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ORGANIZATIONALORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALSOCIAL STRUCTURESTRUCTURE
ساختار اجتماعی سازمان هاساختار اجتماعی سازمان ها
ChapterChapter 44
Mary Jo Hatch with Ann L. Cunliffe
Organizational Social StructureOrganizational Social Structure
The relationships among people
who assume the roles of the
organization, and the organizational
groups or units to which they
belong (e.g., departments, divisions).
Table 4.1 Table 4.1 Weber’s Ideal BureaucracyWeber’s Ideal Bureaucracy
• A fixed division of labor (تقسیم کار)
A clearly defined hierarchy of offices, each with its own sphere of competence ( سلسله (مراتب
Candidates for offices are selected on the basis of technical qualifications and are appointed rather than elected (صالحیت)
Officials are remunerated by fixed salaries paid in money (دستمزد ثابت)
The office is the primary occupation of the office holder and constitutes a career ( مسیر(شغلی
Promotion is granted according to seniority or achievement and is dependent upon the judgment of superiors (ارتقاء) Official work is to be separated from ownership of the means of administration ( جدایی
(مالکیت
A set of general rules governing the performance of offices; strict discipline and control in the conduct of the office is expected (قوانین)
Source: Parsons (1947); Scott (1992)
Division of LaborDivision of Labor
The distribution of work responsibilities and tasks within
an organization.
E.g., divisions, functions, departments
Hierarchy of AuthorityHierarchy of Authority
The distribution of authority in an organization and formal reporting
relationships
Manager
Employee
Scalar principle
Unity of command
FormalizationFormalization((رسمیترسمیت))
The extent to which explicit rules, regulations, policies, and procedures govern activities.
– Organization charts ( چارت(سازمانی
– Policies, handbooks (سیایت ها)
– Job descriptions (شرح شغل)
– Operating procedures ( فرآیند های(کاری
– MbO, PERT
FormalizationFormalization
High formalization
Low formalization
Low employee discretion, increased managerial control, strict observance of positional authority…
Greater employee discretion, flexibility, spontaneity…
Table 4.2Table 4.2 Dimensions of Organizational Social StructureDimensions of Organizational Social StructureDimension Measure
Size Number of employees.
Administrative component
Line departments are involved directly in the production of
organizational outputs, staff are advisory and support functions. Differentiation The allocation of people and resources to tasks (vertical & horizontal).
Integration The coordination of activities.
Centralization The extent to which decision making authority resides at the top of the organization.
Standardization The extent to which standard procedures govern the operations and activities of the organization.
Formalization The extent to which the organization uses written communications and procedures.
Specialization Extent to which work is divided into narrowly defined tasks assigned to
specific employees.
DIFFERENTIATIONDIFFERENTIATION((تفکیک یا تخصصی سازیتفکیک یا تخصصی سازی))
The process by which organizations allocate people and resources to tasks and establish relationships in order to achieve goals.
i.e. how things are divided up.
Vertical & Horizontal DifferentiationVertical & Horizontal Differentiation
Vertical
• The number of levels in the hierarchy.
• Reporting relationships.
Horizontal
• Departmentation, the way tasks are grouped into functions & competencies.
• The span of control: the number of employees reporting to a manager.
DifferentiationDifferentiation
Tall Organization
Flat Organization
Low horizontal, high vertical differentiation High horizontal, low vertical differentiation
Differentiation/IntegrationDifferentiation/Integrationتفکیک و تلفیقتفکیک و تلفیق
• As an organization grows, it differentiates to meet the more varied demands of its now larger environment and its own internal complexity.
• In order to keep its differentiated activities aligned to its strategy, integration is required.
• Further differentiation (e.g., adding layers of management) leads to a need for further integration (e.g., more coordination mechanisms).
Contingency TheoriesContingency Theories
The dimensions of social structure will depend on the relationship between an
organization’s environment and its strategy, technology, size, etc.
Table 4.3 Table 4.3 Comparing Mechanistic & Organic Comparing Mechanistic & Organic OrganizationsOrganizations
Mechanistic Structures Organic Structures
High horizontal & vertical differentiation. High/complex horizontal & vertical integration.
High formalization Low formalization
Centralization Decentralization
Standardization Mutual adjustment
Close supervision Personal expertise & creativity without supervision.
Vertical communication Lateral communication
Mechanistic & Organic OrganizationsMechanistic & Organic Organizations
Mechanistic Structures
• High horizontal and vertical differentiation.
• High formalization.
• Centralized decision making.
• Standardization through written rules, procedures, SOPs.
• Close supervision with authority and status based on position.
• Vertical communication.
• Status oriented. (Burns & Stalker, 1961)
Mechanistic & Organic OrganizationsMechanistic & Organic Organizations
Organic Structures
• High/complex horizontal and vertical integration.
• Low formalization.
• Decentralized decision making.
• Mutual adjustment through joint problem solving and interaction.
• Personal expertise, creativity without supervision.
• Lateral communication.
• Expertise oriented.
(Burns & Stalker, 1961)
DifferentiationDifferentiation
Four dimensions of differentiation:
– Formality (رسمیت)– Task or relationship orientation (وظیفه)– Time orientation (long or short term) (زمان)– Goal orientation (هدف)
(Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967(Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967))
IntegrationIntegration
The process of coordinating tasks, people, & functions to achieve unity of effort:
•Hierarchy
•Rules, procedures, schedules
•Liaison roles
•Task forces
•Cross functional teams
•Direct communication
Increased integration
Organizational Social Structure & the Organizational Social Structure & the EnvironmentEnvironment
Stable environment
Unstable environment
Higher differentiation
High integration - direct communication
Decentralization
Lower differentiation
High integration
- hierarchy
Centralization
(Lawrence & Lorsch, (Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967)1967)
CentralizationCentralizationتمرکزتمرکز
Where decisions (strategic & work-
related) are made, or services located:
– Top (centralization)
– All levels (decentralization)
Structure in FivesStructure in Fives (Mintzberg, 1983)(Mintzberg, 1983)
Simple structure
ساختار های ساده
Machine bureaucracy
بروکراسی ماشینی
Professional bureaucracy
بروکراسی حرفه ایAdhocracy
ادهوکراسی
Divisionalized
بخش بندی
چرخه حیات سازمانی
Leadership crisis
Autonomy crisis
Control crisis
Red-tape crisis
Renewal crisis
Entrepreneurial phase
Collectivity phase
Delegation phase
Formalization phase
Collaboration phase
Figure 4.2 Figure 4.2 Greiner’s Greiner’s Model of Model of Organizational Organizational LifecyclesLifecycles
OUTPUTSTechnical Core
INPUTS
The Katz and Kahn ModelThe Katz and Kahn Model
TransformationprocessesInputs Outputs
First we meet our old friend . . .
. . . which becomes
Sales OUTPUTSTECHCOREPurchasingINPUTS
The Katz and Kahn Model then adds a layer of The Katz and Kahn Model then adds a layer of
support to ensure that the technical core has support to ensure that the technical core has
needed inputs . . .needed inputs . . .
support support
Maintenance
Accounting, Personnel, Facilities
Sales OUTPUTSTECHCORE
PurchasingINPUTS
. . . then a layer of maintenance to keep the technical . . . then a layer of maintenance to keep the technical and support layers focused on technical tasks . .and support layers focused on technical tasks . . . .
Maintenance
Accounting, Personnel, Facilities
Sales OUTPUTSTECHCORE
PurchasingINPUTS
. . . then adaptive activities so the organization . . . then adaptive activities so the organization responds to changes in the environment. responds to changes in the environment.
AdaptationExecutive decision making, strategic planning, R & D, and P. R.
Giddens’ Duality of StructureGiddens’ Duality of Structure
• Repeated interactions become standard practices (e.g., ways of manufacturing a product, coordinating a meeting, evaluating an employee)
• As practices become established, they are institutionalized within the culture as norms and expectations
• Institutionalized practices crystallize into what we regard to be structural patterns of relationship, but these change with changes in organizational members’ actions that are contextualized by them
ساختار سازمان
ساختار سازمان
Symbolic-Interpretive ApproachesSymbolic-Interpretive Approaches
• Routines and Improvisations
• Symbols• Practices and ways of
doing things• Stories & storytellers
Routines and ImprovisationRoutines and Improvisation
Routinesروال عادی
The reproduction of actions.باز تولید اقدامات
• Techniques, practices, plans, systems, procedures.
• Stability (ثبات).• Preserve & transfer
knowledge.
Improvisationsابتکار
Emergent, unfolding behaviors.رفتار های فوری
• Interacting outside established practices.
• Perform in gaps.• Take advantage of opportunities.
Institutional LogicsInstitutional Logicsمنطق های نهادینه شدهمنطق های نهادینه شده
Mindsets, cognitive frames and mental models configuring
thought and systems.
behavioral symbolic
Organization invested with meaning
Communities of PracticeCommunities of Practiceاجتماع رویه هااجتماع رویه ها
Community of Practice
Shared repertoires
فهرست های مشترک
Mutual learning
یادگیری دوطرفه
Local meanings
معانی محلی
Identities
هویت ها
Shared interests etc.
منافع مشترک
Emerging connections and improvisations
Language CommunitiesLanguage Communitiesزبانی زبانی اجتماعات اجتماعات
What are the casualties today?
We’re fighting a battle to survive…
Boom! Something happens ... That’s one of the dark tunnels…
It’s such a band-aid approach…
Comments by managers in a small manufacturing organization. (Cunliffe, 2001)
Creating features of an organization’s social landscape in everyday talk…
Postmodern Approaches to Postmodern Approaches to
Organizational Social StructureOrganizational Social Structure
Organization …
سازمان
~ order (نظم)
~ routine (روتین)
~ rationality (منطقی)
Disorganization …
بی سازمانی )بهم ریختگی(
~ disorder (بی نظمی)
~ spontaneous ( خود(انگیختگی
~ irrational (بی منطقی)
Some Postmodern Ideas…Some Postmodern Ideas…
De-differentiation:
نفکیک زدایی- self manage
- self-coordinate
- self-organize
Feminist Organizations:
سازملن های فمینیستی- equitable, participatory structures
- in/formality
- expressing views & emotions
Deconstruction:
ساختار زدایی- male gendered organizations
- rationality
Anti-administration:
ضد مدیریت- radical skepticism towards ends & means
- rationality / justice & morality