 1. Who is the author of the term "ecology"?

2.In what year the term "ecology" was offered3. What divisions of ecology do you know?4. What division of ecology has a task to study the structure and dynamics of populations of individual species?

&&&$$$003-009-002$3.3.9.2 Задания или тестовые вопросы для контроля к занятию №9{Задания или тесты (при необходимости указать ключ для выбора варианта)}Find in the text English equivalents of the following words and expressions. Translate the sentences which contain them.

1. Аутэкология; 2. Антропогенный фактор; 3. Биоресурсы; 4. Направления экологии; 5. Поведение; 6. Окружающая среда.


Organism and the environment No living organism can exist without certain factors of the surrounding environment. Therefore it is necessary to distinguish between such concepts as "natural habitat" and "living conditions."

Under the habitat it is usually meant natural bodies and phenomena with which the organism (organisms) is in direct or indirect interaction. The habitat of each organism is composed of a number of elements of inorganic and organic nature, and of the elements brought by a man, his productive activity. Moreover, some elements of the environment may be necessary for the organism, while others are indifferent to him, for example, each of us needs air and food, and it's not obligatory to have a cabinet at the wall.

The definition of "living conditions", or the conditions of life follows from this example - this is a collection of essential life elements that make up a dialectical unity with the organism.

Conclusion: The components of the environment necessary for life are air, food, energy and they make the living conditions, all other elements form the habitat.

Habitat -this is that part of nature that surrounds a living organism, and with which it is directly interacting. Components and properties of the environment are various and changeable. Any living being lives in a complex, changing world, constantly adapting to it and adjusting its living activity to its changes. Along with the term "habitat" some other terms can be used such as "ecological environment", "habitat area", "natural environment", "surrounding nature', etc. There are no clear distinctions between these terms.

Individual properties or elements of the environment influencing organisms are called environmental factors. There are various environmental factors. They may be necessary or, conversely, harmful to living organisms, they can facilitate or hinder their survival and reproduction.

Individual properties or elements of the environment effecting organisms are called ecological factors. There are various environmental factors. They may be necessary or, conversely, harmful to living things, facilitate or hinder the survival and reproduction.

Environmental factors are of different nature and specificity of action. Among them are the abiotic and biotic, anthropogenic.

&&&$$$003-010-001$3.3.10.1 Методические указания к практическому занятию №10{Цель занятия, методические указания к выполнению практического задания, примеры расчетов и задач}Questions for self-control1. What is the habitat?2. How are Individual properties or elements called?3. How can you tell about the abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic factors.

&&&$$$003-010-002$3.3.10.2 Задания или тестовые вопросы для контроля к занятию №10{Задания или тесты (при необходимости указать ключ для выбора варианта)}Give Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:1. air, 2. food, 3. energy; 4. ecological environment, 5.habitat area, 6.natural environment, 7.surrounding nature,


Environmental factors and their classificationAbiotic factors (physical and chemical factors of inorganic nature) are temperature, light, radiation,

pressure, humidity, salt composition of water, wind, currents, landscape, all these are properties of inorganic nature, which directly or indirectly impact on living organisms.

Biotic (factors of organic nature) - are forms of exposure of living beings to each other. Each organism constantly undergoes direct or indirect influence of other beings, comes into contact with members of its own species and other species - plants, animals, micro-organisms, depends on them and its turn, impacts them.

Anthropogenic factors - forms of the human society activities that change nature as the habitat of other species, or directly influence their living. The scope of human impact on the organic life of the Earth is continuing to grow.

Changes of environmental factors over time can be: 1) regular and periodic - changing the force of impact depending on time of day or season of the year, or rhythm of tides in the ocean, 2) not regular, with no clear frequency, for example, changes in weather conditions in different years, catastrophic events - storms, heavy rains, landslides, etc., and so on; 3) directed during well-known, sometimes lengthy, periods of time, such as during weather cooling or climate warming, overgrowing of ponds, permanent grazing of cattle in the same area, etc. 4) changes of unspecified action - man-made factors, the most dangerous to living organisms and their communities, such as emissions of pollutants. The nature of these factors is uncertain. Usually an organism is not ready to them, the species haven't met with such phenomena. In the process of evolution these factors present a great difficulty for adaption. This is their main specificity and ecological unfriendliness.

Besides, many of these factors can be harmful. They belong to the group of xenobiotics (Greek xenox - strange). The latter include practically all contaminants. Only in a few cases, with respect to such factors, organisms can use mechanisms of so called preadaptations, that is, adaptations which worked out to other factors. For example, resistance of plants to air pollution in some way is contributed by the structures that are favorable for improving drought resistance: heavy ground leaf tissues, availability of vegetable wax, pubescence, fewer stomata and other structures slowing the absorption of substances and, consequently, poisoning of the organism.

Among the environmental factors we can distinguish between resources and conditions. Environmental resources are used and consumed by organisms, thus, reducing their number. These resources include food, water at its deficit, shelters, comfortable places for breeding, etc. Conditions - these are factors to which the organism can adapt, but can not influence on them. The same environmental factor may be a resource for one species and can be a condition for other species. For example, light - is a necessary energy resource for plants and animals, and for animals with eyesight - is a condition of visual orientation. Water for many organisms can be both a condition of life and a resource.

Any organism adapts to the environment by adjusting its living activity. These adjustments are called adaptations. Adaptation means any change in the structure and functions of organisms, increasing their chances of survival.

The ability to adapt -is a fundamental property of life in general, as it provides the very possibility of existence, ability of organisms to survive and to breed. Adaptations emerge and develop in the course of evolution.

The basic mechanisms of adaptation at the level of the organism are: 1) biochemical - occur in intracellular processes, such as change of the enzymes, or change in their number, 2) physiological - For example, intensification of sweating of some species when the temperature rises, 3) morphological and anatomical - features of body shape and structure relating to habits of life, 4) behavioral - for example, animals search for favorable habitats, create burrows, nests, etc., 5) ontogenetic - Speeding up or slowing down the development of an individual organism leading to survival when conditions change.

&&&$$$003-011-001$3.3.11.1 Методические указания к практическому занятию №11{Цель занятия, методические указания к выполнению практического задания, примеры расчетов и задач}Answer the questions:

1. What is the basic mechanisms of adaptation?2. Which are the levels of the organism do you know?3. When do the adaptations develop?

&&&$$$003-011-002$3.3.11.2 Задания или тестовые вопросы для контроля к занятию №11{Задания или тесты (при необходимости указать ключ для выбора варианта)}Give Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:1. resources; 2.conditions; 3.Environment; 4. temperature, 5. light, 6. radiation, 7. pressure, 8. humidity, 9. salt composition of water, 10. wind, 11. currents, 12. landscape, 13.properties, 14. вiotic factors, 15. plants, 16. animals, 17. micro-organisms, 18. аnthropogenic factors, 19. human society activities, 20. Xenobiotics, 21. preadaptations, 22. Adaptations.


Liebig's law of minimum.V. Shelford's law of tolerance

Despite a wide variety of environmental factors, there are a number of common things in the character of their impact on organisms and in response of living beings.

The law of optimum. Each factor has its limits of positive effect on organisms (Figure 1). The result of the variable factor depends primarily on the strength of its manifestation. Both insufficient, and redundant impact of the factor negatively affects the vital activity of living organisms. The favorable impact is called a zone of optimum of the environmental factor or simply an optimum for organisms of the given species. The greater the deviation from the optimum is, the more negatively this factor effects organisms (zone of pessimum). Maximum and minimum values of the factor - are critical points beyond which the existence is no longer possible, and death occurs. Conditions when one or several factors come close to critical points are called extreme. Limits of endurance between the critical points are called ecological valence of living organisms in relation to a particular environmental factor. Ecological valence - is a property of species to adapt to a particular range of environmental factors.

Wide ecological valence of species with respect to environmental factors is marked by a prefix of ''eury' to the factor. Eurythermic species - enduring large fluctuations in temperature, eurybathic - enduring wide range of pressure, euryhaline - enduring different salinity levels of the environment.

Inability to endure large fluctuations of the factor, or narrow ecological valence, is characterized by the prefix "steno" - stenothermal, stenobathic, stenohaline types, etc.

Species, the existence of which is strictly conditioned by certain environmental conditions, are called stenobiontic (environmentally non-plastic, highly specialized, not endurable), and those that are able to adapt to different environmental conditions - eurybiontic (more endurable, highly specialized).

"Growth and development of organisms depend primarily on those environmental factors, the value of which is close to the ecological minimum" - Liebig's law of minimum (1873). It follows from the law that:a) endurance of organisms is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its environmental requirements;b) all circumstances necessary to maintain life, are equal (the law of equivalence of living conditions), any factor can limit the possibility of existence of the organism.

The law of minimum is closely connected with the law of limiting factors, or F. Blekhman's law (1909): environmental factors that have maximum values in particular conditions, especially hinder (limit) species abilities to survive in these conditions. In other words, a factor which is in shortage or excess (near critical points) negatively affects organisms and also limits the manifestation of other factors, which can be at their optimum.

These laws are supplemented by V. Shelford's Law of Tolerance (1913): a limiting factor for existence of an organism can be both a minimum and maximum of the environmental impact, and the range between them determines the scope of resistance to this factor.

The greater is the deviation from the optimum, the more suppressive is this factor for the organism. Both insufficient, and redundant effect of the factor negatively affects living of organisms.

Any natural systems can develop only through the use of material, energy and information capacities of the environment. Isolated development is impossible. Development of nature is subject to certain laws.

Ecological environmental factors have various impacts on living organisms, that is, can affect as irritators causing adaptive changes in physiological and biochemical functions, as delimiters that make it impossible to exist in these conditions, as modifiers, causing morphological and anatomical changes in organisms; as signals indicating changes in other environmental factors.

Let's consider ecological importance of certain factors.

&&&$$$003-012-001$3.3.12.1 Методические указания к практическому занятию №12

{Цель занятия, методические указания к выполнению практического задания, примеры расчетов и задач}Questions for self-controlInto what groups can we classify the environmental factors?What factors are called abiotic factors of the environment?What environmental factors are biotic?Which factor is called edaphic?

&&&$$$003-012-002$3.3.12.2 Задания или тестовые вопросы для контроля к занятию №12{Задания или тесты (при необходимости указать ключ для выбора варианта)}Find in the text English equivalents of the following words and expressions. Translate the sentences which contain them.1) эвритермные организмы; 2) стенотермные 3) закон минимума Либиха; 4) зона пессимума; 5) экологическая валентность.


Ecology of populations - demecologyThink of what species is. Species - is a group of organisms that are similar in morphology. Any type of

animal, plant, microorganism establishes itself in the environment, masters the arena of life, adapts to the constantly changing conditions, not as a group of individuals, but as a whole, which is the population.

In ecology a population is called a group of individuals of the same species which interact with each other and share a common living area.

The word "population" comes from the Latin "Populus" - people, population. Thus, ecological population can be determined as the population of one species in a particular area.

Populations as group associations have a number of specific properties that are not inherent to each single individual. Members of one population have no less impact on each other than physical factors of the environment, or other types of organisms living together. To some extent, all forms of communications which are specific for interspecies relationships show up in populations, but most common are mutually beneficial and competitive relations. Specific intra-species relations - this is relationship associated with reproduction: between individuals of different sexes and between parent and child generations.

General changes in population size are formed by four phenomena, birth, death, moving in and out of individuals (migration).

Birth rate - the number of new individuals appearing per unit of time as a result of breeding. Fertility depends on the ratio of the breeding season, and overall length of life, as well as the fertility of individuals. Average fertility of each species is defined historically as a mechanism allowing for recovery of the loss of populations, in favorable conditions fertility is usually low, and in unfavorable conditions is high. The nature of fertility depends on the rate of sexual maturation and the ratio of males and females in the population, the number of generations per season, on the degree of parental care or provision of eggs with nutrition. Species which nurse and guard their offspring have a very low fertility. High fertility is usual for species with high mortality, especially when they are pressured by predators.

Population size and density depend not only on fertility but also on the population mortality. Mortality is the number of individuals who died in the given period. Mortality varies depending on the genetic and physiological usefulness of animals, environmental conditions, age, state of the population, and is expressed as % to initial or average population size.

Population dynamics is greatly influenced by the migration of individuals, that is, exchange of populations. Going of individuals out of the population or its replenishment by strangers (immigration) - is a phenomenon that is based on one of the most important features - its expansive ability. Balanced intensity of fertility and mortality (1-1) forms a stable population in which mortality is compensated by the growth, and its size and habitat are maintained at the same level. However, in nature there are virtually no stable populations, as there is no permanently stable state of the environment and relations within the population. More often it is observed an excess of births over deaths and populations grow up to such an extent that an outbreak of mass reproduction can occur which is especially true for small animals. These populations are called growing.

When population develops excessively, its living conditions worsen, and overcrowding of the population occurs, reserves of food and energy decrease. This leads to a sharp increase in mortality as a result the population begins to shrink. If the death rate exceeds the birth rate, the population is declining. But it can't shrink endlessly. Under certain conditions, mortality begins to fall, and the fertility increases, and gradually a population transforms into a stable population.

In nature, the population size is regulated by immigration and emigration - this process is called dispersion of the population. Expansive dispersion is a means of communication between populations. It increases with increasing density of the population, and during the depression in size, by contrast, the flow of strangers into the population grows. For example, it is known that residential animals with distinct territorial instincts, show low aggressive behavior towards strangers in a period of low population and invaders occupy vacant lands.

Often, the excessive increase of population density causes cannibalism.During emigration, penetration of dispersing individuals to unoccupied by the species territory, their

population and forming of new populations is called invasion.Each population is characterized by the age structure, and the ratio of age groups characterizes the

ability of a population to reproduce. In population there are individuals of different age, and among these are individuals of different sex. The duration of life and time of sexual maturation is not the same for different species.

Growth in the number and density of the population of any species in nature cannot be endless. Sooner or later population is faced with limitations. These limitations are resources thanks to which species exist: food, shelter, breeding sites. They do not allow the population to expand further. These limits are called the environmental capacity for specific populations. For example, spruce forest is more capacious environment for squirrel than the mixed forest, as the main food for squirrel is seeds of conifers....&&&$$$003-013-001$3.3.13.1 Методические указания к практическому занятию №13{Цель занятия, методические указания к выполнению практического задания, примеры расчетов и задач}Questions for self-control

1. What determines the size and density of the population?2. How does a population adjust its size?3. What is the effect of living in groups?4. What is polymorphism of the population?

&&&$$$003-013-002$3.3.13.2 Задания или тестовые вопросы для контроля к занятию №13{Задания или тесты (при необходимости указать ключ для выбора варианта)} Find word combinations in the previous exercise and explain about it.

1. environmental capacity2. birth, death, moving in and out of individuals (migration).3. Specific intra-species relations


Population structurePopulation is characterized by a certain organization. Distribution of individuals in territory, relations of groups in gender, age, morphological, physiological, behavioral, and genetic characteristics reflect the structure of population. Population structure is formed on the one hand, on the basis of common biological properties of the species, on the other hand - under the influence of abiotic environmental factors and populations of other species. Population structure has, therefore, an adaptive character. Different populations of the same species possess as similar characteristics of the structure, as distinctive ones characterizing specific environmental conditions of their habitats.

Each population has quantitative characteristics that solve problems of a qualitative nature. There are two groups of quantitative indicators - statistical and dynamical.

Statistical indicators describe the state of the population at a given time. Statistical indicators include size of the population, density and performance structure.

Size of the population - the total number of individuals in the given area or in a given volume. Population size is never constant, and depends on birth and death ratio.

Density is determined by the number of individuals or biomass per unit of area or volume. Density is also variable, depending on the population size. With the population increasing, its density doesn't increase only if the population can expand its areal. Expansion can continue for as long as the population does not meet any obstacle. We distinguish an accidentally even or group expansion.

Accidental expansion takes place only in a homogeneous environment, such as expansion of aphids in the field, but with the growth of reproduction the type of expansion can become group or spotty.

The most common is group expansion and it may be accidental. The group expansion provides for the highest resistance of the population to adverse conditions in comparison with an individual organism. Intensive expansion leads to rapid mixing of populations, blurs the boundaries between them. For example, highly mobile animals or birds have vast areals without sharp boundaries between populations. And as for slow-moving or passively moving animals, the boundaries of their populations are clearly distinguished, even in small areas.

Population density depends on the size of living organisms, the larger is an animal, the greater is the area they occupy, the lower population density, and vice versa.

Population size and density can also depend on other factors both biotic and abiotic: for example, the destruction of prey by predators, impact of parasites on life of hosts, cold winters and dry summers, etc. However, fluctuations in numbers are not unlimited. Population as any biological system has the ability to self-regulate. Maintaining optimal size of the population under these conditions is called homeostasis.

Any population is theoretically capable of unlimited growth, if it's not limited by factors of the environment. In this hypothetical case, the rate of population growth will depend on the biological potential specific to species. The concept of biological potential was introduced in ecology in 1928 by R. Chapman. This figure reflects the theoretical maximum of offsprings from a single pair (or one individual) per a unit of time, for example, for a year or the entire life cycle.


1. What from does the population density depend?2. What is the maintaining optimal size?3. What is the biological potential?

&&&$$$003-014-002$3.3.14.2 Задания или тестовые вопросы для контроля к занятию №14{Задания или тесты (при необходимости указать ключ для выбора варианта)}Give Russian equivalents of the following expressions:1.territory, 2.relations of groups in gender, 3. age, 4. morphological, physiological, behavioral, and genetic characteristics 5. Statistical indicators


The concept of monitoring and its elementsEnvironmental monitoring is a comprehensive system of monitoring the state of the environment,

and the assessment and forecast of environmental changes under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.

Environmental monitoring should be distinguished from environmental control. Environmental control is a system of measures aimed at prevention, detection and suppression of violations of environmental laws, ensuring compliance of business entities and other agents with all requirements including standards and regulations for protection of the environment.

The term "monitoring" was officially introduced to science at the Stockholm UN Conference on the Environment in 1972. After two years in the Kenyan capital of Nairobi the first governmental meeting on

monitoring took place. The meeting decided to give priority to monitoring of environmental pollution at three levels - local, regional and global. Since 1974, the term "monitoring" was introduced into Russian literature by Yu. A. Izrael. From the beginning, in the interpretation of monitoring there are two points of view.

Many foreign researchers proposed to implement a system of continuous observation of one or more environmental elements with a determined purpose and under a specially developed program. Another view was expressed by Yu. A. Izrael. Under monitoring he offered to understand only a comprehensive system of supervision, assessment and forecasting that studies only individual changes of the condition of biosphere, occurring only under the influence of human activities (ie, monitoring of anthropogenic changes).

Alternative concept was proposed in 1975 by I. P. Gerasimov. He also attached to monitoring the control functions. But it was not appropriate because usually governmental and local authorities have control functions. That's why the concept offered by Yuriy Izrael became more used in everyday life.

According to all concepts, objects of monitoring are ecosystems under the influence of anthropogenic factors. Ecosystems not subject to anthropogenic influences are also of interest. They are a point of reference or a standard for comparison with ecosystems modified by human activity.

The most important part of environmental monitoring is monitoring of anthropogenic pollution. It is in the center of attention.

The main purpose of monitoring is monitoring of the state of the environment and the level of pollution, as well as information support of environmental management and environmental safety. The impact of human activity must also be timely assessed. Monitoring is not only observation and evaluation of factors, but experimental modeling, forecasting and recommendations for environmental management. Thus, the purpose of monitoring is summarized to the following:

- Monitoring of the state of the environment;- Forecasting on the environment;

- Delivery of information to appropriate services and agencies. Monitoring tasks: - Organization of systematic observations of changes in the biosphere; - Evaluation of the observed changes, identification of anthropogenic effects; - forecasting and determining trends in changes in the biosphere.

&&&$$$003-015-001$3.3.15.1 Методические указания к практическому занятию №15{Цель занятия, методические указания к выполнению практического задания, примеры расчетов и задач}Questions for self-control

1. The concept of monitoring and its elements2. What is the difference between monitoring of the environment and control?3. Classification of monitoring systems4. What is the objective of monitoring?5. Main tasks of monitoring

&&&$$$003-015-002$3.3.15.2 Задания или тестовые вопросы контроля к занятию №15{Задания или тесты (при необходимости указать ключ для выбора варианта)}Explain this figure 1. Block diagram of the monitoring system. According to the system proposed by Yury Izrael, monitoring structure consists of four parts: observation, evaluation of the actual condition, condition forecast and assessment of the projected state (Fig.1).

Information system (monitoring) [ ManagementObservations - Evaluation of the actual condition ] Regulation of the quality of the environment Condition forecast - Assessment of the projected state Direct communication – Feedback

&&&$$$004-000-000$3.4 Лабораторный практикум

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$$$006-001-000$3.6.1 Методические указания ...&&&$$$006-001-001$3.6.2 Темы курсовых работ

{Список с указанием ключа для выбора темы}Не предусмотрено по учебному плану.

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$$$007-000-000$3.7 Блок контроля знаний...&&&

$$$007-001-000$3.7.1 Задание по 1-модулю{Методические указания к выполнению, задание}

Exercise IGive Russian equivalents of the following expressions:one of the major problems; to subdue nature; to come in contact; nucleic acids; therefore; to define; descriptive studies of plants; to have impact on; observations; abuse of chemicals; to destroy wildlife; cell; to harm the human environment; pedology; to raise public interest in; distribution and abundance of living organisms; to

inhabit; abiotic; solar insolation; drones; pollination; to consume; habitat; consequences of environmental change; to intertwine; survival; to be worried about something.

Exercise IITranslate the given words and word combinations into English:глобальное потепление живая материяфизические свойства приманиватьпочвоведение углекислый газосвещение лучами солнца (инсоляция) глюкозатрутень калийпокорять природу воздушный потокраспределение организмов относительно размера землипоследствия изменений выделятьбыть обеспокоенным чем-либо многоклеточныйнуклеиновая кислота обеспечивать стабильность

Exercise IIIPlace these sentences in the correct order by referring to the information in the text.1. Evolutionary diversity has given rise to all the different species of2. Because there are so many possible niches in all the vast inhabitable areas of the Earth, millions of species have evolved to fill them.3. Living organisms express their diversity in hundreds of different ways — both external or visible and internal or invisible.4. Many of the world's different plants and animals are under severe threat of extinction.5. Cultural diversity helps the survival process by binding groups together and passing on traditions which help people live in their local environment.

Exercise IVGive the author's definition of the ecological niche. Mention the comparison of the author and your opinion on the reasons.

&&&$$$007-001-001$3.7.2 Задание по 2-модулю

{Методические указания к выполнению, задание}…Exercise IAnswer these questions.1. What organisms can be classified as ecosystem engineers? 2. How many types of ecosystem engineers exist? Characterize each one. 3. What type of ecosystem engineers does the beaver refer to? Why? 4. What foods are its preferred ones? What does this preference lead to?5. How many trees can a family of six can consume in one year?6.How does dam-building change the flow of water through the stream?

Exercise II Translate the given phrases into English.количество осадков третичный консументиспользованная теплота. пруд, искусственныйводоем луг хищничествогрибки (грибок) морская водоросльпроточная вода взаимодействовать

пищевая цепь разложение, гниениестоячая вода понятие, концепцияпредпочитать измерять устойчивость экосистемысостояние окружающей среды паразитизм

Exercise IIIFind in the text English equivalents of the following words and expressions. Translate the sentences which contain them.1)морской; 2)производство сырых материалов; 3)пресноводный; 4)хлор; 5)обитающий на дне (бентический); 6)прилив и отлив (на море и океане) 7)коралловые рифы; 8)сода; 9) нероциональное использование морских ресурсов; 10) чрезмерный промысел (перелов); 11) отдаленный от берега; 12) прибережный; 13) органические отложения; 14) область водосбора; 15) растворенный кислород; 16) растительный покров; 17) сосудистое растение; 18) болото, трясина; 19) осока; 20) солёность; 21) эвригалинный (выносящий различную солёность); 22) скорость, быстрота; 23) зарастание водоема

Exercise IV

Give Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations: to argue mining to rejectlogging recent to take into accountequilibrium perception to rejectcontroversial ensemble advocacyon a worldwide scale objective mutuall relationship


{Методические указания к выполнению, задание}Exercise IGive Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:

1. division of ecology2. the environmental factors3. the levels of the organism4. abiotic factors5. biotic factors6. antropogenic factors

Exercise IITranslate the given phrases into English.

1. Абиотические факторы включают свет, температуру, влажность, давление.2. Уровни организации живых организмов зависят от условий среды3. Различают абиотические, биотические и антропогенные факторы.4. На окружающую среду влияет антропогенный фактор.

Exercise IIIFind in the text English equivalents of the following words and expressions. Translate the sentences which contain them.1)свет; 2)эврибатные организмы; 3)закон действия экологического фактора Шелфорда; 4)ксенобиотик; 5)растения; 6)животные; 7)микроорганизмы; 8) почва; 9) стенотермный; 10) экологическая валентность; 11) вид.

Exercise IVAnswer these questions.1 What divisions of ecology do you know?2. What division of ecology has a task to study the structure and dynamics of populations of individual species?3.What is the habitat?4. How are Individual properties or elements called?5. What is the basic mechanisms of adaptation?6. Which are the levels of the organism do you know?7. When do the adaptations develop?8. Into what groups can we classify the environmental factors?9. Which factor is called edaphic?


{Методические указания к выполнению, задание}Exercise ITranslate the given phrases into Russia

1. environmental capacity2. birth, death, moving in and out of individuals (migration).3. Specific intra-species relations4. territory, 5. relations of groups in gender, 6. morphological, physiological, behavioral, and genetic characteristics 7. Statistical indicators

Exercise IIGive English equivalents of the following words and word combinations:1.структура популяции2. оптимальный размер популяции3. характеристики популяции4. виды экологического мониторинга5. классификация систем мониторинга

Exercise IIIAnswer these questions.

1. What from does the population density depend?2. What is the maintaining optimal size?3. What is the biological potential? 4. The concept of monitoring and its elements5. What is the difference between monitoring of the environment and control?6. Classification of monitoring systems7. What is the objective of monitoring?8. Main tasks of monitoring9. What is the effect of living in groups?10. What is polymorphism of the population?

Exercise IVFind in the text English equivalents of the following words and expressions. Translate the sentences which contain them.1.Statistical indicators; 2. size of the population, 3. Density, 4. performance structure; 5. birth and death ratio; 6. Biomass; 7. homogeneous environment,8. reproduction the type of expansion; 9. prey by predators, 10. impact of parasites on life of hosts, 11. cold winters, 12. dry summer

&&&$$$007-001-004$3.7.5 Тесты для 1 рубежного контроля

1. Choose the correct answer: атмосфера {~gidrosphere ~agrosphere ~biosphere =atmosphere ~microsphere}

2.Choose the correct answer: воздействие на окружающую среду {~assessment environment ~abuse of fertilizers ~environment ~area environmentally =affecting environment}

3. Choose the correct answer: химическая безопасность {= chemical safety ~ chemical explosion ~ chemical control ~ chemical contamination ~ chemical pollution}

4. Choose the correct answer: состав воды {~makeup of water ~personnel of water =composition of water ~water ~temper of water}

5.Choose the correct answer: экология – экология{=ecology ~ecologist ~ecol ~bionomics ~ecological}

6. Choose the correct answer: окружающая среда {=environment ~climate ~scope ~condition ~ambiance}

7. Choose the correct answer: экологический кризис {~ecological system ~ecological threat =ecological crisis

~ecological balance ~ecological risk}

8. Choose the correct answer: ecological offence{~экологическое качество =экологическое правонарушение ~экологический ущерб ~экологические требования ~экологические интересы общества}

9. Choose the correct answer: физический взрыв – физикалық жарылыс{~psychotherapy ~phytotoxicants ~population explosion ~phenomenon =physical explosions}

10. Choose the correct answer: scale of safety {~шторм =шкала безопасности ~море ~пустыня ~осадки}

11. Choose the correct answer: pollution {~явление ~сосна =загрязнение ~овраг ~водоём}

12.Choose the correct answer: система экологического обслуживания{~ecological contract ~ecological science =ecological services ~ecological equals ~ecological cleanliness}

13. Choose the correct answer: вид {~see ~look ~watch=view ~visit}

14.Choose the correct answer: water relation{~водные ресурсы ~водный объект ~водный режим

=водные отношения ~водозабор}

15. Choose the correct answer : питьевая вода {~water-supply ~waterfall=water drinkable ~water quality ~water recourses}

16. Choose the correct answer: загрязнение атмосферного воздуха {~water pollution ~secondary pollution ~space pollution ~radio contamination =air pollution}

17. Choose the correct answer: законы «экологии» - «экология» заңдары{~the act of the “ecology” ~the bill of the “ecology” ~the lex of the “ecology” ~the code of the “ecology”=the laws of the “ecology”}

18. Choose the correct answer: In what part of our Republic are huge reserves of oil?{~in the east ~in the north ~in the south=in the west ~in the center}

19. Choose the correct answer: экологический контроль{~Environmental Code ~Environmental auditing =Environmental control ~Environmental monitoring ~Environmental law}

20. Choose the correct answer: нефть {~petrol ~water =oil ~butter ~oily}

21.Choose the correct answer: hydrothermal{~гидросфера ~многоклеточный=гидротермальный

~азот ~кальций}

22. Choose the correct answer: чистая вода {~fresh water =clear water ~dirty water ~dark water ~sweet water}

23. Choose the correct answer: взрывчатое вещество {=explosive ~explosion ~explode, ~blow up ~burst}

24. Choose the correct answer: высококачественный {=high quality~highly skilled ~supercilious ~stilted ~high}

25. Choose the correct answer: водопотребитель {~water ~water pollution =water users ~air pollution ~air user}

&&&$$$007-001-005$3.7.6 Тесты для 2 рубежного контроля

$$$1AChoose the correct answer: животноеA) animalB) birdC) forestD) adaptationE) area$$$2AChoose the correct answer: адаптация A) adaptation B) agroecosistem C) adsorption D) agronomy E) area

$$$3DChoose the correct answer: airA) вода B) лес

C) экология D) воздухE) горы $$$4CChoose the correct answer: состав воды A) makeup of water B) personnel of waterC) composition of water D) waterE) temper of water$$$5CChoose the correct answer: grassA) цветы B) листьяC) трава D) ёль E) дерево $$$6BChoose the correct answer: ecological safety A) шторм B) экологическая безопасностьC) мореD) пустыня E) осадки$$$7CChoose the correct answer: pollutionA) явление B) сосна C) загрязнение D) овраг E) водоём $$$8DChoose the correct answer: вид A) see B) lookC) watchD) viewE) visit$$$9DChoose the correct answer: water relationA) водные ресурсы B) водный объект C) водный режим D) водные отношения E) водозабор $$$10EChoose the correct answer: законы «экологии» A) actB) billC) lexD) codeE) laws

$$$11CChoose the correct answer : находить, открывать A) think

B) seeC) findD) meet withE) pick up$$$12B Choose the correct answer: антропогенные изменения в природе A) anthropogenic pressuresB) anthropogenic changes in the natureC) anthropogenic energy D) anthropogenic succession E) anthropogenic factor$$$13AChoose the correct answer: приспособление экобиотическое A) adaptation ecobioticB) adaptation ecoclimaticC) affluentD) action systemicE) adaptation ecobioticy$$$14BChoose the correct answer: Who is coined the term «ecology»:A) AristotleB) Ernest HaeckelC) Charles DarwinD) V.I.VernadskyE) N.M. Belodedov$$$15A Choose the correct answer: What do you call the outer shell of the earth?A) biosphereB) hydrosphereC) atmosphereD) lithosphereE) ecosphere$$$16DChoose the correct answer: General patterns of organization of life studies:A) applied ecologyB) industrial ecologyC) social ecologyD) theoretical ecologyE) global ecology

$$$17CChoose the correct answer: When the environment has taken shape as an independent science?A) in early 19th century;B) in the middle of the 19th century; C)at the end of the nineteenth century;D) in the early twentieth century;E) at the end of the twentieth century.$$$18C Choose the correct answer: All population occupying this territory is … .A) biosphere;B) ecosystem;C) community;D) biome;E) biotope.$$$19DChoose the correct answer: For non-periodic factors include:

A) day and night;B) solar energy;C) soil and air;D) tsunami;E) snow and rain.$$$20CChoose the correct answer: System of long-term observation of the environment and the processes occurring in ecosystems and the biosphere, is called:A) modelB) modificationC) monitoringD) managementE)prediction$$$21B Choose the correct answer: Who coined the term «biosphere» in the scientific literature?A) V.I. VernadskyB) E. SuessC) SukachevD) G.F. MorosovE) Ernst Heackel$$$22AChoose the correct answer: How many reserves in Kazakhstan at this stage?A) 10B) 11C) 7D) 8E) 9$$$23BChoose the correct answer: Organisms that feed on organic materials are called:A) autotrophicB) heterotrophicC) producersD) destructorsE) hemotrophamy$$$24BChoose the correct answer: That studies sinecologiya?A) populationB) communityC) an IdividualD) phytocoenosisE) zooctnosis$$$25AChoose the correct answer: The scope of the mind is:A) noosphereB) atmosphereC) biosphereD) hydrosphereE) lithosphere$$$26BChoose the correct answer: Which group of organisms is a man?a) to producersB) to consumersC) to the decomposersD) to saprophytesE) halophytes$$$27B

Choose the correct answer: Biotic factors are called:A) factors inanimateB) factors of wildlifeC) physical environmental factorsD) the amount of impact that each other living beingsE) the sum of influences that have on each other living beings and physical factors$$$28AChoose the correct answer: Living environment of the Earth is:A) the hydrosphereB) the lithosphereC) hydrosphere and lithosphereD) biosphereE) atmosphere

$$$29DChoose the correct answer: 21% of air is:A) carbon dioxideB) nitrogenC) inert gasesD) oxygenE) hydrogen$$$30D Choose the correct answer: Usually able to appear on:A) forestsB) Antarctica C) mountainsD) major citiesE) above the rural settlements

&&&$$$007-001-007$3.7.7 Вопросы к экзамену или примеры экзаменационных тестов...&&&

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