Pi Crm 200901

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

1/92

Correlates of Job

Satisfaction of Ear

Career Employeesin Printing and

Publishing

OccupationsBy

Ashley S. Walker, M.B.A.

Marketing Communications Coordinator

Printing Industry Center at RIT

Rochester Institute of Technology

Patricia A. Sorce, Ph.D.

Administrative Chair and Fawcett

Distinguished Professor

School of Print Media

Rochester Institute of Technology

A Research Monograph of the

Printing Industry Center at RIT

No. PICRM-2009-01

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

2/92

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

3/92

By

Ashley S. Walker, M.B.A.Marketing Communications CoordinatorPrinting Industry Center at RIRochester Institute o echnology

Patricia A. Sorce, Ph.D.Administrative Chair and Fawcett DistinguishedProessor, School o Print MediaRochester Institute o echnology

Correlates of Job Satisfaction of

Early Career Employees in Printingand Publishing Occupations

A Research Monograph o thePrinting Industry Center at RIRochester, NYJanuary 2009

PICRM-2009-01

2009 Printing Industry Center at RI All rights reserved.

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

4/92

Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)

Te research agenda o the Printing Industry Center at RI andthe publication o research ndings are supported by theollowing organizations:

With Thanks

ii

b

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

5/92

Correlates o Job Satisaction o Early Career Employees in Printing and Publishing Occupations 1

Table of Contents

Executive Summary ...................................................................................................... 3

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 5Literature Review ........................................................................................................... 7

What is Job Satisaction? ....................................................................................... 7

Relationships Between Job Satisaction & Workplace Factors ......................... 8

Relationships Between Job Satisaction & Workplace Behaviors .................... 9

Relationships Between Job Satisaction & Other Constructs ........................ 12

Relationships Between Job Satisaction & Personal Characteristics ............. 14

Generations at Work: Is Tere a Cohort Eect? .............................................. 15

Methodology ................................................................................................................22

Survey Design ......................................................................................................22

Procedure ..............................................................................................................22

Data Analysis ........................................................................................................22

Demographic Proles .......................................................................................... 22

Research Findings .......................................................................................................23

SPM Frequency Analysis ....................................................................................23

Research Questions .............................................................................................27

Discussion o Findings................................................................................................35

Summary o Results .............................................................................................35

Lessons or Employers.........................................................................................36

Support or Prior Research ................................................................................. 37

Limitations o the Research ................................................................................ 39Reerences .....................................................................................................................40

Appendix A: Response Frequencies .......................................................................... 45

Appendix B: Factor Analysis & Factor Regression ................................................. 76

Appendix C: Job itles by Company ype ............................................................... 80

Table of Contents

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

6/92

Walker & Sorce (PICRM-2009-01)2

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

7/92


Executive Summary

Te printing industry is in a human resources crisis. With the upcoming retirement

wave o Baby Boomer employees, the industry has as many as 5,000 jobs to ll annually

and they are having a challenge nding qualied young people to apply. Tis primary

goal o this research study is to answer this question: what is the perception o recent

college graduates about their uture careers in the printing and publishing industries?

Tis is an extremely pertinent objective as the graphic arts industry will not have any

success in attracting new talent unless the young people now working in these jobs are

satised and nd the work ullling.

A survey was designed to assess the overall job satisaction o graduates in graphic

arts programs rom the Rochester Institute o echnology (RI). O the 2,809 poten-

tial respondents (1,845 School o Print Media (SPM) and 964 School o Design (SD)

alumni), 749 completed the survey yielding a response rate o 26.7%. Regression analy-

ses were conducted to identiy the predictors o overall job satisaction using a number

o independent variables including age, gender, and job acet perceptions. Te results o

the research can be summarized as ollows:

Almost all SPM respondents (90.4%) were satised with their job overall.

However, 36.3% planned to actively seek a new job in the next year. Tose

who planned on making a job change were likely to stay in the same indus-

try (28.0%), while an additional 12.0% will look or a new job within the same

company. Another 12.9% will look or a new job in a dierent industry.

When comparing overall job satisaction between SD and SPM respondents,

there was no statistically signicant dierence. Tere were statistically signi-cant dierences between the two groups or only two job acet satisaction

measures: the level o satisaction with support or continuing education/

in-service programs and work environment or work culture. In both instances,

SPM respondents had lower average satisaction scores than did SD respon-

dents.

In terms o demographic dierences within overall job satisaction or the SPM

sample, no statistically signicant dierences were ound or age groups (gener-

ations). However, dierences among age groups or our o the 23 job acet

satisaction scores were ound to be statistically signicant. Consistent with the

stereotypes o Gen Y, the younger employees were more dissatised than theolder groups on three o the our acets. Additionally, dierences in overall job

satisaction were ound or both gender and salary groups, with emales being

less satised than males and those with higher salaries being more satised than

those with lower salaries.

A regression analysis o the predictors o overall job satisaction or SPM

respondents revealed six pertinent correlating actors that account or 47.8% o

Executive Summary

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

8/92


the variation in overall job satisaction. Tese six actors are shown below (in

order by beta):

Satisaction with personal gratication you eel rom doing your job,-

Satisaction with the organizations goals/mission/vision,-

Satisaction with the opportunity to be creative,-

Satisaction with salary,-

Absolute salary amount, and-

Satisaction with level o challenge in work.-

Additional analyses revealed the career proles o the respondents and the rms where

they are employed:

Te majority o School o Print Media (SPM) respondents (87.9%) were

employed, and over hal o them (52.1%) worked at traditional graphic arts

companies such as commercial printers, publishers, advertisers, and in-house

marketing or printing departments. When additional traditional categories

were added rom the coded other rm responses (i.e., nancial printer, print-

ing equipment manuacturer, paper & printing supplies, etc.) the total was

72.3% o respondents.

Most SPM respondents (62.2%) worked at large companies with over one

hundred employees. Additionally, most o the companies where SPM respon-

dents are employed have been in business or at least 20 years (71.9%).

Beore starting with their current employer, SPM respondents are likely to have

worked or more than three other employers (57.9%). Tis level o experience is

reected in the act that 73.9% o SPM respondents made $50,000 or more per

year.

A high percentage o SPM respondents have a job that is related to their most

recent degree (60.7%). More than hal (59.4%) o SPM respondents believed

that their experiences in school helped to prepare them or their job, and 60.7%

believed that the graphic arts degree they received was important to their

employer. Additionally, most SPM respondents (78.2%) believed that they have

enough training and education to get ahead in their careers.

Te present research supports prior research that ound the ollowing actors impacting

overall job satisaction: job level, work culture, person-culture or person-organization

t, and satisaction with intrinsic satisers/motivators.

Executive Summary

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

9/92


Introduction

Te printing industry is in a human resources crisis. With the upcoming retirement

wave o Baby Boomer employees, the industry has as many as 5,000 jobs to ll annually

and they are having a challenge nding qualied young people to apply. Baccalaureate

programs in printing and graphic communications are also nding it dicult to attract

applicants to their programs. Even within those who express interest, a large percent-

age are initially interested in graphic design jobs as opposed to production, workow or

scientic jobs associated with the industry.

A number o trade organizations have either launched or discussed launching advertis-

ing campaigns to sell the industry to young people. At Graph Expo in 2007, the PGSF

organized a panel discussion o ten printing proessionals to address how to improve

the image o graphic arts occupations in the minds o young people. But, as one o the

speakers noted, not one student was included on the panel.

Tis primary goal o this research study is to answer this question: what is the percep-

tion o recent college graduates about their uture careers in the printing and publishing

industries? Tis is an extremely pertinent objective as the graphic arts industry will not

have any success in attracting new talent unless the young people now working in these

jobs are satised and nd the work ullling. Nothing beats positive word-o-mouth as

the most eective orm o marketing.

In order to accomplish this objective, this study will draw on the extensive body o

research investigating the correlates o job satisaction. Job satisaction is a highly stud-

ied construct within the organizational behavior and psychology elds. As shown inFigure 1, there are a number o antecedents o job satisaction potentially indicated.

Demographic dierences such as age are but one o many actors that may predict

whether a person will be satised with and stay in a job.

Introduction

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

10/92


Figure 1. Researched relationships between job satisaction and other constructs

Te goal o this research is to determine which actors or constructs have the stron-

gest correlation to overall job satisaction among School o Print Media alumni who

are currently employed in the graphic arts industry. Tese alumni were surveyed on

the characteristics o their jobs, what they like and dislike about their jobs, and on

what their employers could do to change their jobs or the better (i such changes wereneeded). From these data, we will determine the keys to job satisaction within this

sample . We will then make recommendations as to what managers can do to increase

the satisaction o their employees in the hopes o attracting new employees and reduc-

ing turnover o the most talented.

Introduction

Age

Gender

Personality

Values

Intrinsic Satisfiers/Motivators

Person-Job Fit

Person-Organization Fit/Person-Culture Fit

Personal Characteristics

Availability of Job Alternatives

Unemployment Rate

External Factors

Outcomes

Intention to Quit/Turnover

Absenteeism

Performance/Productivity

Organizational Citizenship Behaviors

AffectJob Facets

Job Level/Rank

Occupational Level (Rank + Age)

Stress

Length of Service

Work Environment

Wages/Benefits

Organizational Vision/Direction

Organizational Culture

Organizational Communication

Organizational Values

Supervision

Work Design

Work Conditions

Coworkers

Job Satisfaction

OrganizationalCommitment

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

11/92


Literature Review

Extensive research has been conducted on job satisaction and several other constructs

or behaviors (i.e., perormance/productivity, organizational commitment, absenteeism,

turnover, retention) rom the perspective o the organizational behavior and psychology

disciplines. Tis literature review will investigate the various denitions o job satisac-

tion. It will also describe some o the contradictory ndings in relation to the behavioral

and attitudinal constructs studied. It will then move to a discussion o the impact o

generations in the workplace.

What is Job Satisfaction?

Job satisaction has been dened as a pleasurable or positive emotional state, resulting

rom the appraisal o ones job experiences (Oshagbemi, 1999, p. 388, quoting Locke),

as well as the extent to which the employees expresses a positive aective orientation

toward a job (Curry, Wakeeld, Price, & Mueller, 1986, pp. 847-848). It is also impor-tant to note that the emotional state reerenced above is created by an aective reac-

tion that results rom the comparison o actual outcomes with those that are desired

[anticipated, deserved] (Oshagbemi, 2003, p. 1210; Oshagbemi, 1999). Tis aec-

tive reaction is theorized to occur soon afer entry into the organization (Vandenberg

& Lance, 1992). In essence, it is a workers attitude towards their job, whether positive

(satised) or negative (dissatised).

Job satisaction is also considered one o the two summary markers o adult vocational

adjustment, along with success (Jepsen & Sheu, 2003, p. 162). Jepsen and Sheu (2003)

go on to state that general job satisaction is one o the ve global career status outcomes

(along with perormance, persistence, economic stability, and identity) that employeesseek through career counseling.

Job satisaction has historically been measured either as a single-item scale (i.e., How

satised are you with your job?), or as a multiple-item scale measuring satisaction with

dierent aspects o the job and/or workplace. A distinction is made between these two

concepts, which are respectively reerred to as overall (or general) job satisaction and

job acet satisaction (Wanous & Lawler, 1972). Te use o either measurement scale on

a survey will (generally) give dierent results, and the conicting results rom dier-

ent studies may reect the use o dierent scales (Wanous & Lawler, 1972). However,

as Wanous and Lawler ound, there is no one best way to measure job satisaction, and

it is possible to measure satisaction validly with dierent job acets (1972, p. 105).Oshagbemi (1999) suggests using both types o measures in studies o job satisaction,

as this will help to reveal specic areas the organization could improve (rom the multi-

ple-item scales), while at the same time allowing or cross-job comparisons (rom the

single-item scale).

Te measurement o job satisaction has been conducted in a myriad o studies with

the hopes o discovering its relationships to other concerns o interest in the workplace.

Literature Review

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

12/92


Te ollowing sections investigate the research ndings in regards to the relationships

between job satisaction and workplace actors, workplace behaviors, other constructs,

and personality characteristics.

Relationships Between Job Satisfaction& Workplace Factors

Workplace actors that aect job satisaction also aect other job aspects such as work-

related stress. High levels o stress are associated with low levels o job satisaction, and

are also predictive o a greater propensity to leave the organization (Fairbrother & Warn,

2003). However, in this study o 100 naval ocer trainees in the Royal Australian Navy,

the researchers ound that job satisaction was inuenced by actors separate rom those

that inuence stress, although stress does aect job satisaction (Fairbrother & Warn,

2003).

One workplace actor ound to be related to both work stress and voluntary turnover is

job level (Macky, Forsyth, & Boxall, 20081). Tis indicates that job level (which may or

may not be related to tenure or age) plays an important part in an employees workplace

behaviors, as it aects the level o stress, which impacts job satisaction in turn.

Occupational level (a combination o both rank and age) was also ound to be one o

the strongest predictors o job satisaction (Oshagbemi, 1997). In subsequent stud-

ies, Oshagbemi (2000, 2003) also ound rank on its own to be a reliable predictor o job

satisaction, as was the length o service within the current university. Other studies

ound work environment to be the best predictor o satisaction, while hourly wage was

the weakest (Rust, Stewart, Miller, & Pielack, 1996, p. 72).

Other workplace actors that may impact job satisaction are internal to the organiza-

tion itsel: its vision, culture, and communication style. Satisaction with the organi-

zational vision has been shown to aect overall job satisaction, accounting or 33%

o the variance in job satisaction (esta, 19992). Organizational culture may inu-

ence satisaction through the level o person-culture t. I the values o the individual

are dierent than those espoused by the organization, it is very likely that the indi-

vidual will eel out o place and experience lower job satisaction as a result (OReilly,

Chatman, & Caldwell, 1991; Judge & Bretz, 1992). Communication within the organiza-

tion impacts the climate o the rm, which is multidimensional in nature (Muchinsky,

1977). As Muchinsky states, the data suggest that ones aective response to organiza-

tional communication [ones satisaction with it] is substantially related to the aectiveresponses associated with other acets o an employees job (p. 602), which includes job

satisaction and organizational commitment.

1 - Tis study was a secondary analysis o a large national study o 1,004 New Zealand employees aged 18

and above conducted late in 2005. Participants worked in rms with 10 or more employees, and had to have

worked in their jobs or more than 6 months to participate.

2 - Tis was a survey o 740 management personnel (with 709 usable replies) rom 30 departments o a large

U.S.-headquartered cruise line.

Literature Review

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

13/92


One other actor that may impact satisaction and/or commitment is the availability o

job alternatives. As ound in a longitudinal study o nursing home employees, the avail-

ability o alternatives at the time o entry positively impacts organizational commit-

ment (Bateman & Strasser, 1984). However, afer an employee has joined a company, the

availability o job alternatives may result in a negative impact on both job satisactionand organizational commitment (Bateman & Strasser, 1984).

Relationships Between Job Satisfaction& Workplace Behaviors

In much o the literature, job satisaction is the mediating actor that inuences multi-

ple workplace behaviors such as absenteeism, turnover, perormance, and extra-role

behaviors (Oshagbemi, 2003; Brayeld & Crockett, 1955; Rust et al., 1996; Iaaldano

& Muchinsky, 1985; Ostro, 1992). Te ollowing section will summarize the research

testing these relationships.

Performance/Productivity

In one o the early studies on this topic, Brayeld and Crockett (1955) ound that

productivity was unlikely to be an employee goal in and o itsel; instead, it was more

likely to be a means to achieve other goals held by the employee. Additionally, satisac-

tion with ones job or position did not imply that the individual would have a strong

motivation to be productive, as it was the goals o the employee that determined the

level o work. Tey also discovered that the work group was especially important to

determining productivity, as the group standards would ofen determine how hard the

employee worked. Tis was ound to be especially true in cohesive groups.

Rust et al. (1996) ound job satisaction and perormance to be positively correlated,while job satisaction was also shown to positively correlate to certain acets o peror-

mance, such as organizational citizenship behaviors. Savery (1996) ound that satisac-

tion with intrinsic satisers/motivators was the most important to determining both

employee perormance and the likelihood o leaving the organization. In a study o

secondary schools, Ostro (1992) theorized that the satisaction-perormance rela-

tionship might be stronger at the organizational level than at the individual level. She

concluded that organizations with more satised employees tended to be more eec-

tive than organizations with less satised employees. [And] these relationships were

somewhat stronger than those typically observed at the individual level (pp. 968-969).

However, she also discussed the possibility o a reciprocal relationship in which orga-

nizations that perormed better were more likely to have satised employees and viceversa.

Petty, McGee, and Cavender (1984) conducted a meta-analysis o JDI (Job Description

Index) studies. Tey ound that the nature o the relationship between perormance and

job satisaction was unclear, but their results indicated that the relationship between

individual, overall job satisaction and individual job perormance is stronger and more

consistent than that reported in previous reviews (p. 719). Teir research also indi-

Literature Review

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

14/92


cated that it was more likely or perormance to be a determinant o job satisaction (as

opposed to theories indicating the opposite), that job level may moderate the relation-

ship, and that the relationship may be circular in nature i the outcomes o perormance

were perceived to be inequitable.

In contrast to many o these ndings (with the exception o Brayeld and Crocketts

study), Iaaldano and Muchinskys (1985, p. 269) meta-analysis ound that job satisac-

tion and perormance are only slightly related to each other under most employment

conditions. Tey conclude their paper by stating that [i]t is almost as i the satisac-

tion-perormance relation is itsel what Chapman and Chapman (1969) called an illu-

sory correlation, a perceived relation between two variables that we logically or intui-

tively think should interrelate, but in act do not (p. 270).

Organizational Citizenship Behaviors

Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs, also known as extra-role behaviors) are

dened as individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized

by the ormal reward system, and in the aggregate promotes the ecient and eective

unctioning o the organization (Williams & Anderson, 1991, p. 601). Both job satisac-

tion and organizational commitment have theoretical and empirical support as anteced-

ents o OCBs. However, Williams and Anderson (1991) ound that the perormance o

OCBs was more a unction o equitable treatment by the organization and the equity o

its policies and procedures than o any attitudinal constructs (p. 615).

Turnover & Absenteeism

urnover is expensive. Quitters generally cost the organization one and a hal to two

and a hal times their annual salary in separation, replacement, and training costs(Rust, et al., 1996). Te United States currently has the worlds highest median volun-

tary turnover rate at 11% (Watson Wyatt Worldwide, 2007). However, the turnover rate

or critical skill or top perorming employees was only 5% (Watson Wyatt Worldwide &

WorldatWork, 2007).

urnover and absenteeism are ofen talked about in relation to each other: employ-

ees who are absent rom the job most ofen are more likely to dislike their jobs and

more likely to leave the company (Bssing, Bissels, Fuchs, & Perrar, 1999; Agho, Price,

& Mueller, 1992). However, the intention to quit was not signicantly related to either

voluntary or involuntary absenteeism in a 1994 survey o 199 United Kingdom univer-

sity teachers with one to ten years o service (Oshagbemi, 2000). Tis indicates thatabsenteeism is not always an antecedent to the intention to leave the company, regard-

less o tenure.

Te our main managerial processes that have been linked to both employee satisaction

and retention are supervision, benets, work design, and work conditions, respectively

(Rust et al., 1996, p. 67). Another actor in employees leaving can be an incompatibil-

ity with the corporate culture which results in employees eeling as though they dont

Literature Review

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

15/92


t in (Wallach, 1983). Person-job t and person-organization t can also be predictive

o turnover (OReilly et al., 1991). However, many retention problems are caused by an

imperect comprehension o employee priorities (Watson Wyatt Worldwide, 2007). As

shown below in Figures 2 and 3, there is a disconnect between employers and employees

in regards to what attracts employees to the company and to what causes them to leave.

RankReasons to Join Reasons to Leave

Employees Employers* Employees Employers*

1Nature o work

(44%)

Career developmentopportunities

(47%)

Stress levels(37%)

Base pay(52%)

2Base pay

(31%)Base pay

(46%)Base pay

(33%)


(47%)

3 Job security(30%)

Employer reputation(44%)

Promotionopportunity(26%)

Promotionopportunity(45%)

4Employerreputation

(23%)

Company culture(34%)


(23%)

Relationship withsupervisor/manager

(35%)

5Length o commute

(23%)Nature o work

(26%)Work/lie balance

(22%)Work/lie balance

(24%)

*Percentage reporting element as one o the top three reasons employees consider joining or leaving an organization

Figure 2. Reasons to join or leave a company globally (Adapted rom Watson WyattWorldwide & WorldatWork, 2007, p. 7)3

3 - Reprinted with permission rom Playing to Win in a Global Economy, 007/008 Global Strategic

Rewards Report 2008 Watson Wyatt Worldwide. For more inormation, visit www.watsonwyatt.com.

Literature Review

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

16/92


Rank

Reasons to Join Reasons to Leave

Top-PeromingEmployees

Employees Employers*Top-Peroming

EmployeesEmployees Employers*

1 Nature o work(46%)

Nature owork(41%)

Employerreputation(37%)

Stress levels(42%)

Stress levels(40%)

Base pay(53%)

2Base pay

(28%)Base pay

(33%)

Companyculture(35%)

Work/liebalance(32%)

Base pay(28%)

Careerdevelopmentopportunities

(49%)

3Health care

benets(22%)

Employerreputation

(29%)

Base pay(34%)

Promotionopportunities

(29%)


(26%)


(43%)

4 Job security(20%)

Health carebenets(26%)

Career

developmentopportunities

(32%)

Career

developmentopportunities

(25%)


Relationship

withsupervisor/manager

(41%)

5

Employerreputation

(19%)

Retirementbenets(19%)

Job security(23%)

Nature owork(29%)

Incentive payopportunity

(20%)

Trust/con-dence

in seniormanagement

(23%)


*Percentage reporting element as one o the top three reasons employees consider joining or leaving an organization

Figure 3. Reasons to join or leave a company in the U.S. (Adapted rom Watson WyattWorldwide & WorldatWork, 2007, p. 18)4

However, Carsten and Spector (1987) conducted a meta-analysis o turnover studies

and determined that the economic opportunity actors (i.e., unemployment) had the

strongest impact on turnover out o any other possible actors (including job satisaction

and behavioral intentions). Tey ound that the relationship between job satisaction

and turnover was moderated by unemployment even afer adjusting or the quit rate (p.

378). Overall, they concluded that a person would rather stay at a job they disliked than

ace unemployment, and that these economic actors (at both the local and national

level) were more important in determining turnover than any other attitudinal actor.

Relationships Between Job Satisfaction& Other Constructs

One o the most researched (and most disputed) relationships is between job satisac-

tion and organizational commitment. Organizational commitment is the extent to

which an employee identies with and is involved in the organization (Curry et al.,

1986, p. 847).

4 - Reprinted with permission rom Playing to Win in a Global Economy, 007/008 Global Strategic

Rewards Report 2008 Watson Wyatt Worldwide. For more inormation, visit www.watsonwyatt.com.

Literature Review

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

17/92


Organizational commitment has historically been viewed as a more stable construct

than job satisaction (Curry et al., 1986; Bateman & Strasser, 1984). It is viewed as

beginning to emerge as a unction o pre-entry experiences (Bateman & Strasser,

1984, p. 107) which is then solidied upon organizational entry as a result o the level o

cognitive dissonance experienced (Vandenberg & Lance, 1992). It may urther developas the employee develops investments that bind [him or her] to [the] organization

(Meyer et al., 1990, p. 719). However, some studies have shown that job satisaction was

just as stable as organizational commitment when measured over time (Curry et al.,

1986).

Historically, job satisaction has been theorized as antecedent to organizational commit-

ment (Vandenberg & Lance, 1992; Curry et al., 1986). Although this relationship has

been popularized, organizational commitment has been ound to be antecedent to job

satisaction in several studies (Bateman & Strasser, 1984; Vandenberg & Lance, 1992).

Additionally, no causal eects [have been ound] in either direction over time

(Curry et al., 1986, p. 851-852), although this theory was not supported by the researcho Vandenberg and Lance (1992). It is also possible that the two constructs have a cycli-

cal relationship, although this was not tested in the studies surveyed.

Other constructs studied in relation to job satisaction are engagement and person-

organization t. Engagement has been dened as creating conditions or meaningul

employee expression in work roles (Avery, McKay, & Wilson, 2007, p. 1542), and as

commitment, which is motivation on the part o employees to help the organization

succeed, in conjunction with line o sight, which is the ocus and direction that enables

employees to understand what to do to make their organizations successul (Watson

Wyatt Worldwide, 2007, p. 3). Engagement has been demonstrated to be a predictor

o turnover, customer satisaction and loyalty, saety in the workplace, and, to someextent, productivity and protability as well (Avery et al., 2007). It also has been shown

to directly aect employee perormance (Avery et al., 2007; Watson Wyatt Worldwide,

2007).

One aspect o job satisaction that has been shown to be signicantly related to engage-

ment is satisaction with ones coworkers (Avery et al., 2007). Tis is important in

regards to retention, as employees who are engaged are less likely to leave (Avery et al.,

2007, Watson Wyatt Worldwide, 2007).

Person-organization t is dened as the degree to which individuals are suited to a

job, and depends on their motives and need and the jobs requirements (OReilly etal., 1991, p. 489). Values are also an important determinant o person-organization

t (Judge & Bretz, 1992, p. 269), as the congruency o the values o the individual to

the work values within the organization is an essential component o what determines

person-organization t (Judge & Bretz, 1992). Organizational work values were shown

to signicantly impact job choice when inormation about them was known in a study

o 67 proessional and graduate students. Tis indicates that a person will be more likely

to choose a job where he or she believes their values will t well with the organization

Literature Review

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

18/92


(Judge & Bretz, 1992). When the individual is considering entering the organization,

they consider the salary, the opportunity or promotion, and the organizational value

actors, but the eects o the organizational value actors on job choice were stronger

than the eects o the other two actors (Judge & Bretz, 1992).

Once the individual has entered the rm, person-organization t continues to be an

important determinant o on-the-job attitudes and behaviors. Job satisaction can be

predicted by person-organization t, as can organizational commitment, perormance,

and turnover. Te eects o person-organization t on these constructs were ound

to occur independently o age, gender, or tenure (OReilly et al., 1991). Additionally,

job satisaction and organizational commitment were predicted a year afer the initial

measurement o t, and actual turnover was predicted afer two years (OReilly et al.,

1991). Tis indicates that person-organization t continues to impact the employee long

afer the initial settling-in period is over. I the employee does not eel that they t in,

they tend to leave (OReilly et al., 1991; Wallach, 1983).

Relationships Between Job Satisfaction& Personal Characteristics

Several personal characteristics, such as age, gender, and personality, have been reported

to aect job satisaction. Tey may aect it directly, as in the case o age (Oshagbemi,

2003), or they may aect it indirectly by aecting other actors that impact job satis-

action, such as stress (Fairbrother & Warn, 2003). Personality may also inuence the

initial job choice itsel (Judge & Bretz, 1992).

As people progress through the career lie stages, their job satisaction is expected to

increase (Westerman & Yamamura, 2007; Jepsen & Sheu, 2003). As the individual gainsmore work experience, they will be able to move closer to their ideal work situation and

they will thereore attain more job satisaction. However, survey data does not always

provide support or this progression. In a 25-year study o 169 high-school graduates, it

was ound that the average job satisaction scores remained the same during the adult

years, whereas the average job congruence (measured by the similarity between the

individuals major in college and the position held at the time o the survey) increased

signicantly (Jepsen & Sheu, 2003). Davis (2004) also ound no evidence to support

the hypothesis that older people tend to be more satised with their jobs than younger

people, and no statistically signicant generational dierences have been ound or job

satisaction in recent research (Macky, 2008).

As discussed by Oshagbemi (2003), the relationship between age and job satisaction is

uncertain. wo dierent explanations exist: linear and curvilinear. Te linear relation-

ship is explained by the ideas o accommodation (adjusting to the workplace) and an

increased ability to obtain more rewarding jobs due to seniority and experience. Te

curvilinear relationship is explained by the idea that stress on the job increases over

time as changes in the environment, increased pressure to perorm at higher levels, and

a desire to retire earlier, all collide.

Literature Review

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

19/92


Although gender has been reported to aect job satisaction rom time to time, overall

there is very little evidence to support the idea that gender directly inuences job satis-

action (Oshagbemi, 2003). Contradicting survey results on this matter urther conuse

the theory, although it has been determined that men and women have dierences in

what needs are satised by a job, which may impact how they respond to satisactionquestions (Oshagbemi, 2003).

Personality characteristics can aect the level o job satisaction an individual is able

to experience at work. As stated by Jepsen & Sheu (2003), some personalities are

more likely to be satised regardless o their t with their work while some kinds

o work produce job satisaction irrespective o the extent o matching with personal

characteristics (p. 165). Research by Agho et al. (1992) identied two distinct personal-

ity variablespositive aectivity and negative aectivity5that were shown to directly

inuence job satisaction. Trough their impact on satisaction, these variables also

indirectly inuence organizational commitment.

Conclusion

In sum, much o the research conducted to investigate potential linkages between job

satisaction and other constructs has been contradictory to other studies conducted on

the same subject. It appears that cross-sectional research will result in dierent ndings

depending on what industry or sector is studied. Tis does not necessarily indicate that

the relationship o job satisaction to other attitudinal constructs is dependent on the

industry or job being studied. However, some ndings do indicate that such relation-

ships are more heavily inuenced by job-specic and individual personality or attitudi-

nal actors than had been previously thought. Indeed, it is possible that job satisaction,

perormance, and organizational commitment are entirely unrelated concepts withinthe mind o the employee, although specic actors o the job or the individual may

impact all three simultaneously in varying ways.

Generations at Work: Is there a Cohort Effect?

As the Baby Boomer workorce continues to move towards retirement, the next great

change or American businesses will be the continued rise o Generation X (born

between 1965 and 1985) and the introduction o Generation Y (born between 1986 and

2002) workers into the workplace. Currently, Generations X and Y together make up

45% o the workorce (Westerman & Yamamura, 2007). Workers under 34 years o age

are projected to compose approximately 60% o the ull-time workorce in the United

States by 2010 (Westerman & Yamamura, 2007). Executives and mid-level managersalike wonder how this will aect their companies, and whether or not they will be able

to attract these younger workers into their company and convince them to stay. A large

concern is riction among age groups. Are generations so dierent in terms o values

and work styles that they will not be able to work together successully?

5 - Aectivity is dened as the disposition to be happy (positive) or to experience discomort (negative)

across time and situations (Agho et al., 1992, p. 186).

Literature Review

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

20/92


Hypotheses about dierences between generations are based on cohort theory. Cohorts

are dened as a given group o members who were born in a limited span o consecu-

tive years [ergo, a generation] and whose boundaries are xed by peer personality

(Glass, 2007, pp. 98-99). Peer personality is a generational persona recognized and

determined by common age, location, shared belies, behavior, and perceived member-ship in a common generation, and it is developed because o the dening events expe-

rienced between ages 5 and 18, the prime developmental years that aect the groups

outlook on work and lie (Glass, 2007, p. 99).

Smola and Sutton used this theory as the basis o their 2002 study Generational dier-

ences: revisiting generational work values or the new millennium. Te study aimed to

compare work values among cohorts rom a 1974 study with cohorts rom a 1999 study.

However, the study was unable to compare values or all dened generational cohorts, as

not enough data existed to compare any cohorts except Baby Boomers and Generation

X.WW II-ers, Swingers, and Millennials/Gen Y were all excluded. Although this study

is quoted as illustrating [t]he existence o generational dierences through its conclu-sion that work values are more inuenced by generational experiences than by age and

maturation (Westerman & Yamamura, 2007, p. 151), the authors contend that the study

only illustrates the act that generational experiences may impact work values more

strongly than do age or maturation alone. However, this study contained no evaluation

o actions or behaviors based on the work values espoused. It is not possible to deter-

mine whether or not generations will act dierently at work based on their answers to a

survey.

One o the most concerning generations today is Generation Y, also known as the

Millennials or the Echo Boomers. An analysis o the popular media reveals that there

are thirteen specic areas o dierences reported about Generation Y, all o which dealwith their expectations regarding aspects o work. Tese include: work/lie balance,

personal growth, employer policies and structure, management styles, salary/benets,

meaningul work, working in teams, parental involvement, entrepreneurship, changing

jobs, importance o riendships, technology, and sel-worth. Tese are each discussed in

more detail below.

Work/Life Balance

According to most articles, Generation Y is not interested in making work their lie.

Instead, they want to make their jobs accommodate their amily and personal lives

(Armour, 2005; Spiro, 2006). However, they are willing to accept working on the week-ends in exchange or increased exibility and balance in their day-to-day lie during the

week (runk, 2007; Rowh, 2007; Spiro, 2006). Many also do not accept the tradition o

working unpaid overtime they use technology to increase their eciency, and dont

value punching the clock as a method o tracking work eectiveness (Hira, 2007).

Teir personal commitments take priority over work schedules (Saer, 2007), and,

since many Gen Yers are still in school, they are more likely to need schedule exibility

(Martin, 2005).

Literature Review

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

21/92


Personal Growth High Maintenance, High Expectations

Generation Y is characterized as being high-maintenance, but also as high-peror-

mance (Armour, 2005; Martin, 2005). Tey have high expectations or themselves, their

employers, and also or personal growth, even in entry-level jobs (Armour, 2005; Spiro,2006; runk, 2007). Tey want to see a return on their investment into their education

and their job (Balderrama, 2007), and are willing to work aster and better than other

workers (Armour, 2005; Spiro, 2006). In return, they expect their managers to be highly

involved in their personal development (Armour, 2005; Spiro, 2006), and they seek

out new creative challenges (Martin, 2005; Armour, 2005; Spiro, 2006). However, they

are also known or challenging authority. Tey have a speak your mind philosophy,

and they dont take orders without questioning everything (Armour, 2005; Hira, 2007;

Martin, 2005). Tis is reected in the statistic that 55% o employers over the age o 35

eel that Gen Y workers have a more dicult time taking direction or responding to

authority than other generations o workers (CareerBuilder.com, 2007).

Employer Policies and Structure

Employers are trying to gure out how to recruit and retain younger workers (Armour,

2005; Spiro, 2006). Te purported key to keeping Generation Y workers is changing

policies and company structure in order to keep them happy at work. An example o

this is online shoe retailer Zappos, where [a]ctual work actually happens, despite

gooy parades, snoozing in the nap room, and plenty o happy hours (Saer, 2007). O

the 15% o employers who have changed or implemented new policies/programs to

accommodate Gen Y workers, 57% have changed work schedules, 33% have increased

their recognition programs, 26% have increased access to technology, 26% have

increased salaries and bonuses, 24% have added more ongoing education programs,20% have started paying or cell phones, Blackberrys, and other communication devices,

18% have added more telecommuting options, and 11% have added more vacation time

(CareerBuilder.com, 2007).

Management Styles

Gen Yers are purported to need more eedback than other generations (Armour, 2005).

Praise is especially important or them (Saer, 2007; Spiro, 2006). Tey also have had

plenty o experience with dierent kinds o managers beore entering the workorce

ull-time, as most will have had three to our part-time jobs previously (Martin, 2005).

However, they hate micromanagement, but at the same time need help developing time

management skills (Martin, 2005) With this desire or a balance between supportive andwatchul management (Rowh, 2007) is the desire to have the reedom and exibility to

get the task done in their own way, at their own speed (Martin, 2005). In act, Yers love

to be given the results you want and the reedom to gure out the process to achieve

them (Martin, 2005, p. 40).

Literature Review

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

22/92


Salary/Benefits

Generation Y has seen the changes in the stock market over time, and is less likely to

care about stock options as a result (Rowh, 2007). Tey are nancially savvy, and care

about benets like retirement plans (Armour, 2005). Although many believe that[m]oney creates the reedom to live the lie [they] want, ination has eaten away at

what that money will buy, which may make them eel less secure (Jayson, 2007). As a

result, they expect to be paid more and get arther aster in return (CareerBuilder.com,

2007). Many Generation Yers pursue graduate degrees because they have a high regard

or education (Spiro, 2006), and they ask or more in return or their investment.

Meaningful Work

Many Generation Yers are reported to highly value sel-ulllment (Armour, 2005).

Tey have been raised with the idea that they can do something important in lie, and

they thereore want to spend their time in meaningul and useul ways (runk, 2007;

Gogoi, 2005). Tey want to make an important impact at their job right away, and they

are reluctant to perorm tasks that lack depth due to their greater need to eel valued

(Armour, 2005; Spiro, 2006; Rowh, 2007). Employers who support volunteering are

likely to be more attractive to Gen Y workers, and they also like to take time o to travel

and pursue alternative activities in their search or meaning in their work (runk, 2007;

Gogoi, 2005). Sheena Lindahl, a 24-year old entrepreneur who now helps others to

pursue their dream careers, perhaps puts it best: Its hard or people in our genera-

tion to just do work (Jayson, 2006).

Working in Teams

Generation Y is reported to love working in teams, especially ones that are uid andcan adapt to the needs o the problem to be solved (Rowh, 2007). eams o peers are

reported to be more comortable or Gen Yers to work on, as they are used to commu-

nicating with people their own age (Jayson, 2006). Overall, [t]hey work well alone, but

they work better together (Martin, 2005, p. 40).

Parental Involvement

Since more than hal o new graduates move back in with their parents, it is very easy

or parents to remain highly involved in their Gen Yers lie (runk, 2007; Saer, 2007).

Ofen, the parental involvement has not been abated throughout the college experience.

Tis involvement has been termed the coddling virus, where parents stay involved atthe college level, and some even phone their childs rst employers (Saer, 2007). Tis

has resulted in a delayed adolescence, and adulthood is now perceived by most to begin

at 26 or older (Saer, 2007).

Entrepreneurship

Generation Yers are the children o Baby Boomers. Tey have seen their parents and

other adults deal with changes in corporate America that ofen resulted in the loss o

jobs. Tis has led to the idea o being ree agents, where entrepreneurship is a saety

Literature Review

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

23/92


net (runk, 2007). People can create a job or themselves when they cant nd one they

like, since the sel-employed tend to be more satised with their jobs than other workers

(Jayson, 2006). Te Internet has also enabled this shif, since it is now possible to have

proessional home-based businesses (Jayson, 2006).

Changing Jobs

In addition to the option o entrepreneurship, Gen Yers also view job hopping as an

alternative to staying in a job they dislike. Tey have seen corporations act disloyally to

their parents, so they have no qualms about changing jobs rapidly. In act, many do not

expect to stay in a job or even career or too long (Armour, 2005). Many also think that

they can get more by trying new companies and careers (Saer, 2007), and it is also a

way out o companies when no career development opportunities are presented (runk,

2007). Gen Yers also are unwilling to compromise, and rarely settle or a job when they

think they can do better elsewhere (Gerdes, 2007; Rowh, 2007).

Importance of Friendships

As detailed in one anecdote, Gen Yers are reported to choose jobs merely to be with

their riends because o the level o importance those relationships carry in their lie

(runk, 2007). Some even start business with riends (Jayson, 2006). As Saer (2007)

writes, []amily and riends are their new priorities, while blind careerism is beginning

to ade.

Technology

Generation Y grew up during the technological revolution, and were participants in it

(Balderrama, 2007). Tey are the rst generation o unconscious technology usersto enter the workplace, which aects how they do things (Erickson, 2007). Tis has

also aected their level o patience with technology and the time they want to invest in

learning how to do things, making it much shorter than those unused to technology

(Martin, 2005; Rowh, 2007). Tey are tech savvy, and their technological gadgets are an

extension o their bodies (Saer, 2007; Hira, 2007). Teir amiliarity with technology has

led to a preerence or using it to communicate, to solve problems virtually, and to create

(Rowh, 2007; Armour, 2005; Martin, 2005). In order to better control the use o technol-

ogy in the workplace (and curb the distractions it can bring), some companies have put

media policies in place to guide the use o technology (Rowh, 2007).

Self-WorthGeneration Yers are reported to have been the center o attention and to have obtained

many awards and accolades as theyve grown up (Jayson, 2007; Saer, 2007). Tis has led

to an optimistic view o themselves and the possibilities open to them. Since they have

been told that they can be anything they imagine since birth, they believe this, and are

determined to live their best lives now (Hira, 2007). Tey also have been trained to

put themselves rst (Saer, 2007; Hira, 2007), and they think that ame and ortune can

happen to anyone (Jayson, 2007).

Literature Review

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

24/92


Conclusion

Much o the popular media on this topic contains anecdotes indicating the vast dier-

ences that Generation Y is bringing to the workplace. Tese range rom evidence on

generational gaps in communication styles and job expectations6 (CareerBuilder.com,2007) to statements that [t]he workplace has become a psychological battleeld, and

the millennials [Generation Y] have the upper hand (Saer, 2007). Anecdotes rom

Generation Yers themselves are extremely popular as well, and are used as evidence o

the extreme dierences that exist. Some examples o this are:

One Gen Yer and her seven riends, all o whom havent remained in one job or

city since they graduated just our years ago (Gerdes, 2007).

A moving company who hired an entire athletic team in order to motivate

the workers to stay in their positions (runk, 2007).

A young entrepreneur who started a dozen businesses beore turning 21

(Jayson, 2007).

A student who deerred a job at a prime management consulting rm to accept

a Fulbright scholarship and then quit the job once she started it afer just three

months to go back to graduate school ull-time and study something she was

passionate about (Gogoi, 2005).

Although these anecdotes may be true, recently conducted research sheds light on the

act that there is limited empirical evidence o generational dierences rom a human

resources management perspective (Macky et al., 2008, p. 1). Tis study (which will be

published in an upcoming edition o the Journal o Managerial Psychology with severalother empirical studies on generational dierences) also states that the prevalent stereo-

types o today are not reected in the empirical research on this topic (p. 3). Westerman

and Yamamura (2007, p. 152) agree, stating, the inuence o work environment

preerence dierences between the groups [Baby Boomers as compared to Generations

X and Y] remains empirically unveried and untested. Additionally, the most vocal

proponents o generational dierences tend to be those with something to sell, be it

consulting services or studies on Gen Y (Read, 2007).

Other articles have pointed out the lack o evidence (with the exception o anecdotes)

regarding Generation Ys habits and behaviors (Jayson, 2006; Read, 2007). Some arti-

cles have also asserted that individual dierences do exist within generational cohorts

6 - Tese ndings are rom a 2007 survey o 2,546 hiring managers and human resources proessionals

across all industries by CareerBuilder.com. O those surveyed, 49% elt that Generation Y communicates

more through technology than in person, 25% elt that they have a dierent rame o reerence (especially

in regards to pop culture), 87% elt that some or most o them eel more entitled to compensation, benets,

and career advancement than older generations, 74% elt that they expect to be paid more, 61% elt that

they expect to have exible work schedules, 56% elt that they expected to be promoted within a year, 50%

elt that they expect to have more vacation or personal time, and 37% elt that they expect to have access to

state-o-the-art technology.

Literature Review

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

25/92


(Martin, 2005; Kupperschmidt, 2000), and that these dierences are more important or

management to consider than are the supposed generational similarities (Rowh, 2007;

Ryan, 2007). It has also been noted that similar ears were aired against Generation X

when they rst entered the workorce, but that they have since learned how to deal with

work, as will Generation Y (Ryan, 2007).

Jack and Suzy Welch (2007) also agree that [w]hat weve seen [in Gen Y workers] is

dierent [than the stories out there], and they have also ound Gen Yers to be hard-

working, entrepreneurial, startlingly authentic, rereshingly candid, and wonderully

upbeat. Tey conclude that there is no real proo o generational dierences, and that

all Generation Y needs is a chance to grow up. Tis is echoed by Macky, Forsyth, and

Boxall7 (2008, p. 2), who state that any perceived generational dierences could be due

to simple dierences in maturity and/or concurrent lie and work experiences, since

Generation Y is younger, has less work experience, and is more likely to experience

higher stress and atigue levels as they adjust to working ull-time.

For the purpose o our study, it is important to determine i there are generational

dierences in attitudes towards work. I these dierences exist, they will impact the

hiring o and retaining o employees. o address this issue, our research will explore the

ollowing questions:

What is the level o satisaction o each age group? Does satisaction vary by age

(that is, are there generational dierences)?

What actors predict the intentions o younger generations to stay in their

current job, company, and/or industry?

o test whether attitudes towards work are unique to graphic communications, print-

ing, and publishing proessionals, we included a control group o RI School o Design

alumni in our survey. Tis is discussed in more detail in the ollowing section.

7 - Tis study was a secondary analysis o a large national study o 1,004 New Zealand employees aged 18

and above conducted late in 2005. Participants worked in rms with 10 or more employees, and had to

have worked in their jobs or more than 6 months to participate. Very ew practical dierences were ound

between any o the three generations studied (Y, X, and Boomer), and the studys main conclusion is that

Generation X may, in act, be the most dierent rom the other two.

Literature Review

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

26/92


Methodology

Survey Design

Te initial survey was created or School o Print Media alumni. Question logic wasused to allow respondents to be classied into one o two segments: employed or

retired/unemployed. Survey questions were duplicated or each segment, with changes

to the wording to reect the status o the respondent. Te survey was designed to collect

the ollowing kinds o inormation: demographic inormation, inormation on the job

and company where the respondent is/was employed, and satisaction (both overall and

with a range o job acets). Te survey was then edited to meet the specications o the

RI Human Subjects Research Oce (HSRO), and was reviewed and approved by the

HSRO. Te initial survey was then duplicated and customized or use in surveying the

School o Design alumni. Te precise wording o the questions and the requency o

responses are presented in Appendix A.

Procedure

Te survey was administered using an online survey service. In April o 2008, an e-mail

was sent to the alumni o both the School o Print Media and the School o Design

inviting them to complete the survey. Te alumni sampled are only those who had

provided their e-mail addresses to the RI Alumni Oce and are a subset o all gradu-

ates. Te sampling rame was n=1,845 or the School o Print Media and n=964 or the

School o Design. Respondents were eligible to be entered into a drawing to win one o

our iPod Nanos (two Nanos were given away to each pool o respondents). Reminder

e-mails were sent one week afer the initial e-mail was distributed. Afer three weeks, the

surveys were closed.

Data Analysis

Te total number o respondents was 749, with 307 School o Design (response rate o

31.8%) and 442 School o Print Media respondents (response rate o 24.0%). Not all

respondents answered all questions, since the survey did not require all questions to be

answered. Analysis o the gathered data was conducted using SPSS sofware (version

16.0). Open-ended responses deemed necessary or urther research were coded appro-

priately. Frequencies o all question responses are given in Appendix A.

Demographic Profiles

School o Print Media (SPM) respondents were mostly male (70.4% male, 29.6%

emale). Te age distribution revealed 27.8% between the ages o 20 and 29, 31.3%

between the ages o 30 and 44, and 40.9% age 45 and older. Almost all (90.8%) were

rom the United States, with 3.1% rom North and Latin America (outside o the U.S.),

3.1% rom Asia, and 1.9% rom Europe. Almost hal (49.8%) had graduated within the

last ourteen years, with 28.9% graduating 15-25 years ago, and the remainder (21.3%)

graduating more than 25 years ago. (Tis was the year o most recent graduation rom

Methodology

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

27/92


Methodology

a college or university, and may reect a return to school to pursue a more advanced

degree.) At the point o this most recent graduation, 68.2% held bachelors degrees,

28.5% held masters degrees, 0.5% held a doctorate, and 2.9% received another type o

degree or certicate.

School o Design (SD) respondents were mostly emale (64.1% emale, 35.9% male).

Tey were also somewhat younger than the SPM sample, with 35.6% between the ages

o 20 and 29, 52.1% between the ages o 30 and 44, and 12.2% age 45 and older. Almost

all (92.1%) were rom the United States, with 3.9% rom Asia, 2.3% rom North and

Latin America (outside o the U.S.), and 1.0% rom Europe. Almost two-thirds (65.9%)

had graduated within the last ourteen years, with 33.8% graduating 15-25 years ago,

and only 0.3% graduating more than 25 years ago. (Tis was the year o most recent

graduation rom a college or university, and may reect a return to school to pursue a

more advanced degree.) At the point o this most recent graduation, 79.9% held bach-

elors degrees, 17.1% held masters degrees, 0.3% held a doctorate, and 2.6% received

another type o degree or certicate.

Research Findings

Te results o the survey will be presented in the ollowing order:

Is there a dierence in satisaction between School o Print Media (SPM) and

School o Design (SD) alumni?

Within the SPM alumni population, are there dierences in overall satisaction

by demographic groups as dened by generation, gender, and salary level?

What are the major predictors o overall job satisaction?

What predicts the intention to change industries?

Each question is shown below with the corresponding data analysis and discussion

ollowing. Beore we discuss the hypothesis tests, we will provide a description o the

overall requency analysis on each question.

SPM Frequency Analysis

Te majority o the respondents (87.9% o 428 respondents) indicated they wereemployed. Tis included the ollowing categories: employed ull-time (76.4%),

employed part-time (0.7%), sel-employed/entrepreneur (6.5%), contract/reelance work

ull-time (1.2%), contract/reelance work part-time (1.4%), continuing education

part-time while employed (0.7%), and continuing education ull-time while employed

(0.9%). Te remainder (12.1%) were either retired, employed in alternative types o

work, or unemployed. Tis included the ollowing categories: caring or my amily/

home ull-time (0.5%), serving in the military (0.2%), continuing education ull-time

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

28/92


Research Findings

(0.9%), unemployed seeking employment (2.8%), unemployed not seeking employ-

ment (0.5%), and retired (7.2%). No respondents were continuing their education part-

time while unemployed.

From this point orward in the analysis, the data provided is specic to those SPMrespondents who were classied as employed.

Firm Characteristics

O the 361 respondents who responded to the question regarding the type o rm where

they work, 29.6% worked at commercial printing rms, 8.3% worked at publishing

rms, 3.9% worked at advertising rms, 3.9% worked at in-house corporate communi-

cations/marketing departments, 3.3% worked at in-house educational/non-prot print

shops, 1.4% worked at design rms, 1.1% worked at in-house corporate print shops, and

0.6% worked at in-house educational/non-prot communications/marketing depart-

ments. Almost hal o the respondents (47.6%) indicated other types o rms. Tese

responses have been coded and are presented in able 1.

Table 1. Coded other rm responses

Other Firm CodesPercent o Respondents

(n=361)

Education 6.93%

Miscellaneous/Non-printing 5.82%

Consulting & Recruiting 4.16%

Sotware & IT 3.88%

Printing Equipment Manuacturer 3.60%

Package & Label Printing 3.32%

Government & Government Agencies 2.49%

Consumer Products 2.22%

Paper & Printing Supplies 2.22%

Printing Product Manuacturer 1.66%

Financial Printing 1.66%

Digital Printing 1.66%

Document Services 1.39%

Marketing (Unspecied) 1.11%

Prepress 1.11%Manuacturing (General, Non-printing) 1.11%

Retail 1.11%

Direct Marketing/Mail 0.55%

Sel-employed 0.55%

Book Manuacturing 0.55%

Health Care & Hospitals 0.28%

Architecture 0.28%

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

29/92


Research Findings

Te majority o respondents (62.2%) worked at companies with more than 100 employ-

ees (24.6% 100-499 employees, 37.6% 500+ employees). Te remainder (37.9%) worked

at companies with less than 99 employees as ollows: 1-5 employees 8.7%, 6-10

employees 3.8%, 11-19 employees 4.3%, 20-49 employees 8.4%, 50-99 employees

12.7%.

In addition to working at larger rms, respondents also tended to work at rms that had

been in business or more than 20 years (71.9%). O these, 27.2% had been in business

or 20-49 years, 21.8% or 50-99 years, 14.9% or 100-149 years, and 8.0% or more than

150 years. Te remaining respondents (28.1%) worked or rms that had been in busi-

ness or less than 20 years as ollows: 1-5 years 9.2%, 6-10 years 8.0%, 11-19 years

10.9%.

Employee and Job Characteristics

A large majority (83.2%, n=358) o respondents started working or their current

employer since 1995 (1995-1999 - 11.2%, 2000-2004 24.0%, 2005-2008 48.0%).

Respondents were likely to have worked or more than three other employers beore

starting their current job (57.9% had worked or three or more employers). Additionally,

66.6% o respondents have been at the same position since starting with their current

employer, while the remaining 33.4% have changed jobs since starting with their current

employer. (Job titles were reported as open-ended responses. Tese are shown arranged

by company type in Appendix C.)

Respondents also tended to have this job as their only job, with only 12.2% who indi-

cated that they held another job outside o their primary job. O those with other jobs,

the majority (84.4%, n=45) had one other part-time job, with 6.7% who held one otherull-time job and 8.9% indicating that they held two or more other part-time jobs. In

terms o annual income, the median salary level was between $60,000 and $69,999

a year (11.5% o respondents). However, the distribution was skewed, with 21.3% o

respondents indicating they earned more than $100,000 a year.

Te current job held was also likely to be highly related to the most recent degree

attained (60.7%). Respondents also tended to eel that they had been more than

adequately (36.7%) or exceptionally well (22.7%) prepared or their current job by

their experiences at school. In turn, they also tended to eel that their graphic commu-

nications degree was important (29.6%) or very important (31.1%) to their employ-

ers. Teir most recent experience in school was also elt to have helped them prepareor their uture careers, as 51.0% elt that they had the education and training necessary

to get ahead in their career, while 27.2% elt that they had more than enough education

and training necessary to get ahead in their careers.

Overall Satisfaction and Job Facet Satisfaction

Almost all (90.4%) o SPM respondents were satised with their jobs. Te majority

o the satised respondents were mostly satised (51.5%), while 21.0% were some-

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

30/92


Research Findings

what satised and 17.9% were completely satised. Only 7.4% were dissatised with

their current jobs (including the categories o somewhat dissatised at 4.3%, mostly

dissatised at 2.8%, and completely dissatised at 0.3%), while 2.2% were unsure o

their satisaction level. In addition, 23 job acets were queried on a 5-point satisaction

scale. Te sum o the satised (includes very satised and satised) and dissatised(includes dissatised and very dissatised) or each acet is shown below in able 2

(acets are shown ordered rom highest to lowest percent satised). Neutral responses

are not provided in this table, but can be seen (along with ull response requencies or

all questions) in Appendix A.

Table 2. Job acet satisaction levels o SPM respondents

Facet Satised (%) Dissatised (%)

Quality o service/product provided/produced 84.20% 2.80%

Relationships with coworkers 83.00% 2.50%

Flexibility to do your work when and how you like 79.10% 8.10%Organizations goal/mission/vision 75.90% 7.10%

Level o technology employed at the company 75.20% 8.10%

Organizations ethical standards 74.60% 8.00%

Personal gratication you eel rom doing your job 73.70% 7.70%

Relationship with immediate supervisor/boss 72.30% 10.30%

Level o challenge in work 71.60% 8.60%

Opportunity to be creative 71.20% 8.60%

Human diversity (gender, ethnicity) 70.00% 5.90%

Job security 65.50% 9.00%

Respect by upper management 64.90% 14.60%Work environment or work culture 64.90% 12.40%

Ability to balance work and the rest o your lie 64.50% 13.10%

Proximity o work to your home 60.80% 16.60%

Fringe benets 54.30% 17.70%

Eectiveness o organizational leadership 51.60% 21.10%

Amount o on-the-job stress 49.20% 24.10%

Salary 48.90% 23.10%

Potential or career/proessional advancement 44.80% 24.30%

Support or continuing education/in-service programs 39.60% 30.40%

Accessibility/proximity o childcare services 16.80% 14.90%

Employer Promises and Career Plans

Almost one-quarter o respondents elt that their employers had broken promises made

during recruitment, with 16.4% o respondents agreeing and 6.3% strongly agree-

ing that their employer had not kept all o the promises made during recruitment. Te

remainder o the respondents were either neutral (31.5%) or elt that their employer had

not broken any promises made during recruitment (45.7%).

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

31/92


Research Findings

Over one-third (36.3%) o SPM respondents planned to actively seek a new job in the

next year (combining categories o highly likely at 19.1% and likely at 17.2%). An

additional 20.6% were unsure as to whether or not they would seek a new job within the

next year, while 43.1% did not plan to seek a new job within the next year (combining

categories o unlikely at 17.8% and highly unlikely at 25.3%).

When asked what the next steps in their career would be, 52.9% planned to seek another

job in the uture. Tose who planned on making a job change were likely to stay in the

same industry (28.0%), although more would look or a dierent job (14.2%) than a

similar job (13.8%). An additional 12.9% would look in a dierent industry, with 8.6%

who would look or a dierent job and 4.3% who would look or a similar job. Another

12.0% would look or a new job within the same company. A small portion (3.7%)

planned to return to school to pursue another degree, while 14.2% were unsure o their

uture plans. Almost one-third (29.2%) did not plan to switch jobs.

Research Questions

1. Is there a difference in satisfaction between SPM andSD alumni?

o determine i School o Print Media (SPM) alumni were unique in their responses, we

included a control group o RI School o Design (SD) alumni in the research. First, we

tested whether there was a dierence in overall job satisaction. Tere was not a statisti-

cally signicant dierence in overall satisaction between the two groups, although SPM

alumni had a somewhat lower average satisaction than SD graduates (mean o 2.33 vs.

2.22, p=0.250).8

However, statistically signicant dierences in satisaction were ound between the

graduates o the two programs in two job acet categories: satisaction with continuing

education/in-service programs and satisaction with work environment or work culture

(see able 3 below). In both cases, SPM graduates had signicantly lower average satis-

action scores than SD graduates.

Table 3. Categorical Dierences in Satisaction

Job Facet SD Mean* SPM Mean* P value

Support or continuing education/in-service programs 2.64 2.86 0.023

Work environment or work culture 2.03 2.29 0.002

* Five point scale where 1 = Very Satised and 5 = Very Dissatised.

Higher numbers thereore correspond to lower satisaction.

8 - Ranked on a seven point scale where 1 = Completely Satised and 7 = Completely Dissatised. Higher

numbers thereore correspond to lower satisaction.

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

32/92


Research Findings

2. Within the SPM alumni population, are there differences inoverall satisfaction by demographic groups as defined bygeneration, gender, or salary level?

o test whether there are any generational dierences in satisaction, we grouped SPMalumni into three dierent age categories: 20-29 years o age, 30-44 years o age, and

45 or more years o age. Although there is a trend that shows a higher level o satisac-

tion or older workers, no statistically signicant dierences in overall satisaction were

ound among these age groups (ANOVA, F=2.675, p=0.070, see Figure 4 below).

Figure 4. Satisaction comparison o mean satisaction by age group

Average job acet satisaction ratings by age group are ound in able 4. An analysis o

variance was computed on each acet with age groups as the independent measure. O

all the job acets, only our were ound to be statistically signicant:

Opportunity to be creative (oldest age group most satised),

Personal gratication you eel rom doing your job (oldest age group most satis-

ed),

Ability to balance work and the rest o your lie (oldest age group most satis-

ed), and

Potential or career/proessional advancement (youngest age group most satis-

ed).

Age

Gender

Personality

Values

Intrinsic Satisfiers/Motivators

Person-Job Fit

Person-Organization Fit/Person-Culture Fit

Personal Characteristics

Availability of Job Alternatives

Unemployment Rate

External Factors

Job Facets

Job Level/Rank

Occupational Level (Rank + Age)

Stress

Length of Service

Work Environment

Wages/Benefits

Organizational Vision/Direction

Organizational Culture

Organizational Communication

Organizational Values

Supervision

Work Design

Work Conditions

Coworkers

l

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

33/92


Research Findings

Consistent with the stereotypes o Gen Y, the younger employees were more dissatised

than the older groups on three o the our acets.

Table 4. Comparison o SPM mean job acet satisaction by age group, ordered by

mean total satisaction9

Facet Overall SPM 20-29 30-44 45+

Relationships with coworkers 1.85 1.94 1.87 1.76

Quality o service/product provided/produced 1.87 1.96 1.86 1.80

Flexibility to do your work when and how you like 1.96 2.05 2.00 1.84

Organizations goal/mission/vision 2.00 1.93 2.00 2.05

Organizations ethical standards 2.00 2.02 2.00 1.99

Level o technology employed at the company 2.08 2.13 2.16 1.97

Opportunity to be creative* 2.09 2.30 2.13 1.88

Relationship with immediate supervisor/boss 2.10 2.16 2.03 2.11

Human diversity (gender, ethnicity) 2.11 2.24 2.02 2.08

Level o challenge in work 2.11 2.24 2.06 2.04

Personal gratication you eel rom doing your job* 2.11 2.34 2.08 1.95

Job security 2.21 2.21 2.20 2.22

Respect by upper management 2.25 2.21 2.21 2.31

Ability to balance work and the rest o your lie* 2.26 2.41 2.33 2.07

Proximity o work to your home 2.29 2.22 2.41 2.23

Work environment or work culture 2.29 2.39 2.25 2.24

Fringe benets 2.51 2.54 2.37 2.59

Eectiveness o organizational leadership 2.58 2.72 2.51 2.52

Salary 2.71 2.85 2.59 2.70

Potential or career/proessional advancement* 2.75 2.54 2.75 2.94

Amount o on-the-job stress 2.84 2.93 2.88 2.73

Support or continuing education/in-service programs 2.86 2.97 2.77 2.85

Accessibility/proximity o childcare services 2.99 2.97 3.04 2.96

*The dierences among the categories or these acets are statistically signifcant (p=0.003, 0.005, 0.024,

and 0.032, in order rom top to bottom).

Statistically signicant dierences in overall job satisaction were ound between gender

groups (ANOVA, F=5.355, p=0.021) and between salary levels (ANOVA, F=5.015,

p

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

34/92


Research Findings

Figure 5. Satisaction comparison o mean satisaction by salary level10

10 - Salary level groupings were created in order to adjust or low numbers o respondents (n) in certain

responses. Original categories (as given on the survey) and number o respondents were as ollows: $14,999

or less: 6, $15,000 - $19,999: 0, $20,000 - $29,999:10, $30,000 - $39,999:27, $40,000 - $49,999:40, $50,000 -

$59,999:53, $60,000 - $69,999:37, $70,000 - $79,999:33, $80,000 - $89,999:28, $90,000 - $99,999:15, $100,000

or more: 69.

MeanOverallSatisfaction

Salary Level (SPM Respondents)

Completely

Satisfied

Mostly

Satisfied

Somewhat

Satisfied

Unsure

Somewhat

Dissatisfied

Mostly

Dissatisfied

Completely

Dissatisfied

$39,999

or less

$40,000 -

$49,999

$50,000 -

$59,999

$60,000 -

$69,999

$70,000 -

$79,999

$80,000 -

$99,999

$100,000

or more

n=43 n=40 n=53 n=37 n=33 n=43 n=69

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

35/92


Research Findings

3. What are the predictors of overall job satisfaction?

Correlates of Overall Job Satisfaction

Te rst regression analysis was conducted using the job acet satisaction measures aspredictors or overall satisaction. Results o the regression were as ollows: an rvalue

o 0.720, which indicates that a strong correlation exists. Te r2value o 0.518 and the

adjustedr2value o 0.47811 indicate that 47.8% o the variation in overall job satisaction

can be explained by the job aspect satisaction measures. An ANOVA test revealed that

this relationship was statistically signicant, with F=12.853 and p

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

36/92


Research Findings

F=53.090, p

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

37/92


Research Findings

4. What predicts the intention to change industries?

Among SPM alumni, it appears that overall job satisaction was important in determin-

ing uture career plans. Te dierence in overall satisaction between career planning

categories was statistically signicant (ANOVA, F= 8.9, p< .0001). As shown below inFigure 6, those who had the lowest average satisaction scores planned to Return to

school to pursue another degree (mean satisaction score o 3.08), Look or a dierent

job within a dierent company in a dierent industry (mean = 2.96), and Look or a

dierent job within a dierent company in a similar industry (mean = 2.91). Tis indi-

cates that the most dissatised graduates are possibly looking to change their level/rank

or eld o work, although they may or may not also change industries as a result.

Figure 6. Comparison o mean satisaction among uture career plan responses

Among SPM graduates, it appears that the ulllment o employer promises upon hire

was also important in determining uture career plans. As shown below in able 7,

respondents who elt that their employer had not ullled the promises made to them

upon hire tended to plan to leave the rm and a ew may also leave the industry. Tis

MeanOverallSatisfaction

Current Career Plans (SPM Respondents)

Completely

Satisfied

Mostly

Satisfied

Somewhat

Satisfied

Unsure

Somewhat

Dissatisfied

Mostly

Dissatisfie

d

Completely

Dissatisfied

Look fordifferent jobw/in samecompany

n=39 n=46 n=28 n=44 n=14 n=12 n=46 n=95

Stay in samejob

Look fordifferent jobw/in differentcompany in

similarindustry

Look fordifferent jobw/in differentcompany in

differentindustry

Look forsimilar job

w/in differentcompany in

similarindustry

Look forsimilar job

w/in differentcompany in

differentindustry

Return toschool topursueanotherdegree

Unsure

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

38/92


Research Findings

indicates that companies who do not ulll promises to their employees are more likely

to lose them.

Table 7. Comparison o employer promise ulllment to uture career plan responses

Future Career PlansPromises by

Employer MetPromises by

Employer Unmet

Stay at current rm 38.46% 8.16%

Stay in current industry but change rm 43.08% 63.27%

Change current industry and rm 18.46% 28.57%

Total 65 49

7/30/2019 Pi Crm 200901

39/92


Discussion of Findings

Discussion of Findings

Summary of Results

Te results can be summarized as ollows:

Te majority o School o Print Media (SPM) respondents (87.9%) were

employed, and over hal o them (72.3%) worked at traditional graphic arts

companies such as commercial printers, publishers, advertisers, in-house

marketing or printing departments, nancial printers, printing equipment

manuacturers, paper and printing supplies, etc.

Most SPM respondents (62.2%) worked at large companies with over one

hundred employees. Additionally, most o the companies where SPM respon-

dents were employed have been in business or at least 20 years (71.9%).

Beore starting with their current employer, SPM respondents were likely to

have worked or more than three other employers (57.9%). Tis level o experi-

ence is reected in the act that 21.3% o respondents earned $100,000 or more

a year.

A high percentage o SPM respondents had a job that is related to their most

recent degree (60.7%). More than hal (59.4%) o SPM respondents believed

that their experiences in school helped to prepare them or their jobs, and

60.7% believed that the graphic arts degree they received is important to their

Documents

Pi Crm 200901